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Basic Concepts (Ch. 1, Krinitzky)

3 inputs in earthquake protection
1. Geological Evaluation
2. Seismological Evaluation
3. Engineering Evaluation
Geological Evaluation

The geologist undertakes to determine the potentialities of

earthquakes from the regional tectonics and the geologic structures.

The objectives of the geological examination are to identify the

source areas for earthquakes, to provide a rationale for assigning the
maximum size for those earthquakes , and to indicate possible time
frames for the recurrence of the earthquakes.

• The geologist uses certain premises to infer

the sources of earthquakes:

– Except due to volcanic activities, all earthquakes

are caused by movements on faults.

– Whether or not a fault will produce earthquake

can be judged by the recency of fault
movement. If a fault has moved recently, it will
move again.

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– The size of a potential maximum earthquake is

proportional to the size of the fault.

– A fault need not produce earthquakes of all

magnitude levels. A fault commonly produces one or
two sizes of large earthquakes that are characteristic
for that fault.

– Geologic evidence should be corroborated with

seismicity for interpreting potentials for earthquakes.

• Seismological Evaluation
Seismicity of a region means the level of tectonic activities.

The objective of the seismologist is to identify the sources of

future earthquakes. Additionally, the seismic evidence may
provide the following information:

1. Attenuation of the earthquake motions from the source to

the engineering site.
2. The spectral composition and the predominant period of the
earthquake motions.
3. The range in the values for peak motions.
4. The rates of recurrence of earthquakes of given magnitudes.

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• Engineering Evaluation
In the design stage or in the evaluation for retrofitting, the
engineer undertakes the the evaluation of earthquake hazards to
structures by making use of two general types of analyses:
pseudostatic and dynamic.

Pseudostatic Analysis - investigates the dynamic earthquake

loading by replacing the dynamic effect with a force that is
applied statically to a structure.

• Engineering Evaluation
Dynamic Analysis - tests a structure by applying a cyclical load
that approximates that of an earthquake as it would be felt at
the site. Two general approaches are used to specify the
earthquake motions :

1. The non-site-specific assignment of motions does not

require a geological-seismological evaluation for the site.
Peak values of accelerations and velocities are taken from
maps prepared for this purpose.
2. A site-specific evaluation begins with a geological-
seismological evaluation of earthquake sources and is
carried up to a specification of the time histories that will
be appropriate for the engineering site.

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CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

KRINITZSKY, CHAPTER 2

Causes of Earthquakes
• Earthquakes are generated by abrupt rock
slippages through a mechanism called elastic
rebound. Strain energy usually is built up slowly
in the earth’s crust through regional tectonism.
Relief comes when a rupture takes place in the
earth’s crust and there is a sudden release of
energy. The rupture takes place along a plane of
weakness , called fault. When the rupture occurs,
there is an elastic snapping back of the strained
rock. This produces a vibration that passes
through the earth, which we feel as earthquake.

THE CAUSE OF EARTHQUAKES –

The Elastic Rebound Theory

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The right-lateral strike-slip fault motion (depicted by white arrows and

evidenced by the offset masonry wall) pass through a collapsed
structure. Note that collapsed and standing structures adjacent to the
fault demonstrate both the severity of ground shaking and variation in
the quality of construction.

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PLATE TECTONICS

The earth’s crust is a mosaic of plates that are constantly in

motion: pulling apart from each other, override one
another, and slide past each other.

A coherent global explanation of the occurrence of the

majority of earthquakes is provided by the geological
model known as Plate Tectonics.

Earth’s outermost part (called the lithosphere) consists of

several large and fairly stable rock slabs called plates.

Each plate extends to a depth of about 100-200 km and

includes the Earth’s outermost rigid rocky layer, called the
crust.

Inside the earth Local convective currents in the mantle

(Source: Murty, C.V.R. “IITK-BMPTC Earthquake Tips.” Public domain,

National Information Centre of Earthquake Engineering. 2005.

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• Plate tectonics and seismicity

• The tectonic plates move causing straining

and fracturing of crustal rocks.
• Some plates descend or subduct into a
dipping zone beneath island arcs.
• many plates spread toward the subduction
zones at long-term geologic rates of from 2 to
5 cm (about one to two inches) per year.
• Others spread out of the crust along mid-
ocean ridges.
• The earthquakes in these tectonically active
boundary regions are called interplate
earthquakes.

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• Though plate-tectonic theory provides

understanding of earthquakes along plate
boundaries, seismic activity is also possible away
from these boundaries. These intraplate
earthquakes can be found in nearly every
continent.
• Earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of
elastic energy when a fault ruptures; i.e. opposite
sides rapidly slip in opposite directions.
• This slip does work in the form of heat and wave
radiation and allows the rock to rebound to a
position of less strain.

Two types of earthquake – interplate and intraplate

earthquakes

Plate boundary faults (interplate) :

a. are relatively longer,

b. have less stress drop,
c. longer duration of shaking,
d. have more frequent occurrence
than those of the intraplate.

The maximum magnitude of earthquakes are just as great

in the interiors as they are in the plate boundaries.

The difference is in the geographic spread and the

frequency of occurrence, with much greater activity along
the plate boundaries.

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Types of interplate boundaries

Movement of Faults
The following are a few ideas concerning fault
movements:
1. Faults are either active or inactive.
2. A fault may be active without producing earthquakes.
Active faults that produce earthquakes are called
capable faults.
3. Active faults should extend into crystalline basement
rocks if they are to build up the strain energy needed to
produce earthquakes strong enough to affect
engineering, (≥ M6.0).

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4. Existing faults are sufficient to accommodate

all interpreted earthquakes.
5. Fault ruptures commonly occur in the deep
subsurface with no ground breakage at the
surface.
6. Whether or not a fault will produce earthquakes
can be judged by the recency of previous
movements.
7. Geomorphic evidence of fault movement is
not always datable.
8. The size of a potential maximum earthquake on
a capable fault is relatable to the size of the fault.

9. Very large and capable faults do not produce

all sizes of earthquakes.
10. A long fault will not move along its entire
length at any one time.
11. Short, disconnected faults, often en echelon,
are probably continuous at depth, but their
surface expression may be modified by overlying
deposits.
12. Even in the best of circumstances, we cannot
assume that all faults have been found.

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Criticality of Seismic Evidence

In geologic time, earthquakes are possible in practically
every place on earth.

We have to give distinction between geologic time

and engineering time.

Geologic time is measured in tens of thousands of years,

hundreds of thousands of years and millions of years.

Engineering time is about 150 years for a dam; less for

hospitals or schools and only 40 years for nuclear power plants.

For engineering time, the most dependable measure for

earthquake assessment is what can be seen in the seismic records

Earthquake Terminology

epicentral distance
epicenter
observing station
Dip angle

Focal
fault plane depth

Focus or
hypocenter

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Earthquake classification
Classification according to depth
• Shallow earthquakes – focal depths less than
approximately 60 km.
• Intermediate – 60 to 300 km
• Deep – 300 to 700 km

Earthquake Measurement Parameters

The magnitude and intensity are the two very common
parameters used to represent the size (or strength) of
an earthquake.

Magnitude is a measure of the size of an earthquake related to

the total strain energy released.

Five types of Earthquake Magnitude:

1. Body Wave Magnitude (mb)

The mb magnitude is measured as the common logarithm displacement
amplitude in microns of the P-wave with period near one second.
Developed to measure the magnitude of deep focus earthquakes, which
do not ordinarily set up detectable surface waves with long periods.

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2. Local magnitude (ML)

The original magnitude definition by Richter. The magnitude of an

earthquake measured as the common logarithm of the displacement
amplitude, in microns, defined by a standard Wood-Anderson
seismograph located on firm ground 100 km from the epicenter and
having a magnification of 2800, a natural period of 0.8 second, and a
damping coefficient of 80%. The definition itself applies strictly only
to earthquakes having focal depths smaller than about 30 km.
Empirical charts and tables are available to correct to an epicentral
distance of 100 km for other types of seismographs and for various
conditions of the ground The correction charts are suitable up to
epicentral distances of about 600 km. The correction charts are site
dependent and have to be developed for each recording site.

3. Surface wave magnitude (MS)

This is measured as the common logarithm of the resultant of the
maximum mutually perpendicular horizontal displacement
amplitudes, in microns, of the 20-second period surface waves.
The scale was developed to measure the magnitude of shallow
focus earthquakes at relatively long distances. Magnitudes can be
assigned from any suitable instrument whose constants are
known.

4. Richter magnitude (M)

Richter magnitude is a general usage that is usually ML up to 5.9,
MS for 5.9 to about 8.0, and MW up to 8.3.

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5. Seismic Moment Magnitude (MW)

Defines magnitude based on the seismic moment Mo.

MW = 2/3 log Mo – 10.7

where Mo, the seismic moment, is computed as

Mo = G A D

where G = rigidity modulus

A = area of fault movement
D = average static displacement

The values are in dyne-cm units.

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Earthquake Measurement Parameters

Frequency of occurrence of earthquakes (based on observations
since 1900)

Earthquake Measurement Parameters

Magnitudes of Some Recent Damaging Earthquakes

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Earthquake Measurement Parameters

Intensity
A subjective numerical index describing the effects
of an earthquake on humans, on their structures,
and on the earth’s surface at a particular place. The
commonly used scale is the Modified Mercalli
Intensity scale.
It is expressed as a Roman numeral.

Earthquake Measurement Parameters

Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (MMI) of 1931

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MMI Scale (with descriptive name and equivalent magnitude)

An empirical relation between magnitude and maximum intensity was

proposed by Gutenberg and Richter:

The PHIVOLCS’ Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)

Intensity
Description
Scale

I Scarcely Perceptible

II Slightly Felt - Felt by few individuals at rest indoors. Hanging objects swing slightly. Still Water in containers oscillates noticeably.

III Weak - Felt by many people indoors especially in upper floors of buildings…Still water in containers oscillates moderately.

IV Moderately Strong - Felt generally by people indoors and by some people outdoors. Light sleepers are awakened.

V Strong - Generally felt by most people indoors and outdoors. Many sleeping people are awakened.

VI Very Strong - Many people are frightened; run outdoors. Some people lose their balance. Very old or poorly built houses and man-
made structures are slightly damaged though well-built structures are not affected.

VII Destructive - Most people frightened and run outdoors. Old or poorly-built structures suffer considerably damage. Some well-built
structures are slightly damaged. Limited liquefaction, lateral spreading and landslides are observed.

Very Destructive - People panicky. People find it difficult to stand even outdoors. Many well-built buildings are considerably
VIII damaged. Water and sewer pipes may be bent, twisted or broken. Liquefaction and lateral spreading cause man- made structure to
sink, tilt or topple. Numerous landslides and rockfalls occur in mountainous and hilly areas. Boulders are thrown out from their
positions particularly near the epicenter. Fissures and faults rapture may be observed. Trees are violently shaken.

Devastating - People forcibly thrown to ground. Many cry and shake with fear. Most buildings are totally damaged. bridges and
IX elevated concrete structures are toppled or destroyed. Water sewer pipes are bent, twisted or broken. Landslides and liquefaction
with lateral spreadings and sandboils are widespread. the ground is distorted into undulations. Trees are shaken very violently with
some toppled or broken. Boulders are commonly thrown out. River water splashes violently on slops over dikes and banks.

Completely Devastating - Practically all man-made structures are destroyed. Massive landslides and liquefaction, large scale
X subsidence and uplifting of land forms and many ground fissures are observed. Changes in river courses and destructive seiches in
large lakes occur. Many trees are toppled, broken and uprooted.

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Other important earthquake measurement parameters are

the measured ground motions at the ground surface. These
are:

Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA)

Peak Ground Velocity (PGV)
Peak Ground Displacement (PGD)

Out of these, PGA has become the most popular parameter to denote the
measure of an earthquake and has been related to the magnitude
through several empirical relationships.

The PGA at a site depends not only on the magnitude and epicentral
distance of the earthquake, but also on the regional geological
characteristics. Therefore, the empirical constants are derived from the
measured earthquake data in the region. As the PGA value decreases with
the epicentral distance, these empirical relationships are also called
attenuation laws.

Other definitions:
Maximum possible earthquake – the largest earthquake that
can be postulated to occur; Conceptual only. Probable range of
magnitude: 8.7 to 9.5.

Maximum Credible Earthquake (MCE) – the largest earthquake

that can be reasonably expected to occur at a given site.

Design Basis Earthquake (DBE) – same as MCE

Operating Basis Earthquake (OBE) – The earthquake for which

the structure is designed to remain operational.

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Seismic Waves
The large strain energy released during an earthquake causes
radial propagation of waves within the earth (as it is an
elastic mass) in all directions.

These elastic waves, called seismic waves, transmit energy

from one point of earth to another through different layers
and finally carry the energy to the surface, which causes the
destruction.

Within the earth, the elastic waves propagate through an

almost unbounded, isotropic, and homogeneous media,
and form what are known as body waves.

On the surface, these waves propagate as surface waves.

Reflection and refraction of waves take place near the
earth’s surface and at every layer within the earth.

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Seismic Waves
• Body waves
– P-wave
– S-wave
• Surface Waves
– Love wave
– Rayleigh wave

P-wave
• Also known as the primary wave, compressional
wave, or longitudinal wave.
• Causes a series of compressions and dilations of the
materials through which it travels.
• Fastest wave & the first to arrive at a site.
• Can travel through both solids and liquids.
• Usually has the least impact on ground surface
movements.

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P-wave

Source: http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDemo.htm

S-wave
• Known as the secondary wave, shear wave, or
transverse wave.
• Causes shearing deformations of the materials
through which it travels.
• Only travel through solids.
• Travels more slowly through the ground than a P
wave.
• Typically have the greatest impact on ground surface
movements.

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S-wave

Source: http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDemo.htm

Love wave
• Love waves are analogous to S waves in that they are
transverse shear waves that travel close to the ground surface
• They are largest at the surface and decrease in amplitude with
depth.
• Depth of penetration is also dependent on frequency, with
lower frequencies penetrating to greater depth
• In L waves, particle motion takes place in the horizontal plane
only and it is transverse to the direction of propagation. The
wave velocity depends on the wavelength, the thickness of
the upper layer, and the elastic properties of the two
mediums of the stratified layers. L waves travel faster than R
waves and are the first to appear among the surface wave
group.

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Love wave

Source: http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDemo.htm

Rayleigh wave
• Rayleigh waves produce both vertical and horizontal
displacement of the ground as the surface waves
propagate outward.
• Appearance and particle motion are similar to water
waves.
• Generally, Rayleigh waves travel slightly slower than Love
waves.
• In R waves, the particle motion is always in a vertical
plane and traces an elliptical path, which is retrograde to
the direction of wave propagation. The R wave velocity is
approximately 0.9 times the transverse wave velocity. In
stratified layers, R waves become dispersive (wave
velocity varying with frequency), as with the L waves.

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Rayleigh wave

Source: http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDemo.htm

Wave propagation

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