Manual of

Modern
Hydronics

SECOND EDITION

• Residential
• Industrial
• Commercial
• S n ow a n d I c e M e l t

Professional Radiant Heating Solutions

 T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

TABLE OF C ONTENTS
Section 1: Consider the Possibilities! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Section 2: Heat Source Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Section 3: Water Temperature Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Section 4: Radiant Floor Heating Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Section 5: Radiant Walls and Ceilings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

Section 6: Manifold Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

Section 7: Pre-Assembled Control Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

Section 8: Distribution systems for Hydronic Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87

Section 9: Designing Multiple-Load Hydronic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99

Section 10: Radiant Pipe and Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109

Section 11: Hydronic Snow and Ice Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115

Section 12: IPEX Radiant Design Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131

TM

Appendix

5
 SECTION
1

C ONSIDER T HE P OSSIBILITIES !

Question:
What kinds of heating loads can be handled using modern hydronics technology?

Answer:
Almost any load you can think of!
For years the concept of hydronic heating evoked thoughts of cast-iron radiators or fin-tube baseboards in homes
and commercial buildings—and not much else.
Early hydronic systems were usually classified as being “residential” or “commercial” in nature. Residential
systems were the domain of plumbing / heating contractors. Rule of thumb design was usually good enough given
the limited variety of systems installed. The piping and control methods used in these systems remained essen-
tially unchanged between the 1950’s and the 1980’s in North America.
Commercial hydronic systems were a world apart from their residential counterparts. Techniques such as primary
/ secondary piping, multiple water temperature distribution systems, and outdoor reset control were successfully
deployed in commercial systems, but almost never considered for residential applications.

A New Era for Hydronics

Times have changed considerably, hydronically speaking. Residential and commercial systems now share some
common piping and control strategies. Successful installation strategies first developed decades ago are being
“redeployed” using modern materials and control strategies that ensure decades of reliable and energy efficient
operation.

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T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

The days when hydronic systems consisted solely of One System that Does It All
cast-iron radiators, copper or black iron pipe and fin-
tube baseboard are gone. New hardware such as Kitec The concept that best describes modern hydronic
pipe and WarmRite Control Panels now make it heating is:
possible to install quality systems that serve a One heat source serving multiple loads
multitude of heating loads. Modern systems can incor-
porate a variety of heat emitters. Each are selected to Those loads include:
match the exact thermal, aesthetic and budget • Radiant heating of floors, walls and ceilings
constraints of a project.
• Baseboard heating
Today, hydronic heating contractors are being asked to • Panel radiators
furnish heating systems for everything from small • Hydro-air subsystems
apartments to large custom-built houses, as well as a
• Indirect domestic water heating
variety of commercial buildings. Each job brings its
• Intermittent garage heating
own particular set of requirements.
• Pool and spa heating
Many modern systems contain several types of heat • Snow melting
emitters operating at different water temperatures and
• “District heating” of several adjacent buildings
divided up into a dozen or more independently
controlled zones. • Agricultural / horticultural loads such as
animal enclosures, greenhouse heating, and
Some contractors hesitate to take on such challenging turf warming
systems. Others recognize that with the right materials
and design methods, these systems are not only Many projects may have several of these loads, each
possible, but also offer excellent profit potential as well requiring heat in different amounts, at different times
as the likelihood of future referrals. and at different temperatures.

Contractors who recognize what modern hydronics For example, the space heating loads of a given
technology has to offer, and who take the time to learn building might best be served by a combination of
how to apply new design techniques and hardware, are hydronic heat emitters. Some areas might be perfect
enjoying unprecedented business growth. for radiant floor heating while others are better suited
Discriminating clients seek out these hydronic to radiant ceiling heating. Still other areas might be
specialists because they offer what their competition ideal for baseboard or even ducted forced-air through
cannot—the ability to pull together modern materials an air handler equipped with a hot water coil.
and design methods to create heating systems specifi- Almost every house and commercial building also
cally tailored to their client’s needs. needs domestic hot water. In some cases, this load can
To take advantage of such opportunities, you need to be as large or larger than the space heating load.
know how to use these modern piping and control Many facilities are also perfect candidates for hydronic
techniques. That’s what this manual is all about. It will snow melting - if those in charge are aware of the
show you how to use Kitec pipe, WarmRite Control benefits it offers compared to traditional methods of
Panels, and other hardware to assemble state-of-the- snow removal.
art hydronic systems that deliver comfort, economical
and reliable operation and most importantly, satisfied Some designers approach situations like these by
customers. Armed with this knowledge you’ll find proposing a separate, isolated hydronic system for each
modern hydronic heating to be among the most satis- load. One boiler to heat the building, another to melt
fying and profitable niches in the HVAC industry. the snow in the driveway, and perhaps still another to
heat the pool. The same building might also use one or
IPEX Incorporated is ready, willing, and able to help more direct-fired domestic water heaters.
you achieve the many benefits offered to those who
know how to apply modern hydronics technology. Although such an approach is possible, it seldom takes
advantage of the unique ability of hydronics to connect
all the loads to a single heat source. The latter
approach often reduces the size and cost of the overall
system. It also makes for easier servicing and reduces
fuel consumption. Such a synergistic system is made
possible through modern hydronics technology.

8
 SECTION 1 C ONSIDER THE P OSSIBILITIES

From Simple to Sophisticated and easily mounted unit. All that’s left to do is to pipe

Let’s look at the versatility of modern hydronics

technology in meeting the demands of both simple and
sophisticated load requirements.
We’ll start with something basic: a floor heating system
for a small addition to a home. Because the load is
small, a water heater will be used as the heat source.
It, as well as the other system components, is shown in
figure 1-1

Figure 1-2

the WarmRite control panel to the water heater,

connect the floor circuits, and then route power to it.
Although this system is very simple in concept and
construction it’s also capable of delivering comfort far
superior to its alternatives, several of which may cost
more to install as well as to operate.

Figure 1-1 A Slightly Larger Requirement

A typical home often has a design heating load greater
Although the installer could purchase components than what can be supplied from a residential water
(such as the manifolds, a bronze circulator, expansion heater, especially if the same unit also has to supply
tank) and all the valving separately, using a WarmRite domestic hot water. In such cases a boiler is a more
control panel can save much time and labor. All the appropriate heat source.
needed components are preassembled into a compact
Figure 1-3 is an example of a hydronic system that

Figure 1-3

9
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

supplies space heating through a radiant floor Another part of the building may be heated with fin-
subsystem as well as domestic hot water via an indirect tube baseboard that needs 180 deg. F. water at the
water heater. same time. Providing these multiple water tempera-
tures is relatively straightforward using the
Two WarmRite control panels are used to provide the piping/control scheme depicted in figure 1-4.
water and electrical control functions for the space Notice that the manifold supplying the baseboard
heating portion of the system. In this case, electric circuits is piped directly into the primary loop and thus
valve actuators have been included in the WarmRite receives hot (180 deg. F.) water. The floor heating
control panels to allow individual temperature control circuits are supplied with reduced water temperature
of several rooms. An external injection mixing system through use of an injection mixing system and the
has been installed between the WarmRite control WarmRite control panel. Note that all components
panels and the primary loop, to vary the water temper- related to run the floor heating circuits are integrated
ature supplied to the floor circuits based on outside into one preassembled WarmRite control panel. The
temperature (e.g. outdoor reset control). This mixing boiler also supplies hot (180 deg. F.) water to the heat
system also protects the boiler from flue gas conden- exchanger of the indirect water heater for fast recovery.
sation that can be caused by low return water temper-
atures. This system now serves three different heating loads
using two water temperatures. But that’s far from
Multiple Water Temperatures...No Problem pushing the limits of modern hydronics technology.

Some buildings may require (or some customers may A Sophisticated System
prefer) different types of hydronic heat emitters that
operate at different water temperatures. For example, a Suppose that after discussing the above system, your
portion of a building may use radiant floor heating. The customer asks if you can also provide snow melting,
tubing circuits in the heated floor slab might operate at occasional garage heating or pool heating. Maybe even
105 deg. F. water temperature at design conditions. all three at the same time. This is an opportunity where

Figure 1-4

10
 SECTION 1 C ONSIDER THE P OSSIBILITIES

hydronics can really come through. It is a situation pair of boilers controlled by a staging control. This
where you can provide an efficient customized system concept—called a multiple boiler system—is now
that’s exactly right for your customers needs. common in larger residential as well as commercial
systems. The multiple boiler system is sized to deliver
Figure 1-5 depicts one way such a system could be
the proper amount of heat when all the loads that are
assembled.
capable of running simultaneously are doing so. Such
Think of this system as a collection of subassemblies an approach yields higher seasonal efficiency
“plugged” into a common source of heated water: the compared to a single large boiler. It also adds to the
primary loop. The floor heating subassembly appears system’s reliability since one boiler can still operate
the same as in figure 1-4 except now there are two of should the other be down for service.
them. It’s simply plugged into larger primary loop.
The system shown in figure 1-5 uses state-of-the art
Likewise, the manifold supplying the baseboard zones
piping and control techniques to serve all the heating
is plugged into the primary loop the same as in figure
loads of a large house with many amenities. It also
1-4.
makes use of Kitec and WarmRite hardware to speed
What’s new are the subassemblies that supply the heat installation and ensure top quality.
exchanger for the snow melting and pool heating
The sections to follow discuss many of the key
systems. Think of the heat exchangers as the
concepts and available options for assembling both
separating point between the hot water in the primary
simple and sophisticated hydronic systems. Learn
loop and the fluids that carry heat to the snow melting
them, apply them, and then take pride in providing
circuits and the pool. The heat gets passed from one
your customers with the comfort and efficiency that
fluid to the other, but the fluids themselves never mix.
only modern hydronics technology can deliver.
The “power plant” for this sophisticated system is a

Figure 1-5

11
 SECTION
2

H EAT S OURCE O PTIONS

A wide variety of heat sources can be used with hydronic heating systems. They include gas- and oil-fired boilers,
hydronic heat pumps and domestic water heaters to name a few. Some are better suited to higher temperature
systems, while others are ideal for low temperature systems.
This section briefly describes the characteristics of several heat sources suitable for hydronic systems. More
detailed information pertaining to their selection and installation is best found in manufacturer’s literature and
manuals. Relevant building / mechanical codes should also be consulted for specific installation requirement.
The information at the end of this section allows designers to compare the cost of energy provided by several
common fuels based on their local cost and the efficiency at which they are converted to heat.

2-1 Conventional Boilers

The most common hydronic heat source is a “conventional” gas- or oil-fired boiler. They are available with heat
exchangers made of cast-iron, steel and finned copper tubing.
Although designed to operate at relatively high water temperatures, conventional boilers can be adapted to lower
temperature hydronic systems such as radiant floor heating by using a mixing device. Their ability to produce
high temperature water makes them a good choice in systems where both low temperature and high temperature
heat emitters are used.
The term “conventional” describes boilers that are intended to operate without sustained condensation of the flue
gases produced during the combustion process inside the boiler. These flue gases are made up of water vapor,
carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of other combustion products depending on the fuels used, and the tuning of
the burner.
All boilers experience temporary flue gas condensation during cold starts. If the boiler is connected to a low mass

13
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

distribution system that is designed to operate at adjust boiler return temperature by limiting the rate of
higher water temperatures—fin-tube baseboard for heat transfer allowed to pass through a mixing device
example—such flue gas condensation is short-lived. It and into the distribution system. The piping concept is
rapidly evaporates as the boiler warms above the dew shown in figure 2-1. The details involved in providing
point of the exhaust gases. boiler return temperature protection will be discussed
in section 3.
However, when a conventional boiler serves as the heat
source for a low temperature distribution system it is
imperative to keep the inlet temperature to the boiler 2-2 Condensing Boilers
above the dew point of the exhaust gases. For gas-fired In contrast to conventional boilers, gas-fired
boilers, the inlet water temperature during sustained condensing boilers are specifically designed to promote
operation should not be less than 130 deg. F. For oil- condensation of the water vapor that is produced
fired boilers, it should not be less than 150 deg. F. during combustion. They use large internal heat
Failure to provide such boiler inlet temperature exchanger surfaces to coax as much heat as possible
protection will cause the water vapor (and other from the exhaust gases. The heat exchanger surfaces
compounds present in the exhaust gases) to contin- are made of high-grade stainless steel or other special
ually condense on the internal heat exchanger alloys, and are not corroded by the acidic condensate
surfaces. The acidic nature of such condensate can that forms as the flue gases cool below the dew point.
cause swift and severe corrosion along with scale When properly applied in low temperature hydronic
formation inside the boiler. It can also rapidly corrode systems, such boilers can attain efficiency of 95+ %.
galvanized vent piping, as well as the deterioration of Although they are more complicated and more
masonry chimneys expensive than most conventional boilers, condensing
Hydronic distribution systems with high thermal mass boilers are well suited for low temperature hydronic
can also cause prolonged flue gas condensation as the systems such as slab-type floor heating, snow melting,
system warms up to normal operating temperature. A pool heating and low- to medium- temperature
cool concrete slab with embedded tubing circuits is a domestic water heating. The lower the temperature of
good example. As the slab begins to warm, its thermal the water returning from the distribution system, the
mass can extract heat from the circulating water greater the rate of condensate formation, and the
stream 3 to 4 times faster than normal. Since the rate higher the boiler’s efficiency.
of heat release from the water is much higher than the Although condensing boilers can be used as heat
rate of heat production, the water temperature (in an sources for higher temperature hydronic systems, this
unprotected boiler) will quickly drop well below the is generally not advisable. The higher operating water
dew point temperature of the exhaust gases. The boiler temperatures prevent the boiler from operating with
can operate for hours with sustained flue gas conden- sustained flue gas condensation. Under such condi-
sation. Such a situation must be avoided. tions their efficiency is comparable to that of a conven-
The key to avoiding low boiler inlet water temperature tional boiler. Again, the key to attaining high efficiency
is preventing the distribution system—whatever type it from a condensing boiler is matching it with a low-
happens to be—from extracting heat from the water temperature distribution system.
faster than the boiler can produce heat. Systems with condensing boilers typically do NOT use
Modern mixing devices can automatically monitor and mixing devices between the boiler and the distribution

Figure 2-1 Figure 2-2

14
 SECTION 2 H EAT S OURCE O PTIONS

system. This helps offset a portion of the boiler’s higher bution system. The tank is directly piped to the distri-
cost. Most condensing boilers can also be side wall bution system as shown in figure 2-3. The tank’s
vented through a 2” CPVC pipe. This too lowers instal- thermostat is set for the desired supply water temper-
lation cost relative to boilers vented through a chimney. ature.
Figure 2-2 shows how a condensing boiler would be
In some systems a water heater is expected to supply
piped in a typical floor heating system.
both domestic hot water and space heating. Although
possible under some circumstances, the designer must
2-3 Tank-type Water Heaters ensure that the heating capacity of the water heater
Some hydronic systems can use tank-type domestic can handle both the space heating and domestic water
water heaters as their heat source. Usually the size of heating loads. If these loads occur simultaneously, it is
such systems is limited by the heating capacity of the usually necessary to make the domestic water heating
water heater. Residential water heaters have heat load a priority over the space heating load. Temperature
outputs in the range of 15,000 to 40,000 Btu/hr. This controls can be used to temporarily suspend heat
usually limits their application to small apartments or output to the space heating system until the domestic
modest residential additions. water heating load subsides and the tank temperature
recovers.
Opinions vary on the suitability of circulating potable
water through the space heating circuits. Under some
circumstances, the potable water can remain stagnant
in the space heating circuits for several months
allowing for the possibility of microbe growth. Because
potable water is used in the space heating circuits, all
metal components must be bronze or stainless steel to
resist corrosion from the oxygen-rich water. There is
also the possibility of scale or sediment in the space
heating system due to contaminants in the potable
water.
The preferred approach to such “dual use” systems is
to separate the space heating portions of the system
from those containing domestic water using a small
Figure 2-3
stainless steel heat exchanger as shown in figure 2-4.
Because the heat exchanger isolates the space heating
Because tank-type water heaters are designed to components the distribution system must have an
operate at lower water temperatures, mixing devices expansion tank, pressure relief valve and air separator.
are not usually used between the tank and the distri-

Figure 2-4

15
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

2-4 Geothermal Heat Pumps from short cycling under low load conditions.

Geothermal heat pumps are one of the newest heat As with condensing boilers, geothermal heat pumps
sources suitable for some types of hydronic heating attain their highest efficiency when matched to low-
systems. They extract low temperature heat from a temperature distribution systems. Slab type radiant
tubing circuit buried in the earth, or directly from water floor heating systems operating at water temperatures
wells or other sources of water such as a large pond or in the range of 100 to 115 deg. F. at design conditions
lake. Using a refrigeration system similar to that in a are ideal. The lower the water temperature, the higher
central air conditioner, the heat captured from the the heat pump efficiency the system can operate at.
earth is boosted in temperature and then transferred to Avoid geothermal heat pumps in systems requiring
a stream of water flowing to the distribution system. design water temperatures above 130 deg. F.
As with condensing boilers, no mixing device is In addition to heating, geothermal heat pumps can also
required between the heat pump and the distribution supply chilled water for hydronic cooling applications.
circuits. However, if the distribution system is divided The most common approach uses an air handler
into several independently controlled zones, an equipped with a chilled water coil. Other terminal units
insulated buffer tank should be installed between the such as radiant ceiling panels can be used for chilled
heat pump and the distribution system as shown in water cooling, but such systems require accurate and
figure 2-5. This tank allows the heat output rate of the reliable dew point control to avoid condensation on the
heat pump to be different than the heat extraction rate chilled surfaces. A separate air handler is usually
of the distribution system. It prevents the heat pump required to control humidity.

Figure 2-5

16
 SECTION 2 H EAT S OURCE O PTIONS

2-5 Thermal Energy Storage Systems building during the charging cycle, some of the tank
water is routed out through the distribution system the
Many electric utilities offer “off-peak” electrical rates. same as any other time of day. By the end of the
Power that is purchased during off-peak hours is charging cycle the water temperature in the tank may
usually much less expensive than during periods of be as high as 200 deg. F. When the switch contact in
high demand. the meter opens, the electrical elements are turned off.
A hydronic heating system is an excellent means of The hot water in the tank contains the heat needed for
taking advantage of these rates. The idea is to most if not all of the “on-peak” hours to follow.
purchase the electricity during the off-peak period and Low temperature distribution systems such as radiant
store the energy as heated water. This water is then floor heating are ideally suited to such a heat source.
used to heat the building during the “on-peaks” Their low operating temperature allows the tank to be
periods when electrical rates are higher. A schematic deeply discharged and thus maximizes its heat storage
showing how this concept can be implemented is capability. The heat stored in a heated floor slab also
shown in figure 2-6. allows the system to “coast” through the last 2 to 4
The beginning of an off-peak charging cycle is initiated hours of the on-peak period should the energy in the
by a switch contact in the electric meter. At this point, tank be depleted.
one or more electrical heating elements are turned on A mixing device installed between the storage tank and
to heat water in the large, well-insulated storage tank. the distribution system automatically reduces the water
Charging continues for several hours, and the tank temperature supplied to the distribution system as
become progressively hotter. If heat is needed by the necessary.

Figure 2-6

17
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

2-6 Wood-fired Boilers water volume may be contained in the wood-fired boiler
itself or in a separate insulated thermal storage tank.
When firewood is readily available and competitive in Such a tank must be well insulated so that it can store
cost with conventional fuels, wood-fired boilers are heat for several hours with minimal losses. The concept
another possible hydronic heat source. is also shown in figure 2-7.
In some systems, a wood-fired boiler is used in tandem Some wood-fired boilers are not pressure rated. The
with a conventional fuel boiler. The piping concept is water chambers inside the boiler are vented directly to
shown in figure 2-7. Each boiler is piped as a the atmosphere. Although opinions vary on how best to
secondary circuit into a common primary piping loop. connect such “open system” boilers to hydronic distri-
This arrangement allows either boiler to operate bution systems the conservative approach is to install
without circulating hot water through the other a stainless steel heat exchanger to isolate the boiler
(unfired) boiler, thus reducing heat loss. System water from that in the pressurized distribution system.
controls are usually configured so the conventional fuel Not only does this allow the distribution system to be
boiler automatically assumes the load as the fire dies pressurized for quiet, air-free operation, but it also
down in the wood-fired boiler. protects the cast iron and steel components in the
Heat output from a wood-fired boiler is harder to distribution system from the possibility of corrosion
control than that from a conventional boiler. A large through contact with boiler water that has a higher
volume of water in the system adds to its stability. The concentration of dissolved oxygen.

Figure 2-7

18
 SECTION 2 H EAT S OURCE O PTIONS

2-7 Comparing Fuel Costs common basis.

In many cases the heat source is selected based on the The formulas in figure 2-8 allow the cost of heating
type of fuel that is available or determined to be most energy from each of several fuels to be expressed on
economical over the life of the system. The commonly the common basis of dollars per million Btu’s of
used fuels are sold in different units such as kilowatt- delivered heat. This is abbreviated as $/MMBtu. These
hours for electricity, therms for natural gas, gallons for formulas take into account the cost, purchase units, as
fuel oil and face cords for firewood. To perform an well as efficiency of the heat source in converting the
accurate comparison it is necessary to express the cost fuel into useful heat.
and energy content of each candidate fuel on a

Figure 2-8

19
 SECTION
3

WATER T EMPERATURE C ONTROL

All hydronic heating systems must control the water temperature supplied to their heat emitters. A simple system
may only need to supply one water temperature to all the loads it serves. A more sophisticated system containing
several types of heat emitters may need to simultaneously supply two or more water temperatures.
This section discusses several methods of water temperature control and the hardware necessary to accomplish it.

3-1 Setpoint control

The simplest method of water temperature control is called
“setpoint control.” As its name implies, a single (set) water
temperature is supplied to the distribution system regardless of
which loads are active, or how great the demand for heat is (as long
as there is a demand).
To prevent short cycling of the heat source or other equipment in
the system, setpoint controls require an operating differential. This
refers to the variation in temperature between which control closes
or opens its electrical contacts. A contact closure is the most
common way to turn the heat source on and off. For example, a
setpoint control with a setting of 180 deg. F. and a differential of
10 deg. F. would turn the heat source off at 180 deg. F. and back
on when it the temperature drops to 170 deg. F.
Some setpoint controls “center” their differential on the setpoint.
A device of this type, when set to 180 deg. F. and a 10 deg. F.
differential, would open its electrical contacts to turn the heat

Figure 3-1

21
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

source off at 185 deg. F. and close them when the They are:
sensed temperature drops to 175 deg. F. Figure 3-1
1. boiler reset control
compares these two types of setpoint control.
2. mixing reset control
Some setpoint controls have fixed (non-adjustable)
differentials, while others provide an adjustable differ- A boiler reset control takes over operation of the burner
ential. The narrower the differential, the closer the from the standard (fixed) high limit control supplied
water temperature stays to the desired setpoint. with most boilers. As the outside air temperature
However if the differential is too narrow, the heat changes, the reset control continually recalculates how
source or other equipment in the system could high the boiler water temperature will be allowed to
experience excessively short operating cycles that climb and operates the burner accordingly.
reduce their efficiency and shorten their life. Heat Boiler reset is well suited for systems using relatively
source operating differentials in the range of 10 deg. F. high temperature hydronic heat emitters, like
are common in hydronic systems. baseboard or panel radiators. However, because
Systems using setpoint controls provide the same conventional boilers should not operated for prolonged
average water temperature to the loads whenever there periods at temperatures below the dew point of their
is a call for heat, regardless of the rate of heat input exhaust gases, boiler reset is limited when used in
required by the load. For example, a boiler operated by conjunction with low temperature heat emitters. In
a setpoint control supplying a circuit of fin-tube such cases, boiler water temperature can only
baseboard would deliver hot water (perhaps averaging “partially reset” down to a user-selected minimum
around 175 deg. F.) whether the outdoor temperature temperature setting as shown in figure 3-2.
was -10 deg. F. on a cold January night, or 50 deg. F.
on a mild October afternoon. To prevent overheating
under all but design load conditions, flow must be
periodically interrupted by turning off the circulator or
closing the zone valves. To keep room temperature
variations to a minimum, it’s important to have a
thermostat with a narrow differential of perhaps 1 or 2
deg. F. If the thermostat has an anticipator it should be
carefully set for the electrical current flow through it
during its on-cycle.

3-2 Outdoor reset control

Rather than deliver heat in “spurts,” an ideal system
would continually adjust its rate of heat delivery to
match the heat loss of the building. The indoor air
temperature would remain constant, and there would
be no difference in comfort regardless of outside condi-
tions.
Outdoor reset control (ORC) was developed for this
purpose. It enables heat to flow from the heat emitters
to the space being heated at just the right rate. ORC is
increasingly recognized as the preferred method of Figure 3-2
water temperature control, especially for high thermal
mass floor heating systems. For the case shown, the boiler outlet temperature
would not be reduced below 140 deg. F. This water
All outdoor reset controls use outside air temperature temperature happens to correspond to an outside air
to determine the ideal “target” water temperature to be temperature of 25 deg. F. Air temperatures of 25 deg.
supplied to the system’s heat emitters. The colder it is F. and higher represent a large percentage of the
outside, the higher the water temperature. The goal is heating season in many parts of North America. This
to match the rate of heat delivery to the rate of heat implies the 140 deg. F. water temperature supplied to
loss from the building. the heat emitters will be higher than necessary during
There are two methods of using reset control in a much of the heating season. The room thermostat must
hydronic system. Each can be used by itself, or the two turn the circulator (or zone valve) on and off to prevent
can be used in combination. overheating under these conditions.

22
 SECTION 3 WATER T EMPERATURE C ONTROL

Figure 3-3

Mixing reset control requires a mixing assembly reset control operates the mixing device to reduce the
between the boiler loop and a separate distribution primary loop water temperature as appropriate for the
circuit. This assembly could contain a modulating 2- loads they serve. Some systems may have two or more
way, 3-way, or 4-way valve, or a variable speed injection independent mixing devices supplied from a common
pump as depicted in figure 3-3. These options are primary loop.
discussed in more detail later in this section.
The mixing assembly provides the proper supply water
temperature to the distribution system. When
necessary, it also acts as a “clutch” to prevent the cold
thermal mass of a distribution system from extracting
heat faster than the boiler can produce it. This latter
function, commonly called “boiler protection,” is
crucially important when a conventional boiler provides
heat to a slab-type floor heating system.
Mixing reset control allows “deep” reduction in the
water temperature supplied to the distribution system
while simultaneously protecting the boiler from low
inlet water temperatures.
Boiler reset can be used in combination with mixing
reset in the same system. The concept is shown in
figure 3-4.
The boiler reset control monitors and adjusts the water
temperature in the primary loop by varying the firing
cycles of the boiler(s). The primary loop temperature is
often partially reset to prevent the boiler(s) from
operating below dew point temperature. The mixing
Figure 3-4

23
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

An example of the reset lines for a system using both gas- and oil-fired boilers fall into this category. Failure
boiler reset and mixing reset is given in figure 3-5. to provide this protection can result in severe corrosion
Notice that the primary loop has a minimum supply and scaling within the boiler. This not only shortens
temperature of 140 to protect the boiler from boiler life, but it can also lead to failure of vent piping
sustained flue gas condensation. However, the mixing and spillage of combustion products into the building.
reset control can reduce the temperature of the water Unfortunately, the need to protect the boiler inlet
to the distribution system all the way down to room air temperature is often viewed as secondary to providing
temperature. the proper supply temperature to the distribution
system. This is an oversight with potentially deadly
3-3 Mixing requirements consequences.

Several types of mixing devices can be used to reduce It is generally recognized that maintaining return
the water temperature supplied from the heat source to temperatures of 130 deg. F. or higher for gas-fired
the distribution system. These include 2-way, 3-way, boilers, and 150 deg. F. or higher for oil-fired boilers
and 4-way valves as well as several forms of injection will eliminate the damaging effects of flue-gas conden-
mixing. sation. There are exceptions, and boiler manufacturers
should be consulted regarding the minimum operating
Controlling the water temperature supplied to the temperature of their equipment.
distribution system is often not the only function of the
mixing device. In systems using a conventional boiler Condensing boilers, discussed in section 5, are specif-
as the heat source the mixing device must also prevent ically designed to withstand sustained flue gas conden-
low inlet water temperatures that can cause sustained sation and don’t need return temperature protection.
flue gas condensation within the boiler. The cooler the return water temperature the higher
their efficiency. In most cases a mixing device is not
This second requirement applies when any type of fuel- needed when a condensing boiler is used to supply
burning boiler—that’s not designed to operate with heat to a low temperature hydronic distribution system
sustained flue gas condensation—is paired with a low as long as the supply temperature matches the design
temperature distribution system. Most “conventional” criteria.

Figure 3-5

24
 SECTION 3 WATER T EMPERATURE C ONTROL

Hydronic heat sources that don’t produce flue gases bellows actuator rather than an internal wax-filled
don’t need to be protected against flue gas conden- actuator. Their sensing bulb contains a fluid that
sation. These include electric boilers, hydronic heat increases in pressure when heated. This increased
pumps, thermal storage tanks, and heat exchangers. pressure causes the valve to partially close the hot
water port as it opens the cold water port. A knob on
3-4 3-way thermostatic mixing valves the valve is used to set the desired mixed water
temperature.
One of the most common mixing devices used in low
temperature hydronic systems is a 3-way thermostatic The preferred location of the temperature-sensing bulb
valve. It has two inlet ports—one for hot water, the is downstream of the distribution loop circulator. This
other for cold—and a single outlet port for the mixed ensures thorough mixing by the time the flow passes by
stream. Inside the valve is a shuttle mechanism that the sensing bulb. Improper placement of the sensing
determines the proportions of hot and cold water bulb can cause erratic operation. The most accurate
allowed into the valve. The shuttle is moved up and temperature sensing takes place with the sensing bulb
down inside the valve body by the expansion and is immersed in the flowing water. If this is not possible
contraction of a wax-filled actuator. The sealed wax the bulb should be tightly strapped to the pipe and
assembly is heated by the mixed flow across it. If the covered with pipe insulation.
mixing stream is slightly too hot, the wax assembly The piping schematics in figure 3-6 show one piping
expands, forcing the shuttle to partially close the hot arrangement for a 3-way valve. This piping
inlet port and simultaneously open the cold inlet port. arrangement is appropriate if (and only if) low inlet
A knob on the valve sets the actuator to the desired water temperatures or reduced flow rates under low
outlet water temperature. As the temperatures of the load conditions do not adversely effect the heat source.
incoming hot and cold streams change, the wax-filled Reduced boiler flow rate is seldom a problem for high
actuator moves the shuttle to maintain the set outlet mass boilers or storage tanks. However, low mass
water temperature. boilers, heat pumps or electric boilers may require a
Some 3-way mixing valves are operated by a gas-filled minimum flow rate whenever they operate. In such

Figure 3-6

25
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

cases, the heat source should be equipped with its own will overheat the building unless flow through the heat
pumped bypass circuit as shown in figure 3-7. With emitters is interrupted when the desired room temper-
this arrangement, flow through the heat source does ature is attained.
A single 3-way thermo-
static mixing valve that
controls water temper-
ature to the distribution
system does NOT protect
a conventional boiler from
flue gas condensation.
Figure 3-7 shows that a
portion of water returning
from the distribution
system goes directly back
to the boiler. When the
distribution system
operates at low tempera-
tures, this return water
will cause sustained flue
Figure 3-7 gas condensation in the
boiler. This must be
avoided.
not change regardless of the flow proportions through One way to protect a conventional boiler from
the 3-way valve. Connections from the bypass circuit to sustained flue gas condensation is to install a second
the remaining piping system are made using primary 3-way thermostatic mixing valve as shown in figure 3-
secondary tees to prevent interference between the two 8. The additional valve monitors return temperature,
circulators. and if necessary, mixes hot water from the boiler with
cool return water from the return side of the primary
3-way thermostatic valves supply the distribution
loop to boost water temperature entering the boiler.
system with a fixed water temperature regardless of the
Some manufacturers even build this thermostatic valve
heating load. Under partial load conditions, the system
into their boilers.

Figure 3-8

26
 SECTION 3 WATER T EMPERATURE C ONTROL

3-5 3-way motorized mixing valves enter the mix and vice versa. Since the sensor is
downstream of the valve’s outlet port, it provides
3-way valve bodies can also be paired with precision constant feedback to the controller allowing it to fine
motorized actuators. An electronic controller regulates tune water temperature.
such actuators. The resulting motorized valve system
can supply either fixed or variable water temperatures The piping for a 3-way motorized valve is shown in
to a radiant panel. figure 3-9.

The valve body used for this type of mixing system is Note the use of a boiler loop with a pair of closely-
often different from that used for a 3-way thermostatic spaced tees to interface to the distribution system.
valve. It has a rotating (as opposed to linear motion) This accomplishes two important functions. First, it
shaft. As the shaft rotates through approximately 90 prevents the boiler loop circulator from interfering
degrees of arc, the internal spool simultaneously opens within the flow through the 3-way valve. Second, it
one inlet port and closes the other. This regulates the provides another mixing point (shown as point B)
proportions of hot and cold water entering the valve, allowing hot water in the boiler loop to mix with cool
and thus determines the mixed outlet temperature. water returning from the distribution system before
entering the boiler.
The actuating motor turns the valve shaft very slowly.
Rotating the shaft through 90 degrees of arc may take The controller operating the valve motor senses both
2 to 3 minutes. This slow rotation is not a problem system supply and boiler return temperature. When
given the slow response of many high mass distribution necessary, the controller can partially close the hot port
systems. It actually helps stabilize the system against of the 3-way valve to prevent the distribution system
overshooting or undershooting the target water temper- from extracting heat faster than the boiler can produce
ature. it. This allows a single 3-way motorized valve to control
both the supply temperature, and protect the boiler
A temperature sensor attached to the piping leading to form low inlet temperature.
the distribution system measures the mixed water
temperature leaving the valve. It provides feedback to Most controllers used for mixing valves are able to
an electronic controller that regulates the valve motor. provide either setpoint or outdoor reset control. The
If the temperature is exactly where it should be, the latter cannot be accomplished (automatically) with 3-
motor does not change the valve’s stem position. If the way thermostatic valves. A single 3-way motorized
supply temperature is slightly low, the motor very valve piped and controlled as described provides more
slowly rotates the valve stem to allow more hot water to versatility than does a pair of 3-way thermostatic
valves.

Figure 3-9

27
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

3-6 4-way motorized mixing valves Hot water from the boiler is mixed with cool return
water from the distribution system at two locations
Another mixing device that has seen extensive usage in inside a 4-way valve. In the upper mixing chamber, the
systems pairing a conventional boiler and low temper- hot and cool water streams mix to form the stream
ature distribution system is a 4-way motorized mixing supplied to the distribution system. At the same time,
valve. These valves were designed to provide both mixing also occurs in the lower valve chamber. Here
supply temperature control and boiler return temper- the objective is to boost the temperature of the water
ature boosting. Figure 3-10 shows a cross section of a returning to the boiler. As with motorized 3-way valve
typical 4-way valve body. systems, a temperature sensor mounted on the supply
pipe to the distribution system provides feedback to
the valve controller. Another temperature sensor
mounted near the boiler return allows the controller to
monitor boiler inlet temperature. When necessary, the
controller would partially close the hot inlet port to the
valve to prevent the distribution system from extracting
heat faster than the boiler can produce it.
The recommended piping for a 4-way mixing valve is
shown in figure 3-11. Closely- spaced tees are used to
connect the valve to the boiler loop. This prevents flow
interference between the boiler circulator and distri-
bution circulator. The valve draws hot water from the
boiler loop using the momentum of the flow returning
from the distribution system. The boiler loop also
ensures adequate flow through the boiler under all
conditions.
It’s important to understand that merely using a 4-way
mixing valve body in a system does NOT guarantee that
the distribution system will receive the proper supply
temperature. Neither does it guarantee the boiler is
protected from low inlet water temperatures. For proper
Figure 3-10
control, the valve must react to both the supply and
boiler return temperatures. To do so, it must be

Figure 3-11

28
 SECTION 3 WATER T EMPERATURE C ONTROL

directed by a controller that senses both supply and Hot water from the boiler loop is pushed through a pipe
return temperature. It’s pointless to install a 4-way called an injection riser. It enters the side port of a tee
valve body while omitting the actuator / controller it at point (A) where it mixes with cool water returning
needs for proper operation. from the distribution system. The blending of these two
streams determines the supply temperature to the
3-7 Injection Mixing (the concept) secondary circuit. The greater the flow rate of hot water
entering the tee, the warmer the distribution system
Injection mixing is one of the simplest yet most gets and the greater its heat output.
versatile methods of controlling the water temperature
in a hydronic distribution system. The concept is Injection mixing is ideal for systems pairing a conven-
shown in figure 3-12. tional boiler to a low temperature distribution system.
The large temperature difference (∆T) between the
incoming hot water and the outgoing return water
allows a high rate of heat transfer using a minimal
injection flow rate.

3-8 Injection mixing using a 2-way valve

One of the devices used for injection mixing control is
a modulating 2-way valve. Either a non-electric thermo-
static actuator or motorized actuator operates the
valve. The piping concept is shown in figure 3-13.
Hot water from the boiler loop is drawn into the supply
injection riser at point B. It passes through the
injection control valve and enters the side port of a tee
at point C where it mixes with cool return water from
the distribution system. The flow rate through the
Figure 3-12 injection risers depends on the stem position of the
injection control valve, as well as the flow restrictor
valve’s setting. The greater the injection flow rate, the

Figure 3-13

29
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

Figure 3-14

higher the water temperature supplied to the distri- It is important to select the injection control valve
bution system and the greater its heat output. In a based on its Cv rating, NOT the size of the injection
typical low temperature floor heating system supplied riser piping. Oversized injection valves will not produce
by a conventional boiler, the flow rate through the smooth heat input control under low load conditions.
injection control valve is about 15 to 20% of the flow Undersized injection valves will cause excessive head
rate in the distribution system. This allows a relatively loss and may not be able to deliver design load heat
small modulating injection valve to regulate a large rate transfer rates.
of heat transfer.
Before selecting the injection control valve, calculate
When a motorized valve operated by an electronic the necessary injection flow rate under design load
controller is used, boiler protection is accomplished by conditions using the following formula:
monitoring the boiler inlet temperature and partially
closing the injection valve when necessary to prevent
Formula 3-1
the distribution system from absorbing heat faster than Q
fi =
the boiler can produce it. 500 x (T1 _T2)
Unlike a motorized valve with a “smart” controller, a Where:
single thermostatic 2-way modulating valve cannot
control both the supply temperature to the distribution fi = required design injection flow rate at design
system and the inlet temperature to the boiler. To load (in gpm)
protect the boiler, it is necessary to use another mixing Q = Heat input to distribution at design load
device that can monitor and adjust the boiler inlet conditions (in Btu/hr)
temperature when necessary. Figure 3-14 shows the T1 = water temperature being injected
use of a 3 way thermostatic valve for this purpose. (in deg. F.)
When using a 2-way valve for injection mixing, be sure T2 = water temperature returning form
the tees at points A and B in figure 3-13 are as close distribution system (in deg. F.)
as possible. Also be sure there’s a vertical drop of at
least 18 inches between where the return injection 500 = a constant for water
(use 479 for 30% glycol, 450 for 50% glycol)
riser connects to the boiler loop and where it connects
to the distribution system. This drop forms a thermal Select an injection control valve with a Cv factor
trap to reduce heat migration into the distribution approximately equal to the injection flow rate just
system when no heat input is needed. calculated.

30
 SECTION 3 WATER T EMPERATURE C ONTROL

Once the system is operational, set the flow restrictor The injection mixing control also protects the boiler by
valve so the injection control valve remains fully open monitoring the inlet temperature and reducing the
at design load conditions. This allows the valve to speed of the injection pump when necessary to prevent
operate over its full range of stem travel as heat input the distribution system from absorbing heat faster than
to the distribution system varies from zero to full the boiler can produce it.
design load.
When using variable speed injection mixing, be sure
the tees at points A and B in figure 3-15 are as close
3-9 Injection mixing using a variable speed pump together as possible. Also be sure there is a vertical
Another method of injection mixing uses a small wet drop of at least 18 inches between the (return)
rotor circulator operated at variable speeds as the injection riser connection to the primary circuit and its
injection device. The piping concept is shown in figure connection to the secondary circuit. This drop forms a
3-15. thermal trap to reduce heat migration into the distri-
bution system when no heat input is needed.
Hot water from the boiler loop is drawn into the supply
injection riser at point B. It enters the side port of a tee In a properly balanced system, the injection pump
at point C, where it mixes with cool water returning should run at full speed when the system is operating
from the distribution system. An equal flow rate of cool at design load conditions. Achieving this balance
return water flows back from the distribution system to requires adjustment of the balancing valve located in
the primary circuit through the other riser. The flow the return injection riser. There are several ways to set
rate of hot water passing through the supply riser is this valve. One of the easier ways is to use a valve that
controlled by the speed of the injection pump. The has built-in measuring capability. Many “circuit-setter”
faster the pump runs, the faster hot water flows into type valves are available for this purpose.
the distribution system and the greater its heat output. To properly set the circuit setter valve, it’s necessary to
In a typical low temperature floor heating system calculate the required injection flow rate under design
supplied by a conventional boiler, the flow rate through load conditions using formula 3-1. With the injection
the injection pump is about 15 to 20% of the flow rate pump running at full speed, partially close the circuit
in the secondary circuit. This allows a relatively small setter valve until it indicates a flow equal to the value
injection pump to control a large rate of heat transfer. calculated.

Figure 3-15

31
 SECTION
4

R ADIANT F LOOR H EATING M ETHODS

The availability of modern materials such as Kitec pipe has allowed the market for hydronic radiant floor heating
to increase approximately ten fold over the last decade. Installation methods have been developed for many
types of floor constructions in residential, commercial and industrial buildings. Each year these installation
techniques allow thousands of buildings to be equipped with what many consider to be the ultimate comfort
heating system.

4-1 What is radiant heating?

Before discussing the installation details of radiant floor heating, it’s important to have a clear understanding of
how radiant heating works as well as how it differs from other forms of heating.
Nature has three means of transferring heat from objects at a given temperature to objects at lower temperatures.
Conduction is how heat moves through solid materials, or from one solid material to another when the two are in
contact. If you stand barefooted on a cool basement floor slab, heat transfers from your feet to the floor by
conduction.
Convection is how heat moves between a solid surface and a fluid. The fluid may be either a liquid or a gas. Hot
water flowing through a pipe transfers heat to the inside wall of the pipe by convection. Likewise, air flowing
across the heat exchanger inside a furnace absorbs heat from the hot metal surfaces.
Radiant heat transfer occurs when infrared light leaves the surface of an object and travels to the surface(s) of
other cooler objects. Unlike conduction and convection, radiant heat transfer does not require a fluid or solid
material between the two objects transferring heating. It only requires a space between the two objects. Solar
energy travels approximately 93 million miles from the sun to the earth, through the emptiness of space, solely
as radiant energy. The radiant energy only becomes sensible heat when absorbed by a surface.

33
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

The radiant energy emitted by the relatively low ceiling insulation and hence lower heating costs.
temperature heat emitters used in hydronic heating is
A system that’s out of sight:
technically described as infrared electromagnetic
radiation. It’s simply light that the human eye can’t Most people realize that just about every occupied
see. However, other than the fact that it’s invisible, building in North America needs a heating system.
infrared light behaves just like visible light. It travels in However, few enjoy looking at the heat emitters that are
straight lines at the speed of light (186,000 miles per a necessary part of that system. The fact that such heat
second), and can be partially reflected by polished emitters often restrict furniture placement further adds
metallic surfaces. Unlike warm air, radiant energy to their invasiveness.
travels equally well in any direction. Up, down or
With hydronic radiant floor heating, the floor surface is
sideways, direction simply doesn’t matter. This charac-
the heat emitter. There’s no need to compromise the
teristic allows a heated ceiling to deliver radiant heat
aesthetics of the space or restrict furniture placement.
to the room below.
It’s a system that gives your clients a building interior
The radiant energy emitted by a warm floor, wall or that’s as thermally luxurious as it is aesthetically
ceiling is a completely natural phenomenon that’s elegant.
literally as old as the universe itself. A surface warmed
A quiet system:
by sunlight gives off infrared radiation just like one
warmed by embedded tubing. The latter simply uses a One of the strengths of hydronic heating is its ability to
different heat source and transport system to deliver deliver heat without delivering noise. A properly
heat to the surface. Most low temperature radiant designed radiant floor heating system is the epitome of
panels emit less than 1/10 the radiant flux of bright silence. The gas or oil burner on the boiler is often the
sunlight, and all of it is infrared as opposed to ultra- only component that makes any detectable noise, and
violet light. Even the human body gives off infrared it’s usually located in the mechanical room away from
radiation to cooler surrounding surfaces. the occupied spaces.
A clean system:
4-2 The Benefits of Hydronic Radiant Floor
Heating One of the biggest complaints associated with forced
air heating is its tendency to distribute dust, odors and
Radiant floor heating is considered by many as the germs throughout a house. In contrast to whole house
ultimate form of comfort heating. In addition to the air movement, hydronic flooring heating creates very
advantages of hydronic heating in general, warm floors gentle (imperceptible) room air circulation. Many
provide benefits that virtually no other system can people who suffer from allergies have found that
match. Any one of these benefits can become the “hot radiant floor heating doesn’t aggravate the symptoms
button” that convinces a discriminating customer to the way a forced air system often does.
install a hydronic radiant floor heating system. Here’s a
summary of these key benefits. A durable system:

Unsurpassed thermal comfort: A slab type floor heating system is nearly as indestruc-
tible as the slab itself. It’s the ideal way to heat garage
Buildings equipped with radiant flooring have interior facilities, industrial buildings, recreation rooms or
environments that are highly favorable to human other buildings with high interior traffic.
thermal comfort. Unlike many systems that directly
heat the air, radiant floor heating gently warms the A system that reduces fuel usage:
surfaces of objects in the room as well as the air itself. Hydronic floor heating systems have a proven record of
The warm surfaces significantly reduce the rate of heat reduced energy usage relative to other forms of
loss from the occupants, allowing most to feel heating, both in residential and commercial / industrial
comfortable at room temperatures 3 to 5 deg. F. lower buildings. The savings result from several factors such
than with other methods of heating. as the ability to sustain comfort at lower indoor air
The air temperature at floor level is slightly higher than temperatures, reduced air temperature stratification,
the average room temperature. This significantly non-pressurization of rooms (which leads to higher
reduces the rate of heat loss from the feet and legs. rates of air leakage), and the ability to operate with
Several feet above the floor, the air temperature begins lower water temperatures.
to decrease. Most people tend to feel more alert with Savings vary from one building to the next. Although
slightly lower air temperatures at head level. The lowest some projects have shown savings in excess of 50%, a
air temperatures in the room typically occur just below more conservative estimate is 10 to 20% in savings.
the ceiling. The result is reduced heat loss through the
As energy costs continue to escalate, the ability to

34
 SECTION 4 R ADIANT F LOOR H EATING M ETHODS

reduce fuel consumption will play an increasingly material was cross-linked polyethylene (or PEX). It
important role in how heating systems are selected. would soon prove to be the single biggest factor under-
Hydronic radiant floor heating can keep energy costs to lying the reemergence of hydronic floor heating in
a minimum while also delivering exceptional comfort. North America.
It’s truly the benchmark system against which all other
Europeans had amassed considerable experience with
methods of heating will be compared.
PEX and PEX-AL-PEX tubing in floor heating applica-
tions by the time these products made their first
4-3 The History of Hydronic Radiant Floor Heating appearances on the North American market in the early
The origins of hydronic radiant floor heating date back 1980’s. Slowly but surely these modern piping
to the early 1900s when systems were installed using materials demonstrated they could deliver comfort,
wrought iron and steel piping. During the 1940s and easy installation and long life. The rest—as they say—
50’s, many radiant floor heating systems were installed is history.
by embedding copper tubing in concrete slabs. Today consumers are learning about new methods for
Although the installations were somewhat crude in installation of hydronic floor heating as never before.
comparison to today, these early systems quickly They are seeking qualified professional installers and
proved they could deliver unsurpassed comfort. quality products. Kitec pipe and WarmRite accessories
Some of these early systems are still in operation. let you give these discriminating consumers exactly
However, others have long since been abandoned due what they’re looking for. Read on to see all the different
to fatigue or corrosion of the embedded metal tubing. ways these systems can be installed.
Although the comfort they delivered was exceptional,
too many of the early systems using embedded copper, 4-4 Slab on Grade Systems
steel or iron pipe eventually developed leaks. Consumer
As the past has demonstrated, concrete slab-on-grade
confidence in the thought that a hydronic floor heating
floors are ideal for hydronic floor heating. The number
system could provide both comfort as well as a long,
of buildings with this type of floor construction is huge.
trouble-free service life steadily declined. The debut of
It includes a significant percentage of single family
central air conditioning in the late 50’s, along with
houses as well as a large percentage of commercial
strong promotion of forced air (ducted) systems as a
buildings. Some of the best floor heating opportunities
“preferred” means of delivering both heating and
are in “garage facilities” such as automotive service
cooling all but eliminated the use of hydronic floor
centers, town highway garages, fire stations and
heating. Or so it seemed.
aircraft hangers. These buildings almost always have
Ironically, as the hydronic floor heating market was uncovered concrete floors, and benefit tremendously
nearing extinction in North America, a new tubing from the warm, dry floors that hydronic floor heating
material was being developed in Western Europe. That can provide.

finished flooring
adhesive

concrete slab

pipe
wire mesh

insulation
vapor barrier

foundation

compacted fill

CONCRETE SLAB ON GRADE with

under slab insulation

35
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

finished flooring
adhesive

max. 2" from surface

pipe

wire mesh

"chair"
concrete slab
vapor barrier

foundation

compacted fill

CONCRETE SLAB ON GRADE with

no under slab insulation

Installation Procedure: The installation of a heated floor slab begins by

verifying the subgrade has been properly leveled and
Figure 4-1 shows a cut-away view of a modern heated
compacted. Although the heating system installer is
slab-on-grade floor.
probably not responsible for this aspect of

Figure 4-1

36
 SECTION 4 R ADIANT F LOOR H EATING M ETHODS

construction, failing to check for proper subgrade edge- and underside insulation of greater
preparation could eventually compromise the R-value.
embedded tubing circuits. It could also leave the
• The thermal resistance (R-value) of the floor
installer having to defend why the floor heating system
covering(s): high thermal resistance coverings
isn’t at least partly responsible for cracks in the slab or
justify edge- and underside insulation of
other defects.
greater R-value.
After the subgrade has been prepared, the soil vapor
• The shape of the slab: slabs with high ratios of
barrier and underslab insulation should be installed.
edge length to floor area justify edge- and
Some building specifications may not call for an
underside insulation of greater R-value.
underslab vapor barrier. However, its ability to resist
moisture migration from the underlying soils can be In most buildings the underslab insulation should have
indispensable, especially when wood products are used a minimum R-value of 5. In colder climates, it is often
as the finish flooring. recommended that the outer 4 feet of the slab (referred
to as the “outer band”) have R-10 underside
Heat loss from the edge and underside of a heated slab
insulation. The insulation is generally omitted under
on grade can be substantial, especially in areas with
structural bearing points such as beneath interior
high water tables or where the slab rests on bedrock.
columns or bearing walls.
Edge and underslab insulation are essential in
reducing these losses. They are a necessary part of any The edge of the slab is especially vulnerable to heat
quality floor heating system. Not taking steps to loss. It should be insulated to a minimum of R-5 in
mitigate such heat loss is like leaving the windows mild climates and R-10 in colder climates.
open throughout the winter.
The next step on most installations is to locate and
Realistically there’s only one opportunity to install temporarily mount the manifold station(s). If one or
underslab insulation—before the slab is poured. more of the manifold stations will be located within a
Discovering high downward heat loss after the system stud cavity, it’s imperative to make accurate measure-
is in operation is a situation that’s virtually impossible ments when fixing the manifold’s location.
to correct. It makes little sense to attempt the instal-
The manifolds can be temporarily bracketed to a
lation of a high quality heating system while omitting
plywood panel supported on wooden or steel stakes
crucial and relatively low cost details. Do it right the
driven into the subgrade (as shown in figure 4-2)
first time.
The most commonly used material for slab edge and
underside insulation is extruded polystyrene. It’s sold
in 2 by 8 foot and 4 by 8 foot sheets in several thick-
nesses. It’s also available in several densities to handle
different floor loading. Extruded polystyrene panels are
highly resistant to moisture absorption, and have a
well-established record in ground contact insulation
applications.
New insulating materials are developed to promote the
use of under slab insulation. One of them is called
radiant barrier foil. It is a composite of plastic and
aluminum layers. The concrete Barrier Foils consists of
an aluminum layer sandwiched between two layers of
“bubble” insulation. The “insulating” effect of this
new product is comparable with the rigid foam
products, but its handling and resistance to
mechanical damage is far superior.
The amount of underside insulation depends on several
factors. Among them are:
• The severity of the climate: colder climates
justify edge- and underside insulation of
greater R-value.
• The cost of energy: higher energy costs justify
Figure 4-2

37
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

Once the insulation is in place, the steel reinforcement piping in the slab is not so critical if full slab insulation
for the slab is installed. Most concrete slab on grade is used. Appropriate thermal break will direct the heat
floors use welded wire fabric (WWF) for reinforcement flow towards the surface. If insulation is not used the
and crack control. WWF comes in sheets or rolls. It pipe position is critical and in this case the piping has
should be placed directly on top of the underslab to be lifted to 2” below the surface.
insulation. Edges should be overlapped approximately
As long as the pipe is kept 2” below the surface saw
6” and tied together.
cut control joints will not affect the pipe. If deeper than
Tubing installation takes place one circuit at a time. 3/4” saw cuts are planned the pipe position has to be
Begin by securing one end of the circuit to the supply adjusted accordingly. Anywhere where full cut control
manifold. Roll out the coil like rolling a “tire” following joints are used (slabs are separated) a protective sleeve
the layout pattern. The composite pipe, because of the has to be used on the pipe passing through. The sleeve
metal content, allows laying the pipe roughly without has to be 12” long centered on the joint and approxi-
tying down immediately. This allows it to run the full mately 1” diameter. The sleeve reduces stress on the
loop and get the end out to the manifold. Make sure tubing should the slab move slightly at the control
the end reaches the manifold and then tie the piping joint.
to the wire mesh. The main difference to laying PEX
tubing is that the pipe stays in place and does not want 4-5 Thin Slab Systems
to go back to the coil shape.
There are several methods of installing hydronic
This is why there is no need to use an uncoiler. If the radiant heating over a conventional wood-framed floor.
uncoiler is available, it is also possible to lay the pipe One of the most common is called a thin slab system.
using it. In this case place the tubing coil on an The concept is shown in figure 4-3.
uncoiler and pull the tubing from the coil as needed.
Keep plenty of slack ahead of you as the tubing is Thin slabs consist of either a specially formulated
fastened in place. concrete or poured gypsum underlayment. Both types
of slabs have installation requirements that must be
Kitec tubing should be secured to the WWF using carefully coordinated with the building design process.
either twisted wire ties or nylon pull ties. The tubing
should be tied to the WWF reinforcing every 60 to 72” One requirement that must be accommodated is that
on straight runs, and two ties at the bend on each side. thin-slabs typically add 1.25 to 1.5 inches to the floor
height. This requires adjustments in the rough opening
When all circuits have been installed, prepare the heights of windows and doors as well as the height of
manifold(s) for pressure testing. Install a pressure door thresholds. It will also affect the riser heights on
gauge in one end of either the supply or return stairs.
manifold and a schrader air valve in the other end. Plug
the unused manifold ends. Another issue that must be addressed is the added
weight of the thin-slab. Poured gypsum thin-slabs
Use an air compressor to increase the pressure in the typically add 13 to 15 pounds per square foot to the
circuits to about 100 psi. Use a soap bubble solution “dead loading” of a floor structure. Standard weight
to check for leaks at the manifold connections. Leave concrete thin slabs add about 18 pounds per square
the circuits pressurized for at least 24 hours. If the air foot (at 1.5” thickness). Never assume the proposed
pressure drops double check all manifold connections floor structure can simply support the added weight of
for possible leaks before inspecting the tubing. Aside either type of thin-slab. Have a competent designer or
from the possibility of extreme damage from other structural engineer verify what, if any, changes are
construction activity, it’s very unlikely that the tubing is necessary to support the added load.
the source of the air leak. Still, a pressure test is
mandatory on any radiant tubing installation. The additional floor thickness and weight are easily
managed if planned into the building as it is designed.
If the WWF has to be positioned in the slab, be sure the However they can present obstacles in retrofit situa-
concrete placement crew knows to lift the tubing and tions.
WWF prior to starting the pour. If the WWF has to be
positioned within the slab, it has to be lifted or Poured Gypsum Thin-slab systems
“chaired” up to the final position before the concrete Poured gypsum underlayments have been used for
is poured. The WWF and attached tubing should be many years for floor leveling as well as to enhance the
lifted up so the pipe center is 2” below the slab acoustic and fire resistance properties of wood-framed
surface. This allows the slab to respond faster when floors. They also function well as the slab material for
warm water circulates through the tubing. thin-slab floor heating systems. In most cases, the slab
From the heat output point of view, the position of the is installed by a subcontractor trained and equipped to

38
 SECTION 4 R ADIANT F LOOR H EATING M ETHODS

Figure 4-3

finished flooring
adhesive

gypsum slab
pipe sealant

subfloor

floor under side insulation

joist

39
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

Figure 4-3A

finished flooring
adhesive

concrete slab
pipe
polyethylene sheet

subfloor

floor underside insulation

joist

THIN SLAB ON WOOD FRAMED FLOOR

concrete slab

40
 SECTION 4 R ADIANT F LOOR H EATING M ETHODS

mix and place the materials.

Installation Procedure
Installation begins by stapling the tubing to the
subfloor. A pneumatic stapler with a special
attachment allows the staples to be quickly placed
without damage to the tubing. It’s the preferred
attachment method for all but very small thin-slab
areas.
Once all tubing circuits have been installed they
should be pressure tested as described earlier.
Next the floor is sprayed with a combination
sealant/bond enhancement coating. This minimizes
water absorption into the subfloor as well as strength-
ening the bond between the slab and subfloor.
Figure 4-4
The poured gypsum underlayment consists of gypsum
cement, masonry sand, admixtures and water. The
product is prepared is a special mixer usually placed
outside the building, and is then pumped in through a Unlike with gypsum underlayments, it’s crucial to
hose. As the product is poured, it self-levels with prevent the bottom of the slab from bonding to either
minimum floating. the subfloor or any wall framing it may contact. The
Some installers prefer to install the gypsum slab in two goal is to allow the wood floor deck and concrete thin-
layers (or “lifts”). This minimizes any differential slab to move independently of each other during curing
shrinkage in the slab, resulting is a very flat finish or seasonal moisture changes. This reduces tensile
surface. stresses that can crack the slab.

When poured gypsum underlayment cures, it It’s also important to divide large floor areas into a grid
resembles plaster and is almost as hard as standard of smaller areas using plastic control joint strips. As
concrete. However, unlike concrete it is NOT intended the concrete cures, cracks will develop directly above
to serve as a permanent “wearing surface.” these strips. These “controlled” cracks preempt
random cracking of the slab.
With the proper preparation, a poured gypsum slab can
be covered with almost any finish flooring including The slab should be cured for a minimum of 3 weeks
carpet, sheet vinyl, ceramic tile and glue-down wood prior to being heated. This allows time for the concrete
flooring. Always follow the gypsum underlayment to develop strength before being exposed to thermal
manufacturer’s procedures to verify that the slab is stresses. To drive off any residual moisture, the slab
adequately cured that and the surface is properly should also be operated (heated) for several days prior
prepared before installing finish flooring. to installation of the finish floor.

Poured gypsum slabs are water-resistant not water- With either type of thin-slab it’s imperative to install
proof. The slab will eventually soften if exposed to underside insulation. When the space below the heated
water for prolonged periods. They should not be floor is also heated, use a minimum of R-11 underside
installed under conditions where rain or other sources insulation. If the space below the floor is partially
of moisture can accumulate. They should also not be heated, install a minimum of R-19 insulation. If the
installed in areas that are likely to experience flooding. space below the heated floor is an unheated crawl
space, install a minimum of R-30 underside insulation.
Concrete Thin-Slab Systems Although these suggested underside R-values are
A specially formulated concrete mix can also be used conservative, the installer should verify they meet or
to create a heated thin-slab floor. The mix proportions exceed local energy code requirements.
are given in figure 4-4
The installation of a concrete thin-slab differs consid-
erably from that of a poured gypsum slab. Concrete is
not self-leveling. It must be screeded flat when placed.
To simplify screeding, the concrete thin-slab is best
poured before walls are constructed.

41
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

The concept of thin slab installation can be used to 1” rigid foam is used. Using a vapor barrier ensures
retrofitting radiant floor heating to existing concrete that no moisture gets into the heated layer. A new type
surfaces. A thin over pour or topping pour is created on of insulation is also now available. Two layers of
the existing surface. Figure 4-4a shows the layers of “bubble” insulation with aluminum foil in between has
the installation. a comparable insulating effect to the rigid foam. It also
acts as a vapor barrier. The most difficult part when
Ideally the new layer is separated with a thin layer of
laying pipe on existing concrete is how to fasten the
insulation. This will drive the heat upwards where we
pipe. Individual clips can be used, though it is very
need it and provide quick reaction time. Generally ½”

Figure 4-4a

finished flooring
adhesive

concrete slab
pipe

insulation

existing concrete

TOPPING POUR ON CONCRETE FLOOR

42
 SECTION 4 R ADIANT F LOOR H EATING M ETHODS

time and labor consuming. Special plastic staples or situations where slab installation is not an option. In
clips can be used when 1” foam is used as insulation. such cases the heat dispersion can be provided by
Another effective way is to use pipe track, sometimes highly conductive aluminum plates.
called rail fix, to hold the pipe in place. This 6.5 feet
Kitec PEX-AL-PEX pipe is ideal for tube and plate
long plastic channel is mounted to the floor at 3 points.
applications. Its rate of thermal expansion is very close
The pipe clips into the side cutouts perpendicular to
to that of the aluminum heat dispersion plates. This
the track.
greatly reduces the potential for expansion sounds as
1¼”-1½” thickness of smooth regular concrete is the system warms and cools.
poured to cover the pipe and create a very effective
Figure 4-5 shows the general concept of a tube and
thermal mass. There are no structural or strength
plate system. Notice how the aluminum plates are
issues—the original slab takes care of that. The doors
shaped to fit the perimeter of the tubing. Heat trans-
have to be adjusted accordingly to accommodate the
ferred from the tubing to the trough portion of the plate
level increase.
conducts out along the “wings” of the plate. Because
aluminum is an excellent heat conductor, these
4-6 Tube & Plate Systems relatively thin plates can disperse across the floor
A concrete or gypsum slab acts as a “thermal wick” to almost as well as a slab yet at a tiny fraction of the
help spread the heat releases from the embedded weight and only about 1/2 the added floor height of a
tubing across the floor surface. However, there are thin-slab. They are a versatile component both for floor
heating systems as well as radiant walls and ceilings.

The heat is conducted to the plate from the pipe

and spreads along the flat "wings". The large contact
surface evenly conducts the heat to the floor.

plates used in joist space heating system

(below subfloor)
finished flooring

subfloor

pipe
heat transfer plate

plates used with sleeper system

(above subfloor) heat transfer plate pipe
finished flooring

spacer (sleeper)
subfloor

THE CONCEPT OF TUBE & PLATE SYSTEMS

Figure 4-5

43
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

Above Floor Tube & Plate Systems Here the tubing and plates are located on the top side
of the floor deck. The tubing can be run in virtually any
Figure 4-6 shows the installation of an “above floor”
direction. The system can be adapted to several types
tube and plate system.
of finish flooring, and is particularly well suited for
nailed down wood floor installations.

Figure 4-6

spacer heat transfer plate

pipe
(sleeper)
finished flooring

subfloor

floor underside insulation

joist

SLEEPER SYSTEM ON WOOD FRAMED FLOOR

above floor tube and plate

44
 SECTION 4 R ADIANT F LOOR H EATING M ETHODS

Installation Procedure: should be glued as well as nailed (or screwed) to the

subflooring.
Begin by fastening 5/8” - 3/4” plywood or oriented
strand board (OSB) “sleepers” to the floor. The Grooves for the return bends, as well as other curved
sleepers are placed to create 3/4” wide grooves into tubing paths can be formed by routering out the 3/4”
which the tubing and trough portion of the plates are plywood or OSB. Another way is to place triangular
recessed. To minimize any squeaks, the sleepers shaped spacers to support the secondary floor layer at

spacer
pipe
(sleeper)
finished flooring

subfloor

floor underside insulation

joist

SLEEPER SYSTEM ON WOOD FRAMED FLOOR

above floor tube

45
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

curved areas. limited amount of heat output can be provided. To

overcome this limitation, some manufacturers produce
The plates are set into the grooves with ends spaced
pre-routed plywood sheets with aluminum layer
about 1” apart. Pull each plate against one edge of the
attached to it to improve sideways transfer.
sleeper and tack it in place with two or three light
gauge staples on the same side (and only on this side). Below floor tube & plate systems
This allows the plate to expand as the tubing is pushed
It’s also possible to fasten the tubing and aluminum
into it as well as when the plate heats and cools.
heat dispersion plates against the bottom of the
Then tubing is laid out and pushed into the grooves in subfloor. Below floor tube and plate systems work well
the plates. Stepping on the tube as it aligns with the when raising the floor level is not an option. The
grooves ensures it is pushed all the way into the groove. concept is shown in figure 4-7.
It is NOT necessary to install silicone caulking into the The plate cradles the tubing against the subfloor as
troughs of the plates when installing Kitec PEX-AL-PEX well as disperses the heat across the floor to avoid
pipe. objectionable variations in floor surface temperatures.
Above floor tube and plate systems are ideal when The ideal installation conditions for this system would
nailed-down wood flooring will be installed. The be completely unobstructed floor joist cavities.
flooring can be placed directly over the tube and plates However this is often not what the installer has to deal
without needing an additional cover sheet. The flooring with. In some cases, plumbing, electrical, ducting or
should be installed with its long dimension perpen- other utilities may already be routed through the joist
dicular to the tubing. Nails can be driven through the cavities. This could make access to the underside of
heat transfer plates, through the sleepers and into the the subfloor difficult or even impossible. Always
subfloor. Be careful not to drive nails through the inspect the underside of the floor deck before
tubing on return bends or other areas when the tubing committing to a below floor tube & plate installation
is not visible as the flooring is laid. If the tubing needs method.
to run parallel to the flooring at times, it is best to drill
a shallow hole through the subfloor and route the
tubing through the floor framing where it is protected
against nail punctures. The tubing can also be
“plunged” beneath the subfloor and then routed up
through the bottom plate of a partition to connect to
the manifolds.
For other types of flooring, it is necessary to install a
thin 1/4” or 3/8” cover sheet over the tube and plates
to serve as a smooth stable substrate. Plywood is often
used as the cover sheet under vinyl flooring or carpet.
Cement board has also been used under ceramic tile.
All tubing circuits should be pressure tested prior to
installing the cover sheet. The tubing should remain
pressurized as the cover sheet is installed. Be careful
not to drive fasteners through the tubing when securing
the cover sheet.
The same concept of the sleeper system can be used
in low heat load installations, but without the heat
transfer plates—mostly for floor warming systems.
The wood structure is a poor conductor of heat so there
is limited heat transfer sideways. The relatively thin
layer directly above the pipe will allow a lot more heat
through than sideways. This results in large local
temperature differences depending on the position of
the pipe. This effect limits the amount of heat that can
be transferred without creating high temperature
“lines” on the floor surface.
The spacing used should be 6”-8” and again only a

46
 SECTION 4 R ADIANT F LOOR H EATING M ETHODS

Figure 4-7

heat transfer plate

pipe
finished flooring

subfloor

floor underside insulation

joist

JOIST SPACE HEATING

below floor tube and plate

47
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

With a below floor installation, the tubing is pulled into floor is also heated, use a minimum of R-11 underside
one joist cavity at a time and fastened up along with insulation. If the space below the floor is partially
the heat dispersion plates. The suggested installation heated, install a minimum of R-19 insulation. If the
sequence is depicted in figure 4-8. space below the heated floor is an unheated crawl
space, install a minimum of R-30 underside insulation.
The holes in the floor framing must be large enough for
Although these suggested underside R-values are
the tubing to be easily pulled through.
conservative, the installer should verify they meet or
As with thin-slab systems, it’s imperative to install exceed local energy code requirements.
underside insulation. When the space below the heated

THREADING pipe IN for joist space heating systems

Preparation:
Make a sketch of the floor surface and joists through which piping will be threaded and installed. Identify the
manifold location and route to the manifold for each pipe loop.
Measure the length of the floor joist and multiply the joist length by two. This defines the footage of pipe per
joist cavity when floor joists are installed on 10" through 18" centers. When floor joists are on 10" through 18"
centers, two runs of pipe are installed in each joist space. Three runs of pipe are installed in a joist space
when joists are spaced greater than 18" apart.
Calculate the number of joist spaces you can cover with the pipe coil length you are using. For example, if the
joist is installed on 18" centers and it is 20 feet long, multiply 20 x 2 to get 40 feet of pipe per cavity.
Assuming a 300 foot coil length, 7 joists cavities could be covered. BUT, remember that you need to allow for
the length of pipe running from the manifold and back again. In this example and depending on the manifold
location perhaps only 6 cavities can be filled.
Pre-drill holes in the floor joists through which pipes will run. Two 1/2" pipes require a 1-1/2" diameter hole,
while four 1/2" pipes require a 2" diameter hole. Holes should always be straight and aligned. Holes must be
drilled in the center of the floor joist and at least one foot away from the end of the joist support point.

This sketch shows the completed installation

from below. The following figures lead us
through a step by step process.

Figure 4-8

48
 SECTION 4 R ADIANT F LOOR H EATING M ETHODS

Pull pipe from the uncoiler and thread it

through the pipe holes making a loop in each
bay. The loops needn’t be too long, leave just
enough hanging from the joist that allows
you to handle the pipe. Leave the pipe end
hanging free in the last bay.

Return to the first bay. Pull

enough pipe from the
uncoiler to create a large
loop.

Move the slack from the first bay over to the

second bay, then over to the third, fourth, etc.,
until the last bay has enough pipe to run back to
the manifold and complete the pipe loop inside Keep moving the slack!
the bay itself.

49
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

Use the pipe from the last bay and run it

back to the manifold in the same joist holes
as the loops. If the slack in the last bay is
not sufficient to run back to the manifold,
feed more pipe from the uncoiler through the
bays until the desired length is achieved.
Attach the pipe to the manifold.

Ideally, you should leave enough pipe

hanging from the last bay to form the first
finished section of the floor. Lift the pipe
loop up into the joist space and begin
fastening the pipe to the subfloor. Always
start fastening the pipe on the side of the
loop that runs back to the manifold. If more
pipe is needed to complete the loop, it can
be fed from the neighboring joist space.

The slack in the last bay has disap-

peared and the pipe is now attached
to the subfloor. Move back to the first The installation is nearly
bay and pull more pipe from the complete! Once all bays are
uncoiler until a large amount of slack finished, measure the distance
exists. Transfer this slack through from the first bay to the manifold.
adjacent bays until it arrives in the Cut the correct length of pipe
second to last bay. Lift the slack up from the uncoiler making certain
and fasten the pipe in this joist space to leave enough pipe to connect
as before. Continue this process until to the manifold.
all joist spaces are complete.

This process involves a good deal of pipe threading, but it eliminates pipe kinks and reduces stress on the
pipe. Two people can work very effectively together with this installation method - one feeding pipe while the
other fastens pipe in the joist space.

50
 SECTION 4 R ADIANT F LOOR H EATING M ETHODS

For joists installed on greater than 18" centers, three runs of pipe are required in each joist space. The pipe
handling and installation technique is similar in concept to that described in steps 1 through 8. Create pipe
slack and transfer the slack to adjacent bays as before. Note in the following sketch however, that pipe enters
the bay at one end of the joist and exists at the opposite end in order to accommodate three runs of pipe.

51
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

4-7 Suspended tube systems points associated with installation of hardwood

flooring.
The ability of Kitec PEX-AL-PEX piping to handle
relatively high water temperatures makes it possible to Kitec PEX-AL-PEX piping is ideal for suspended tube
install a suspended tube system as depicted in systems. Its aluminum core provides the structure that
figure 4-9. prevents the tubing from sagging between supports
when operated with high water temperatures.
The tubing is placed within the air cavity between the
floor joists. The tubing gives off direct radiant energy to As with all floor heating systems, it’s imperative to
the surfaces within the joist cavity. The outside of the install underside insulation.
tubing also gives off heat to the surrounding air, estab- This must be a reflective insulation system meaning
lishing a gentle convective circulation within the joist that there is a shining reflective metal surface facing
cavities. The warm air flows across the underside of the the pipe. There has to be an air gap between the pipe
subfloor transferring more heat to it. and the reflective layer minimum 2” or more.
Suspended tube systems have some unique benefits. Foil faced batting insulation or the aforementioned
They don’t require heat dispersion plates and thus “bubble” insulation can be used. The “bubble”
reduce installation cost. They operate at high water insulation is different from the one used with concrete.
temperatures under design load conditions and thus The aluminum layer is exposed on one side minimum
can often be piped directly to a boiler without needing and is always facing the piping. The insulating layer
a mixing valve. When the tubing is suspended below can be one or two layers of plastic “bubble” depending
the subfloor, it is not subject to puncture from the nail on the amount of insulation required.

Figure 4-9

52
 SECTION 4 R ADIANT F LOOR H EATING M ETHODS

When the space below the heated floor is also heated, extra item pipe hanger or nail clip is used.
use a minimum of R-11 underside insulation. If the
In high heat load installations, the direct stapling to
space below the floor is partially heated, install a
the underside can result in high and low temperature
minimum of R-19 insulation. If the space below the
“lines” on the floor.
heated floor is an unheated crawl space, install a
minimum of R-30 underside insulation. Although these The fastest and easiest to install is the nail clip
suggested underside R-values are conservative, the method. They all have their advantages and
installer should verify they meet or exceed local energy disadvantages.
code requirements.
It’s possible to staple Kitec pipe directly against the
Threading the pipe into the joist space is identical to underside of the subflooring without using heat
the method explained under the section discussing dispersion plates. As discussed above this approach is
joist space heating with heat transfer plates. only suggested for low heating load situations such as
rooms that have minimal if any exterior exposure.
The fastening of the pipe is different in this case. There
Without either a slab or aluminum heat dispersion
are three main ways to secure the pipe; stapling to the
plates, the floor’s ability to spread the heat laterally
underside of the subfloor; using a pipe hanger to
away form the tubing is more limited. Still, when the
suspend the pipe in the joist cavity; or use a nail clip
design heat load of the space doesn’t exceed 15
to nail the pipe directly to the side of the joist.
Btu/hr/sqft, this installation method can deliver
Stapling to the floor is very simple, however the pipe is adequate heat output at reasonable water
close to the surface and can be punctured easily from temperatures.
above. The other two overcome this problem, but an

finished flooring

subfloor

pipe
reflective layer min. 2" air gap

floor
joist

underside insulation

JOIST SPACE HEATING

below floor tube stapled

finished flooring

subfloor
pipe in pipe hanger pipe hanger

reflective layer
min. 2" air gap
floor
joist

underside insulation

JOIST SPACE HEATING

below floor tube suspended

53
T HE IPEX M ANUAL OF M ODERN H YDRONICS

finished flooring

subfloor
pipe in pipe hanger pipe hanger

reflective layer min. 2" air gap

floor
joist
underside insulation stapled
inside the joist cavity

Reflective foil insulation (aluminum-bubble)

JOIST SPACE HEATING

below floor tube suspended

finished flooring

subfloor
pipe in pipe hanger pipe hanger

floor
joist
reflective layer

under side insulation stapled

to the bottom of the joists

Reflective foil insulation (aluminum-bubble)

JOIST SPACE HEATING

below floor tube suspended

finished flooring

subfloor
1"- 2" distance from floor

reflective layer
pipe mounted with nail clip min. 2" air gap

floor
joist
underside insulation

JOIST SPACE HEATING

below floor tube clipped to joist

54
 SECTION 4 R ADIANT F LOOR H EATING M ETHODS

In this chapter, we pointed out the effects of the floor The following image (figure 4-10) illustrates the heat
construction method on the radiant floor heating transfer process during joist space installation using
system. As a summary, it is probably fair to say that heat transfer plates or direct staple up.
piping can be fitted into any floor surface and there are
The image speaks for itself and gives very good reasons
numerous variations to fit the project circumstances. It
to consider using the heat transfer plates wherever it is
should also be clear that there are important differ-
possible.
ences between these methods and some are better
suited than the other for effective heat transfer.

Comparison of floor surface temperatures with and without heat transfer plates for 1/2" tubing
8" o.c., operated at 100ºF and 140ºF water temperatures

Figure 4-10

55