5/19/2024

3. DISCRETE SYSTEMS
Outline
This section covers:
Sampling, data extrapolators and spectral
characteristics;
Impulse in variance and hold equivalent;
Design of Z-transform and Z-transform inversion;
Pulse transfer functions and block manipulation;
Stability and damping;
Discrete compensator realization design examples;
Bilinear transformation; root space.
Frequency domain identification using least squares.

EEE 2502 Control Engineering III Lecture Notes by Dr. Linus. A. Aloo
5/19/2024 1

3. DISCRETE SYSTEMS
3.1. Structure of digital control systems
Fig. 3.1 shows a block diagram of
a single-loop digital control
system(DCS). This is also called
a discrete control system or a
sampled data control system
of a digital computer
compensator.
 Digital control system uses
digital signals and a digital
computer to control a process. Fig. 3.1 Block diagram of a digital control system.

 An ADC converter transforms measurement data from analog form to digital form.
 After processing the discretized inputs, the digital computer provides an output in
digital form which in turn must be converted to analog form by the DAC converter to
drive the process via an actuator.
EEE 2502 Control Engineering III Lecture Notes by Dr. Linus. A. Aloo
5/19/2024 2

1
 5/19/2024

3. DISCRETE SYSTEMS
3.2. Practical Examples of digital control systems
 Industrial examples of digital
control systems INCLUDE:

1. Closed-loop drug delivery

system whose block diagram
is shown in Fig. 3.2a.
2. Computer control of an
aircraft turbojet engine.
3. Control of a robotic
manipulator which are now
widely used in
manufacturing processes Fig.3.2. a) Block diagram of a drug delivery system.
such as spot welding and
painting.

EEE 2502 Control Engineering III Lecture Notes by Dr. Linus. A. Aloo
5/19/2024 3

3. DISCRETE SYSTEMS
3.3. Sampled-Data Systems
 Let us assume that all the discrete
signals (numbers) that enter or
leave the digital computer do so
over a fixed time period 𝑇 called
the sampling period.
 For example, the reference input
shown in Fig. 3.3 is a sequence of
sample values 𝑟(𝑘𝑇.
 The variables 𝑟(𝑘𝑇) , 𝑚(𝑘𝑇) , and
𝑢(𝑘𝑇) are discrete signals in
contrast to 𝑚(𝑡) and 𝑦(𝑡) which are
continuous functions of time. Fig.3.3. Sampled Data Control System (A digital Control system)

Sampled data (or a discrete signal) refers to data obtained for the
system variables only at discrete intervals and denoted as 𝑥(𝑘𝑇).
A system where part of it uses sampled data is called a sampled-data system.
EEE 2502 Control Engineering III Lecture Notes by Dr. Linus. A. Aloo
5/19/2024 4

2
 5/19/2024

3. DISCRETE SYSTEMS
3.3. Sampled-Data Systems
SAMPLER
 A sampler is basically a switch
that closes every T secs for one
instant of time. Fig. 3.4 A sampler
 The sampler (i.e. an A/D
converter) is represented by a
switch symbol-Fig. 3.4.
 The ideal sample 𝑓 ∗ (𝑡) of a
continuous signal 𝑓(𝑡) is a series
of impulses of zero width
separated by sampling time T
seconds as shown in Fig. 3.5.
 The sampled signal is represented by
equation (3.1).

𝑓∗ 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇 (3.1)

where 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇 is the unit impulse

function occurring at 𝑡 = 𝑘𝑇. Fig. 3.5. The sampling process
EEE 2502 Control Engineering III Lecture Notes by Dr. Linus. A. Aloo
5/19/2024 5

3. DISCRETE SYSTEMS
3.3. Sampled-Data Systems: Z.O.H
 A hold device, such as the zero-order hold (D/A
converter), connected as in Fig.3.6, can be used to
reconstruct 𝑓(𝑡) approximately from 𝑓 ∗ 𝑡 .
 Fig. 3.7. shows that a zero-order hold (Z.O.H)
converts a series of impulses into a series of
Fig. 3.6 Ideal sampling and zero-hold device
pulses of width T.
 Thus a unit impulse at time t is converted into a
pulse of width T.
 This can be obtained from a positive unit step
at time t, followed by a negative unit step at
time (t-T), that’s delayed by T.

The transfer function for a Z.O.H is

1 1
ℒ𝑓 𝑡 = − 𝑒
𝑠 𝑠

1−𝑒 Fig. 3.7 Construction of a continuous signal using a zero-order hold

𝐺 𝑠 = (3.2)
𝑠
EEE 2502 Control Engineering III Lecture Notes by Dr. Linus. A. Aloo
5/19/2024 6

3
 5/19/2024

3. DISCRETE SYSTEMS
3.4. The z-transform
 The z-transform is the main analytical tool for SISO discrete-time systems.
 The symbol z is associated with the transformation and is used to denote a discrete time shifting
in a difference equation.
 If we take the Laplace transforms of the ideal sampled signal equation (3.1), gives

𝐹∗ 𝑠 = ℒ 𝑓 ∗ 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 𝑒 (3.3)

Or

𝐹∗ 𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 𝑒 ( ) (3.4)

Letting 𝑧=𝑒 (3.5)

Then 𝐹 𝑧 =∑ 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 𝑧 = 𝑍[𝑓(𝑡)] (3.6)

which can be represented in long-hand form as in eqn. (3.7).

𝐹 𝑧 =𝑓 0 +𝑓 𝑇 𝑧 + 𝑓 2𝑇 𝑧 + 𝑓 3𝑇 𝑧 + ⋯ . + 𝑓(𝑘𝑇)𝑧 (3.7)
EEE 2502 Control Engineering III Lecture Notes by Dr. Linus. A. Aloo
5/19/2024 7

3. DISCRETE SYSTEMS
3.4. The z-transform
z-transform Theorems:

(a)Linearity
𝑍 𝑓 𝑡 ±𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑧 ± 𝐹 (𝑧) (3.8)

(a)Initial Value Theorem

𝑓 0 = lim 𝐹(𝑧) (3.9)
→
(a)Final Value Theorem
𝑧−1
𝑓 ∞ = lim[( ) 𝐹(𝑧) (3.10)
→ 𝑧

 Table 3.1 presents Laplace and z-transforms of common functions. These can
all be proven from first principles (eqns. 3.6 and 3.7) as illustrated in example
3.1.
EEE 2502 Control Engineering III Lecture Notes by Dr. Linus. A. Aloo
5/19/2024 8

4
 5/19/2024

3. DISCRETE SYSTEMS
Table 3.1 Partial Table of Laplace and z-transforms

EEE 2502 Control Engineering III Lecture Notes by Dr. Linus. A. Aloo
5/19/2024 9

3. DISCRETE SYSTEMS
Examples 3.1: Obtaining z-transform from time function
Find the z-transform of the unit step function 𝑓 𝑡 = 1.
Solution
From eqns. (3.6) and (3.7)

𝑍[1(𝑡)] = 1 𝑘𝑇 𝑧 (3.11)

or
𝐹 𝑧 = 1+𝑧 +𝑧 + ⋯ . +𝑧 (3.12)
Fig.3.8 z-transform of sampled unit step function
The closed loop form of eqn. (3.12) is given by eqn. Eqns. (3.12) and (3.13) can be proved through long division:
(3.13) while its graphical representation is shown in
Fig.3.8. 1+𝑧 +𝑧 +⋯
𝑧−1 𝑧 0 0
𝑧 1 𝑧−1
𝑍1 𝑡 = = (3.13)
𝑧−1 1−𝑧 0+1
1−𝑧
0+𝑧
𝑧 −𝑧
EEE 2502 Control Engineering III Lecture Notes by Dr. Linus. A. Aloo
5/19/2024 10

5
 5/19/2024

3. DISCRETE SYSTEMS
3.5. The Inverse z-transform
 We have seen that any function of 𝑠, 𝐹 ∗ 𝑠 representing a sampled
time waveform can be transformed into a function of 𝑧, 𝐹 𝑧 which
can then be converted into closed form.
 Here, we learn how to do the reverse by obtaining the time function
or a discrete time response from the z-transform of the function.
 This can be achieved through the following methods:
(1) partial-fraction expansion
(2) the power series method and
(3) Difference equation method.
 The first two methods are presented.

EEE 2502 Control Engineering III Lecture Notes by Dr. Linus. A. Aloo
5/19/2024 11

3. DISCRETE SYSTEMS
3.5. The Inverse z-transform

Inverse z-Transforms via Partial-Fraction Expansion.

 Given a function 𝐹 𝑧 , first form 𝐹 𝑧 /𝑧 and then determine the
Partial-Fraction Expansion of the formulated function𝐹 𝑧 /𝑧.
 Finally, multiply the result by 𝑧 and then use the z-transform table
3.1 to write the time function 𝑓(𝑘𝑇).
 Obtain the ideal sampled waveform 𝑓 ∗ 𝑡 using eqn. (3.1) for the
required samples.

EEE 2502 Control Engineering III Lecture Notes by Dr. Linus. A. Aloo
5/19/2024 12

6
 5/19/2024

3. DISCRETE SYSTEMS
3.5. The Inverse z-transform
Inverse z-Transform via Power Series.
 In this method, the values of the sampled time waveform are
obtained directly from 𝐹 𝑧 by performing the indicated division,
which creates an infinite power series for 𝐹 𝑧 .
 The power series can easily be converted into 𝐹 ∗ 𝑠 and 𝑓 ∗ 𝑡 .
 This method is useful in plotting 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 but it does not give the
closed-form expressions for 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 .

EEE 2502 Control Engineering III Lecture Notes by Dr. Linus. A. Aloo
5/19/2024 13

3. DISCRETE SYSTEMS
3.5. The Inverse z-transform
Example 3.2.
Given the function in Eq. (3.14), find the sampled time function using (i) Partial-
Fraction Expansion and (ii) the Power Series Method.
0.5𝑧
𝐹(𝑧) = (3.14)
(𝑧 − 0.5)(𝑧 − 0.7)
Solution
(i) Partial-Fraction Expansion
Start by dividing Eq. (3.14) by z and performing a partial-fraction expansion to get:

𝐹 𝑧 0.5 𝐴 𝐵 −2.5 2.5

= = + = + (3.15)
𝑧 (𝑧 − 0.5)(𝑧 − 0.7) 𝑧 − 0.5 𝑧 − 0.7 𝑧 − 0.5 𝑧 − 0.7

Next, multiply through by z.

−2.5𝑧 2.5𝑧
𝐹 𝑧 = + (3.16)
𝑧 − 0.5 𝑧 − 0.7
EEE 2502 Control Engineering III Lecture Notes by Dr. Linus. A. Aloo
5/19/2024 14

7
 5/19/2024

3. DISCRETE SYSTEMS
3.5. The Inverse z-transform
Table 3.1, is used to find the inverse z-transform of each partial fraction.

𝑧
𝑒 ←𝑒 ← (3.17)
→ →𝑧 − 𝑒

Thus, the value of the time function at the sampling instants is

𝑓 𝑘𝑇 = −2.5 0.5 + 2.5 0.7 (3.18)

Using eqn. (3.18) in eqn. (3.1), we get the ideal sampled function as

𝑓∗ 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑓[−2.5 0.5 + 2.5 0.7 ] 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇 (3.19)

For the 1st 4 samples of the ideal sampled time waveform, substitute 𝑘 = 0; 1; 2, and 3, to get

𝑓 ∗ 𝑡 = 0𝛿 𝑡 + 0.5 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑇 + 0.6 𝛿 𝑡 − 2𝑇 + 0.545 𝛿 𝑡 − 3𝑇 (3.20)

EEE 2502 Control Engineering III Lecture Notes by Dr. Linus. A. Aloo
5/19/2024 15

3. DISCRETE SYSTEMS
3.5. The Inverse z-transform
(i) Power Series Method.
First convert the numerator and denominator of 𝐹(𝑧) to polynomials in z.
0.5𝑧 0.5𝑧
𝐹 𝑧 = = (3.21)
𝑧 − 0.5 𝑧 − 0.7 𝑧 − 1.2𝑧 + 0.35
Next, perform the indicated division.
0.5𝑧 + 0.6𝑧 + 0.545𝑧 + 0.444𝑧 …
𝑧 − 1.2𝑧 + 0.35|0.5𝑧
0.5𝑧 − 0.6 + 0.175𝑧
0.6 − 0.175𝑧
0.6 − 0.720𝑧 + 0.21𝑧
0.545𝑧 − 0.21𝑧
0.545𝑧 − 0.654𝑧 + 0.1905𝑧
0.444z − 0.1905z 3.22
Utilizing the numerator and the definition of z, generates
𝐹 ∗ 𝑠 = 0.5𝑒 + 0.6𝑒 + 0.545𝑒 + 0.444𝑒 … … (3.23)
from which
𝑓 ∗ 𝑡 = 0.5 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑇 + 0.6 𝛿 𝑡 − 2𝑇 + 0.545 𝛿 𝑡 − 3𝑇 + 0.444 𝛿 𝑡 − 4𝑇 (3.24)
EEE 2502 Control Engineering III Lecture Notes by Dr. Linus. A. Aloo
5/19/2024 16

8
 5/19/2024

3. DISCRETE SYSTEMS
3.5. The Inverse z-transform
Practice Exercise 3.2.
1. Find the z-transform of a sampled unit ramp.
2. Derive the z-transform for 𝑓 𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 .

𝑧 sin(𝜔𝑇)
𝐀𝐧𝐬. 𝐹 𝑧 =
1 − 2𝑧 cos(𝜔𝑇) + 𝑧
3. Using Partial fractions expansion and Power series method, obtain the inverse z-transform of
the function
𝑧+1
𝐹 𝑧 =
𝑧 + 0.3𝑧 + 0.02

3. A sampled-data system has a transfer function

1
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠+1
If the sampling time is one second and the system is subject to a unit step input function,
determine the discrete time response using a) Infinite power series method and b) Difference
equation method.
EEE 2502 Control Engineering III Lecture Notes by Dr. Linus. A. Aloo
5/19/2024 17