Assignment No: 1

Semester 1st : Spring 2023

Subject: General Methods of Teaching
Course Code: 8601
Programme: B.ED (1.5 years)

Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad

Submitted to: Khizar Hayat
Submitted by: Arbab Butt
Student ID: 0000442965

(Unit 1-4)
Question NO: 1

Reflect some common qualities of primary teacher.

Why are these qualities required for effective classroom learning?

Answer: Primary school teachers teach the range of primary school

subjects to children aged 4 to 12 years. Most places in the world classify
primary school as children from newborns to age Skills for a primary
school teacher.

Skills in primary teacher:

Primary school teachers need a strong set of skills that can inform their
work as educators and as professionals who work with children. One
particularly important skill for primary teachers to have is patience as
working with young students can present unforeseen circumstances
that teachers have to respond to carefully and thoughtfully. Primary
school teachers can also benefit from having strong leadership skills
because they often act as role models for their students, and much of
their job involves leading the children they teach through activities and
events.

Teaching ability in primary teacher:

Teaching ability is another crucial skill for a primary teacher to develop
as they need to be effective educators to teach their students
successfully. The same applies to organization as most teachers take
complete control of their lesson plans and daily activity schedules. Here
are a few more skills you might need as a primary school teacher:
  Basic knowledge of subjects like language, math, science and
social studies
 Creativity
 Teamwork
 Self-discipline
 Communication
 Critical thinking
 Decision-making
 Problem solving or from preschool through third grade. However
some districts might include up to fifth grade in their primary
education program.

What does a primary school teacher do?

A primary school teacher main responsibility is to instruct children in

early grade levels. This usually involves being in a classroom each day
during the week and leading classes through planned activities and
lessons. As primary school teachers work with young children they also
have to plan their lessons thoroughly when they are not in the
classroom to ensure that they have structured educational activities
ready for each lesson that are also entertaining and keep students
engaged.

Common qualities of primary teacher:

1. Ability to Connect with Students
One of the most important skills a good primary teacher
possesses is the ability to connect with her students. Make an
effort to get to know each student by name and to know
something about him as quickly as possible. Each student has his
own strengths and weaknesses and being able to make a
 connection with each one will help a teacher be able to educate
most effectively.
2. Sense of humor
A primary school teacher is usually responsible for a couple of dozen
young children for many hours every weekday. The only way to manage
the stress of dealing with educating a classroom full of students is to
keep a sense of humor. A good primary school teacher is able to laugh
at herself, inject humor into the classroom and manage problems
without getting too caught up in negative emotions.

3. Values Academic Inquiry

The hallmark of a good primary school teacher is the value he places on

academic inquiry. He makes "there are no stupid questions" a rule in his
classroom and encourages students to ask lots of questions and explore
academics with curiosity and a sense of exploration. He moves beyond
straight lecturing or reading out of textbooks and brings in a wide range
of resources that engage his students' curiosity.

4. Excellent Organizational Skills

With so many small children and their education in her care, it is highly
important for a good primary school teacher to be organized. There is
no other way to keep track of what each student needs academically
stay on top of a multitude of projects and keep her sanity at the same
time. She has the ability to stay organized throughout her day to
manage her time and to put her hands on the materials she needs
easily.

5. Patience
They say patience is a virtue, when working with young children it is
more like a requirement! There will be messes, tears and tantrums the
things that invariably follow when you gather a lot of young children
together. A good primary teacher needs to be able to take all of this in
their stride.

6. Caring
When working with primary-aged children there is a good chance that
you might be the most important adult in their life outside of their
parents. A kind word and a smile can make a child day. Really caring
about the children in your class will not only make it easier for you to
connect teach them it will also make your job that much more fulfilling
as you watch them develop and grow in your class.

7.Confidence Building
For a lot of children going to school is the first time that they find out
their potential: what they are good at and also what they are not so
good at. It’s important for a good primary teacher to encourage pupils
and help them improve in all areas. They need have the confidence to
stick at things that they may initially find difficult.

8. Passionate
The best primary school teachers tap into the natural enthusiasm that
most children have at that age with engaging lesson plans. If you teach
with real passion not only will the children learning rate be improved,
the job will also be more fulfilling for you.

9. Organised
With anything up to 30 young children in a class that all need attention
good organisation skills are incredibly important. Having your lessons
brings rather than also trying to improvise.

10. Forgiving
The effective teachers reflect a willingness to forgive students for
misbehavior. For example if a student repeatedly asks irrelevant
questions and detracts others from the lesson. The teacher can simply
say the question is irrelevant and direct the student for further study.

11. Respect
The teachers desire be respected by their students. The teachers who
give respect to their students are always respected by them. Effective
teachers can train their students be respectful by many ways such as,
he can keep individual grades on papers confidentially, or can speak to
students privately after misbehavior not in front of others. Good
teachers show sensitivity for feelings and consistently avoid situations
that unnecessarily make students uncomfortable.

12. High expectations

Teachers with positive attitudes also possess high expectations for
success. Teachers’ expectation levels affect the ways in which teachers
teach and interact with students. Generally, students either rise to their
teachers’ expectations or do not perform well when expectations are
low or non-existent. The best teachers have the highest standards. They
consistently challenge their students to do their best.
Why these qualities are required
Teaching and learning process can be influenced by the teacher's
personality and mentality either positively or negatively. If the teacher
has positive traits in his personality as being a passion, patient
cooperative, and authoritative, he will be a successful teacher and he
could get his students' satisfaction. There is no job quite like Primary
School teaching, and if you can bring these qualities into the classroom
then you’re sure to have a fulfilling role.

Question no: 2
1. Write down the five merits of lesson planning for
the teachers.
Answer : A lesson plan is a road map of the instructions. It
shows what will be taught and how it will be done effectively
during the class time. Teachers require a lesson plan to describe
their course of instruction for one class. The lesson plan is
necessary to guide the instruction. A lesson plan is required to
describe the preferences of the, subject being covered, activities
being held in the class, and to ensure the progress of the students
about the lesson being taught to them. A well-developed lesson
plan reflects the interests and needs of students.

Lesson planning is beneficial for the teacher in many ways; such as:

• It helps in achieving goals and objectives, and same can be said on the
part of the students.
• It helps to get rid of problems or avoid them.

• It gives a reality check of everyday performance.

• It improves the habit and attitude of the students.

• It improves the teaching skills.

• It makes teaching ordinary and easy.

• It makes the teacher organized during teaching.

• Lesson planning determines when to include the interesting facts to

attract the students’ attention.

• It enables the teacher to impart the things the students can do at the
best of their abilities.

Merits of lesson planning

1. Clarity and Focus:

One of the primary merits of lesson planning is that it provides teachers
with clarity and focus. By outlining the learning objectives, content, and
teaching strategies beforehand, educators can ensure that their lessons
are well-structured and purposeful. Clear objectives help teachers to
maintain a sense of direction throughout the lesson and avoid
unnecessary digressions. Moreover, a well-planned lesson allows
teachers to identify key concepts and essential skills, enabling them to
deliver the content in a coherent and logical manner. This clarity and
focus contribute to a more organized classroom environment and
promote efficient learning experiences for students.
2. Differentiation and Personalization:
Lesson planning allows teachers to incorporate differentiation and
personalization strategies to meet the diverse needs of their students.
By carefully analyzing their learners' abilities, interests, and learning
styles, educators can design instructional activities that cater to
individual differences. Lesson plans provide a framework for integrating
various teaching methodologies, such as cooperative learning, small-
group discussions, or individualized assignments. This deliberate
planning ensures that students receive the necessary support and
challenges appropriate for their individual learning journeys. By
addressing the unique requirements of each student, lesson planning
facilitates an inclusive classroom environment where every learner can
thrive.

3. Assessment and Evaluation:

Effective lesson planning incorporates assessment and evaluation
methods to gauge student progress and learning outcomes. By aligning
instructional activities with specific learning objectives, teachers can
design formative and summative assessments that accurately measure
students' understanding of the content. Lesson plans provide teachers
with opportunities to consider different types of assessment, such as
quizzes, projects, presentations, or group activities. These assessments
not only provide teachers with valuable insights into student
comprehension but also help them identify areas that require further
reinforcement. By integrating assessment within the lesson planning
process, teachers can make data-driven instructional decisions to
enhance student learning outcomes.
4. Time Management and Efficiency:
Lesson planning allows teachers to manage their time effectively and
ensure optimal use of instructional hours. By carefully allocating time
for each activity within the lesson, teachers can maintain a balanced
pace and prevent unnecessary rushes or lulls. Lesson plans help
educators estimate the duration required for each task, allowing them
to allocate adequate time for student engagement, discussions,
transitions, and closure. Moreover, teachers can anticipate potential
challenges or questions that may arise during the lesson and prepare
suitable responses in advance. This proactive approach to time
management fosters a productive classroom environment, enabling
teachers to cover the intended curriculum and maximize instructional
time.

5. Reflection and Professional Growth:

The process of lesson planning encourages teachers to reflect on their
instructional practices and engage in continuous professional growth.
After delivering a lesson, teachers can reflect on its effectiveness,
identifying strengths and areas for improvement. Lesson plans serve as
a reference point for this reflection, helping educators analyze the
impact of different strategies and activities on student learning. By
regularly reviewing and revising their lesson plans, teachers can refine
their teaching methodologies, explore new instructional approaches,
and incorporate feedback received from students and colleagues. This
reflective practice promotes ongoing professional development,
allowing teachers to enhance their instructional skills and adapt their
teaching strategies to meet evolving educational needs.
Conclusion:
Lesson planning is a fundamental component of effective teaching that
offers numerous merits for teachers. By providing clarity and focus,
lesson planning enables educators to deliver well-structured lessons
that address specific learning objectives. By recognizing the merits of
lesson planning, teachers can enhance their teaching effectiveness and
create meaningful and engaging learning experiences for their students.

2. Highlight the process of lesson planning.

Answer: Process of lesson planning
First of all, a teacher need to identify the learning objectives for the
class, then design appropriate learning activities and develop strategies
to obtain feedback on student learning. A successful lesson plan
addresses and integrates these three key components:

• Objectives for student learning • Teaching/learning activities

• Strategies to check student understanding

Steps of lesson planning process:

1. Identify Learning Objectives:
The first step in the lesson planning process is to identify clear and
specific learning objectives. Learning objectives define what students
are expected to know, understand, or be able to do by the end of the
lesson. These objectives should be aligned with the curriculum
standards and reflect the desired learning outcomes. By identifying
learning objectives, teachers establish a focus for their lesson and
ensure that instructional activities are purposeful and meaningful.

2. Assess Prior Knowledge:

Once the learning objectives are determined, teachers should assess
the prior knowledge and skills of their students. This step helps
educators gauge students' existing understanding of the topic and
identify any misconceptions or knowledge gaps. Various formative
assessment methods, such as pre-tests, concept maps, or class
discussions, can be used to gather information about students' prior
knowledge. By understanding their students' starting points, teachers
can tailor their instruction to meet the diverse needs of the learners
and build upon their existing knowledge.

3. Select Appropriate Instructional Strategies:

Based on the learning objectives and students' needs, teachers should
choose instructional strategies that best facilitate the acquisition of
knowledge and skills. There are various teaching methodologies to
consider, such as direct instruction, cooperative learning, inquiry-based
learning, or project-based learning. The selected strategies should align
with the learning objectives and engage students in active participation
and critical thinking. Differentiation and personalization should also be
considered to address the diverse learning styles and abilities of the
students.

4. Develop a Sequence of Activities:

In this step, teachers develop a sequence of activities that support the
chosen instructional strategies and learning objectives. The activities
should be coherent, logical, and structured to ensure a smooth flow of
the lesson. Consideration should be given to the introduction,
development, and conclusion phases of the lesson. The sequence of
activities should also include opportunities for student engagement,
collaboration, and reflection. Teachers can incorporate a variety of
activities, such as discussions, group work, hands-on experiments,
multimedia presentations, or problem-solving tasks, to enhance
student learning experiences.

5. Integrate Assessment and Evaluation:

Assessment and evaluation are crucial components of lesson planning,
as they provide insights into student progress and learning outcomes.
Teachers should integrate various assessment methods throughout the
lesson to measure student understanding and mastery of the content.
Formative assessments, such as quizzes, exit tickets, or observations,
can be used during the lesson to provide real-time feedback and inform
instructional decisions. Summative assessments, such as tests, projects,
or presentations, can be employed at the end of the lesson to assess
overall student learning. These assessments should align with the
learning objectives and provide opportunities for students to
demonstrate their knowledge and skills.

6. Plan for Differentiation:

To cater to the diverse needs of learners, teachers should plan for
differentiation within the lesson. Differentiation involves providing
multiple pathways for students to access and demonstrate their
learning. This can be achieved by offering varied levels of support,
adjusting the complexity of tasks, providing additional resources or
materials, or assigning different roles within group activities. By
planning for differentiation, teachers ensure that all students have
equitable opportunities to succeed and make progress toward the
learning objectives.

7. Consider Resources and Materials:

Teachers need to consider the resources and materials required to
support the lesson. This includes textbooks, worksheets, multimedia
materials, manipulatives, technology, or any other relevant resources.
The availability and accessibility of these resources should be taken into
account during the lesson planning process. Teachers may need to
gather or create supplementary materials to enrich the instructional
activities and meet the specific needs of their students. Planning ahead
for the necessary resources ensures a smooth implementation of the
lesson.

8. Reflect and Revise:

After delivering the lesson, it is essential for teachers to reflect on its
effectiveness and impact on student learning. This reflection process
allows educators to evaluate the success of the instructional strategies,
assess student engagement and understanding, and identify areas for
improvement. Teachers can gather feedback from students, observe
their interactions, and review the outcomes of assessments. Based on
this reflection, teachers can revise their lesson plans, adjust
instructional strategies, and make refinements to enhance future
teaching and learning experiences.

Conclusion:
The process of lesson planning is a comprehensive and iterative process
that enables teachers to design and implement effective instructional
activities. By following the steps outlined above, educators can create
purposeful lessons that align with learning objectives, cater to diverse
student needs, integrate assessment and evaluation, and foster
meaningful learning experiences. Through thoughtful planning,
teachers can optimize student engagement, understanding, and
achievement, promoting a positive and impactful classroom
environment.

Question no: 3
What is motivation? Write a brief note on the theories of
motivation.
Answer: Motivation in the classroom is the willingness and desire
of a student to learn. Motivation can be measured by four indices:
choice, effort, persistence, and level of achievement. The higher
these indicators are, the higher a student's motivation.
Stanley Vance defines motivation as, “any emotion or desire
which so conditions one's will that the individual is propelled into
action.”
Robert Dubin defines motivation , “ as the complex of forces
standing and keeping a person at work in an organization.”
“The term motivation refers to the arousal of tendency to act to
produce one or more effect”Allport (1935 )
Therefore, it is important for a teacher to be truly effective to help their
students feel motivated to learn and to achieve. A teacher must go
beyond the materials and processes typically used to stimulate and
understand the underlying elements involved in the motivation to
learn. Teachers explain the differing motivational level among their
students in ways that reflect their own personal philosophy of learning
and teaching. Some focus on the place of reward and punishment in
motivating students to learn. Other teachers are more concerned with
students’ expectation of success, or the way in which they attribute
failure.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION:
Different psychological perspectives explain motivation in four different
ways. Let us explore four of these perspectives; behavioural,
humanistic, cognitive and social.

1. The Behavioural Perspective

According to the behaviourist view of learning, when children are
rewarded with praise and a gold star for doing their job correctly, they
will look forward to the next mathematics lesson, anticipating another
rewards. At some time in the past, they must have been rewarded for
similar achievements and this experience acts as a motivator for future
learning of a similar type. For behaviourists, motivation is simply a
product of effective contingent reinforcement. So, they emphasize the
use of extrinsic reinforcement to stimulate students’ task engagement.
The reinforcement can take the form of praise, a smile, an early mark or
loss of privileges such as missing out on sport.

2. The Humanistic Perspective

The humanist theory of motivation is interesting because it is not only
linked to achievement and education, but also has implications for
students’ welfare and wellbeing through its concern with basic needs. It
stresses on students’ capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose
their destiny and positive qualities.

There are two theories of motivation from humanistic perspective:

a) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow (1954) perceived motivation in terms of a hierarchy of needs
that can also conceiveas ‘motives’. According to Maslow’s model, once
basic physiological needs have been satisfied, efforts are directed
toward achieving needs associated with safety love and belonging and
self esteem.

Maslow's theory presents his hierarchy of needs in a

pyramid shape, with basic needs at the bottom of the
pyramid and more high-level, intangible needs at the
top. A person can only move on to addressing the
higher-level needs when their basic needs are
adequately fulfilled.

1. Physiological needs: The first of the id-driven lower

needs on Maslow's hierarchy are physiological
needs. These most basic human survival needs
include food and water, sufficient rest, clothing and
shelter, overall health, and reproduction. Maslow
states that these basic physiological needs must be
addressed before humans move on to the next level
of fulfillment.

2. Safety needs: Next among the lower-level needs is

safety. Safety needs include protection from
violence and theft, emotional stability and well-
being, health security, and financial security.

3. Love and belonging needs: The social needs on the

third level of Maslow’s hierarchy relate to human
interaction and are the last of the so-called lower
needs. Among these needs are friendships and family
bonds—both with biological family (parents, siblings,
children) and chosen family (spouses and partners).
Physical and emotional intimacy ranging from sexual
relationships to intimate emotional bonds are
important to achieving a feeling of elevated kinship.
Additionally, membership in social groups
contributes to meeting this need, from belonging to a
team of coworkers to forging an identity in a union,
club, or group of hobbyists.

4. Esteem needs: The higher needs, beginning with

esteem, are ego-driven needs. The primary elements
of esteem are self-respect (the belief that you are
valuable and deserving of dignity) and self-esteem
(confidence in your potential for personal growth and
accomplishments). Maslow specifically notes that
self-esteem can be broken into two types: esteem
which is based on respect and acknowledgment from
others, and esteem which is based on your own self-
assessment. Self-confidence and independence stem
from this latter type of self-esteem.

5. Self-actualization needs: Self-actualization describes the fulfillment

of your full potential as a person. Sometimes called self-fulfillment
needs, self-actualization needs occupy the highest spot on Maslow's
pyramid. Self-actualization needs include education, skill development
—the refining of talents in areas such as music, athletics, design,
cooking, and gardening—caring for others, and broader goals like
learning a new language, traveling to new places, and winning awards.

Maslow's theory presents his hierarchy of needs in a pyramid shape,

with basic needs at the bottom of the pyramid and more high-level,
intangible needs at the top. A person can only move on to addressing
the higher-level needs when their basic needs are adequately fulfilled.

Maslow Hierarchy of Needs

b) Roger’s motivation theory
Carl Roger’s ideas are also influential in discussing the nature of
motivation and its impact to human lives. Rogers argued that:
Behaviour was influenced by the individual’s perception of both
personal and environmental factors. People should listen to their ‘inner
voices’ or innate capacity to judge what was good for themselves,
rather than relying on feedback from external sources.

3. The Cognitive Perspective

“According to Santrock (2006) the cognitive perspective on motivation
focuses on students’ thought guide their motivation. It focuses on
students’ internal motivation to achieve, their attribution (perception
about the causes of success or failure) and their beliefs that they can
effectively control their environment. It also stresses on the importance
of goal setting, planning and monitoring progress toward a goal.”

a) Achievement Motivation
John Atkinson and David McClelland described the need for
achievement as: “A stable personality characteristic that drives some
individuals to strive for success. Students who have a high need for
achievement are motivated to become involved in an activity if they
believe that they will be successful. They are moderate risk taker and
tend to be attracted to tasks where the chances of success are fifty-
fifty; since there is a good chance they will be successful. They like to
attempt a task, but not if they know there is substantial risk of failure.”
On the other hand, Krause described: “Students who have a need to
avoid failure, rather than a need to achieve success, will look for tasks
that are either very easy and have little risk of failure, or very difficult so
that failure is not their fault.”

b) Weiner Attribution Theory

Attribution theory is concerned with the way in which an individual’s
explanations of success and failure influence that individual’s
subsequent motivation and behaviour. Students may attribute success
or failure to different causes, depending on their beliefs about who or
what controls their success or failure. There are three important
elements to note regarding the way in which students interpret the
cause of behavioral outcome. The three important elements are lotus
of control, controllability and stability.

Question No: 4
Discuss merits and demerits of inquiring
approach.
Answer: Inquiry is an approach to learning that engages our natural
curiosity and desire to make sense of the world. It encourages the
asking of questions and the seeking of answers to those questions
through investigation and exploration. These are following merits and
demerits of inquiry approach.

Merits of inquiry approach:

1. Teacher can keep a vigil check on the activities of the students as it
is the teacher who evokes the responses in the students through the
puzzling event.

2. Through this method, students get the opportunity to learn various

kinds of information on their own. They do not rely on the readymade
information provided by the teacher in any way. Thus, this method
helps in making the students creative in their own way.

3. As students do not accept hypothesis designed by them on the basis

of information provided by teacher, thus they learn to verify the
hypothesis after reading and experimentation processes.

4. Be interested and enthusiastic

5• Get students talking to each other and learning from the peers
6 • Promote the use of accurate current information resources as
students research their learning issues

7• Establish a good learning environment for the group Students

develop skills

8• Critical and creative thinking

9• Communication

10• Self-directed learning

11• Team-work

12• Project management

13• Problem-solving and

14• Students get to know one another better and make friends

Demerits of Enquiry Method:

This method has some limitations also, mention of which are as follows:

1. It is not possible to use this method under the structured school

curriculum as it is slow in nature and requires a lot of time.

2. This method can only be used properly if the teacher who is making
use of it is creative. Not only this, if the teacher does not know how to
arrange practical experiments work, then also he cannot make use of
this method properly.

3. As students of different mental capabilities attend the same class in

the school, thus it is not possible for all of them to learn various
information’s through this method effectively.

4. If all the students do not take participate in question asking function,

then the class room will become dominated by few students, as a result
of which other less able students will feel a sense of neglect.

The problem lies with the assessment of inquiry instruction and major
problem with inquiry programs is that valid acceptable measures of the
outcomes of inquiry based learning are hard to find or difficult to
interpret. Inquiry learning is also difficult to quickly access and analyze
through testing. Multiple-choice questions, the preferred mode for
standardized testing, are not readily adapted to measuring the process
skills needed for critical thinking. Structured short-answer questions
have the ability to measure problem-solving abilities as well as
knowledge recall, but are more time consuming to develop and score.
Time spent in study outside of class is a factor of concern to both
instructors and students alike, it is too much time consuming. The
scope of the inquiry method is limited in terms of contents also the
effective applications of this approach requires motivated and mature
students. The teachers also need to be well competent in planning,
designing, conducting and monitoring the inquiry based learning.

When to Use:
This method should be used by the teacher when he intends to develop
spirit of enquiry in the students, as it will motivate them to find out for
themselves the answers of various questions arising in their mind by
making various kinds of enquiries instead of getting or accepting
readymade information from the teacher.

Question No: 5
Write the note on the following.
i. New themes in teaching
Answer: The theme is the underlying message that the author wants
to convey, whereas the main idea is what the story is mostly about.
Teach these concepts separately and together. These are the following
themes of new teaching.
Theme 1: Pedagogy and Curriculum
Exploring the processes of designing and implementing learning
experiences, including decisions regarding content (curriculum) and
strategies for instruction (pedagogy).

 Pedagogical theory and instructional practice

 Curriculum as a program of learning
 Educational reform in curriculum and instruction
 Differentiating and personalizing instruction
 Teachers’ content knowledge or pedagogical knowledge

Theme 2: Assessment and Evaluation

Investigates the processes of specifying educational outcomes and
designing methods for measuring student learning, evaluating the
effectiveness of educational interventions, or assessing the impact of
educational programs on learners, teachers, institutions, and society.

Purposes of assessment (diagnostic, formative, summative)

 The politics and practice of educational accountability

 Intelligence or ability, competence or capacity: what are the
measurable ends of education?
 Assessment strategies (portfolio, adaptive, computer, embedded)
 Types of educational measurement (qualitative, quantitative;
cognitive, affective, performance)
 Educational research methodologies (descriptive, experimental,
participatory, action research)
  Program evaluation: purposes, strategies, role in educational
reform

Theme 3: Educational Organization and Leadership

Inquires into the organization of formal systems of education and their
impact on the teaching and learning process. Examines issues of
professionalism in education and the roles of administrators and
governing bodies on the educational institution and environment.

 Learning environments: the changing shape of educational

institutions, and changing sites of learning
 The role of educational organizations in society and/or social
change
 The teaching profession: teachers’ work, roles, and
responsibilities
 Educational policies
 The changing purposes of education: shaping new kinds of
worker, citizen and personal identities
 Educational administrators: effective leadership in a changing
society

Theme 4: Early Childhood Learning

Investigations of learning and development in the first seven years of
life, and the impact of formal, family, and socio-cultural influences on
early learning.

 Influences of family and social/cultural environments on early

learning
  Early childhood education: the roles of daycare, preschool,
kindergartens
 Early childhood literacies, arts and communications
 Early childhood numeracies and science

Theme 4: Early Childhood Learning

Investigations of learning and development in the first seven years of
life, and the impact of formal, family, and socio-cultural influences on
early learning.

 Influences of family and social/cultural environments on early

learning
 Early childhood education: the roles of daycare, preschool,
kindergartens
 Early childhood literacies, arts and communications
 Early childhood numeracies and science

Theme 5: Learning in Higher Education

Studies of tertiary or postsecondary education: institutional concerns
(admissions, funding, scope and quality of educational offerings);
instructional strategies and effectiveness with tertiary learners; the
postsecondary learning environment. Also includes teacher education
programs: their place in the university, how to prepare today’s pre-
service teachers for tomorrow’s schools; issues of requirements,
licensure, balancing theoretical and applied learning.

 The future of the university: its links to work, citizenship and

identity
  Tertiary teaching and learning
 Knowledge ecologies: linking research and teaching in higher
education
 Pre-service teacher education: policies, programs, and practices

Theme 6: Adult, Community, and Professional Learning

Explores adult learning in a variety of contexts, from adult basic
education to workplace training and professional learning. Includes in-
service and professional development for teachers.

 Formal and informal learning opportunities for adult learners

 Lifelong learning for the society of constant change
 Professional continuing education and workplace training and
development
 Vocational education and training for the future
 Apprenticeship and other models of technical and further
education
 Popular and community education
 Teacher in-service and professional development

Theme 7: Learner Diversity and Identities

Focuses on recognizing and responding to individual diversity in
learners and on the dynamics of teaching and learning in diverse
communities and classrooms. Considers issues of learners’ identities
and inter-relationships among students, as well as strategies for
promoting social justice, multicultural understanding, and tolerance.
  Inclusive education
 Equity, participation and opportunity
 Minorities and Majorities: how these are changing
 Special education, learning difficulties, disability
 International, global, multicultural and cross-cultural education

Theme 8: Technologies in Learning

Explores the role of technologies in learning, and processes of learning
about and through technologies.

 Technology and human values: learning through and about

technology
 Crossing the digital divide: access to learning in, and about, the
digital world
 New tools for learning: online digitally mediated learning
 Virtual worlds, virtual classrooms: interactive, self-paced and
autonomous learning
 Ubiquitous learning: using the affordances of the new
mediaDistance learning: reducing the distance

Theme 9: Literacies Learning

Inquiries into the processes of learning to read, write and communicate
using new media and multimodal literacies.

 Defining new literacies

 Languages of power: literacy’s role in social access
  Instructional responses to individual differences in literacy
learning
 The visual and the verbal: Multiliteracies and multimodal
communications
 Literacy in learning: language in learning across the subject areas
 The changing role of libraries in literacies learning
 Languages education and second language learning
 Multilingual learning for a multicultural world
 The arts and design in multimodal learning
 The computer, internet, and digital media: educational challenges

Theme 10: Science, Mathematics and Technology Learning

Studies of best practices in teaching and learning science, mathematics
and technology.

 Science disciplines: learning physics, chemistry, biology and other

sciences
 Learning in and about the natural environment
 Modes of instruction (didactic, inquiry, collaborative)
 Mathematics pedagogies
 Learning about and through technologies
 Teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge

ii. Course and unit planning

 Answer: A course may be defined as a complete series of studies
leading to graduation or degree.... unit may be defined as a large
subdivision of the subject matter lesson plan is a plan of action.

Course planning:
A good way to keep course planning from becoming overwhelming is to
break the process into steps. If you decide to go with a backward
design, you can use the three questions from the overview to structure
the planning process. For example:

Step 1 - Identifying End Goals: You can ask some key questions while
approaching this step to help you answer the first question in the
overview. Some ideas may include, "What are the main ideas, skills, or
knowledge my students should retain?" and "What complex
information should my students become familiar with?"

By asking these questions in the first step, it becomes easier to

prioritize material and its relevance. There isn't a way for students to
learn everything about a field in one class, so an important first step is
figuring out how your course will establish or expand upon a
foundation of knowledge. University of Wisconsin-Madison's Learning
Objectives and Alignment page is another resource to help you work
through this step.

Step 2 - Providing and Evaluating Evidence: After you figure out exactly
what your students should be learning throughout your course, you can
start to consider what evidence you want to present to them, and what
evidence you will observe to assess their retention (for more on
assessment, consider the Knute Broady Collection's Assessment page).
Important considerations include, "What materials will help achieve
desired results?" and "What evidence will I accept that they have
retained important information?"

Doing this after Step 1 allows you to prioritize your materials based on
your primary learning goals and figure out what methods of assessment
are best for your class. Consider using expansive means of assessment
to ensure students retain desired information, allowing you to adjust
the provided materials where gaps may arise. University of Wisconsin-
Madison's Instructional Materials page can assist in working through
this step.

Step 3 - Visualizing Your Course: How do you want your course to look
in application? Are there any key learning strategies or activities that
will be helpful to student retention (for more on this, consider the
Knute Broady Collection's Active Learning page)? Are there any
challenging concepts that will require more attention and designated
class time?

This step is a good time to consider yourself as an instructor. By asking

these questions after figuring out your assessment strategies and
building a foundation of materials, you can begin to fine-tune how
these concepts will appear in application. Here, you can finalize primary
materials and organize any materials you may want to include in case
an adjustment needs to be made during the course. To help make this
process easier, consider reviewing Jay McTighe's backward design
templates with version 2.0 being the most current.
Be sure during this process to consider how you will be creating a
learning environment that will work for students from various
backgrounds. Some ways to think about inclusion is by understanding
demographics outside of your own and allowing for different learning
opportunities so students can showcase their knowledge and
comprehension of the material.

Unit planning:
As teachers complete their year-long planning, specific themes will
emerge which will in turn become individual units. For example, a year-
long math plan might include decimal operations, and a theme unit of
place value, money, and measurement might develop. The focus of the
planning continues to narrow, from year-long plans to unit plans. Myers
and Myers (1995, p. 462) list six components that each unit plan should
contain.

1. Set Goals and Objectives for Students

Using content standards, teachers can begin to create a unit plan by

identifying what they want students to accomplish. This plan should
include identifying goals in the form of what students should know or
be able to accomplish upon completion of the unit. An example of a
science goal might be that students will be able to identify and state
the purpose of all the major organelles of a cell.

2. Choose Content

Working within a unit, teachers must identify all of the content that
needs to be taught. For example, a unit on decimals might include
adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing numbers that contain
decimals.

3. Choose Instruction Methods

Here the teacher will address the teaching methods that he or she will
be use. This is an opportune moment to consider the special needs of
students in the classroom. Will instruction include direct instruction,
cooperative learning experiences, or the re-teaching of content to a
peer? Some students with writing difficulties might require the
additional assistance of peer help or partially completed notes. By
planning ahead, teachers can include strategies to help ensure the
success of all students.

4. Connect Learning Activities to Experiences

Students need to learn the required content by the end of the unit.
Learning activities should be designed to utilize the strengths of the
students. Determine in what circumstances concrete models and
examples could be included to help facilitate understanding.

5. Choose and List Resources

Be sure to list all of the materials necessary to complete the unit. By
planning ahead, teachers will help themselves avoid a last-minute rush
to find the materials they’ll need to complete specific activities.

6. Choose Assessment Methods

Use assessments that determine whether students have met unit
objectives. Select a variety of assessments, such as multiple-choice
tests, individual or group projects, or research papers. Questions that
should be considered when deciding how students will be evaluated
include:
Do the assessments measure memorization of content or do they
require students to apply what has been learned?

Does the evaluation device actually measure what has been taught?

What levels of learning are addressed?