Lecture ONE

History of Radiobiology

In 1895, the German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovered “a new kind of ray,”
emitted by a gas discharge tube, that could blacken photographic film contained in light-
tight containers.

He called these rays “x-rays” in his first announcement in December 1895—the x

representing the unknown.

In demonstrating the properties of x-rays at a public lecture, Röntgen asked Rudolf Albert
von Kölliker, a prominent Swiss professor of anatomy, to put his hand in the beam and so
produced the first publicly taken radiograph.

The first medical use of x-rays was reported in the Lancet of January 23, 1896.

In this report, x-rays were used to locate a piece of a knife in the backbone of a drunken
sailor, who was paralyzed until the fragment was removed following its location.

1896, Leopold Freund, an Austrian surgeon, demonstrated before the Vienna Medical
Society the disappearance of a hairy mole following treatment with x-rays.

Antoine Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity emitted by uranium compounds in 1896,

and 2 years later, Pierre and Marie Curie isolated the radioactive elements polonium and
radium.

Within a few years, radium was used for the treatment of cancer.

The first recorded biologic effect of radiation was due to Becquerel, who inadvertently left a
radium container in his vest pocket.

He subsequently described the skin erythema that appeared 2 weeks later and the
ulceration that developed and that required several weeks to heal.

Radiobiology is the study of the action of ionizing radiations on living things. As such, it
inevitably involves a certain amount of radiation physics.

Types of Ionizing Radiation

The absorption of energy from radiation in biologic material may lead to excitation or to
ionization.

The raising of an electron in an atom or molecule to a higher energy level without actual
ejection of the electron is called excitation.

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If the radiation has sufficient energy to eject one or more orbital electrons from the atom or
molecule, the process is called ionization, and that radiation is said to be ionizing radiation.

The important characteristic of ionizing radiation is the localized release of large amounts of
energy.

The energy dissipated per ionizing event is about 33 eV, which is more than enough to break
a strong chemical bond; for example, the energy associated with a C=C bond is 4.9 eV.

For convenience, it is usual to classify ionizing radiations as either electromagnetic or

particulate.

Electromagnetic Radiations

Most experiments with biologic systems have involved x- or -rays, two forms of
electromagnetic radiation. X- and -rays do not differ in nature or in properties; the
designation of x- or -rays reflects the ways they are produced.

X-rays are produced extranuclearly; 􏰀-rays are produced intranuclearly.

In practical terms, this means that x-rays are produced in an electrical device that
accelerates electrons to high energy and then stops them abruptly in a target usually made
of tungsten or gold.

Part of the kinetic energy (the energy of motion) of the electrons is converted to x-rays.

On the other hand, -rays are emitted by radioactive isotopes; they represent excess energy
that is given off as the unstable nucleus breaks up and decays in its efforts to reach a stable
form.

Natural background radiation from rocks in the earth also includes 􏰀-rays.

Particulate Radiations

Other types of radiation that occur in nature and that are also used experimentally are
electrons, protons, 􏰃-particles, neutrons, negative 􏰄-mesons, and heavy charged ions.

Electrons are small, negatively charged particles that can be accelerated to high energy to a
speed close to that of light by means of an electrical device, such as a betatron or linear
accelerator.

They are widely used for cancer therapy.

Protons are positively charged particles and are relatively massive, having a mass almost
2,000 times greater than that of an electron.

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Because of their mass, they require more complex and more expensive equipment, such as
a cyclotron, to accelerate them to useful energies, but they are increasingly used for cancer
treatment in specialized centers because of their favorable dose distribution.

In nature, the earth is showered with protons from the sun, which represent a component
of natural background radiation.
We are protected on earth to a large extent by the earth’s atmosphere.

􏰃-particles are nuclei of helium atoms and consist of two protons and two neutrons in
close association.

They have a net positive charge and, therefore, can be accelerated in large electrical devices
similar to those used for protons.

-particles are also emitted during the decay of heavy, naturally occurring radionuclides,
such as uranium and radium. 􏰃

-particles are the major source of natural background radiation to the general public.

Radon gas seeps out of the soil and builds up inside houses, where, together with its decay
products, it is breathed in and irradiates the lining of the lung.

It is estimated that 10,000 to 20,000 cases of lung cancer are caused each year by this
means in the United States, mostly in smokers.

Neutrons are particles with a mass similar to that of protons, but they carry no electrical
charge.

Because they are electrically neutral, they cannot be accelerated in an electrical device.

They are produced if a charged particle is accelerated to high energy and then made to
impinge on a suitable target material.

Neutrons are also emitted as a by-product if heavy radioactive atoms undergo fission; that
is, a split to form two smaller atoms.

Consequently, neutrons are present in large quantities in nuclear reactors and are emit- ted
by some artificial heavy radionuclides.

They are also an important component of space radiation and contribute significantly to the
exposure of passengers and crews of high-flying jetliners.

ABSORPTION OF X-RAYS