CFD ANALYSIS OF HEAT AND FLUID

FLOW IN A VEHICLE EXHAUST

MANIFOLD

UGOCHUKWU ISRAEL OZIOKO

2017/243963

Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering,

University Of Nigeria, Nsukka in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of
Engineering in Mechanical Engineering

Supervisor: Prof. Howard O. NJOKU

August 2023

i
 CERTIFICATION
I hereby declare that, to the best of my knowledge, the work CFD ANALYSIS OF
HEAT AND FLUID FLOW IN A VEHICLE EXHAUST MANIFOLD is an original
work submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Engi-
neering in Mechanical Engineering by the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. I certify that
it has not been submitted in part or full for the award of the certificate of any other
institution or this university.

Author ........................... ...................

UGOCHUKWU ISRAEL OZIOKO Date
Reg. No: 2017/243963
Email : [email protected]

ii
 APPROVAL
This work titled CFD ANALYSIS OF HEAT AND FLUID FLOW IN A VEHICLE
EXHAUST MANIFOLD has been approved on behalf of the Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka by:

Supervisor: .................................................. ..................

Prof. Howard O. NJOKU Date

Head of Department: ............................................... ....................

Engr. Dr. Paul A. AKO Date

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly, my acknowledgement goes to God Almighty, for providing me the strength,

resilience, and wisdom to navigate this academic endeavor.
A special acknowledgment is reserved for Prof. Howard O. Njoku, my dedicated
supervisor, whose unwavering guidance and unwavering belief in my potential played
a pivotal role in shaping the trajectory of this research. Your astute insights, patience,
and constant encouragement have been invaluable, and I am truly fortunate to have had
you as my mentor.
My appreciation goes to my esteemed project partner, Udendu O. David, for the
collaborative spirit and camaraderie that you brought to this study. Our shared efforts
and synergistic approach have undoubtedly enriched the outcomes of this project.
To my family, my parents Ambrose and Angela, and my siblings KC, Chioma,
Favour, Obinna and Kamsi. Your unwavering support has been my cornerstone, and I
am profoundly grateful for the sacrifices you’ve made to see me succeed.
And lastly I would like to dedicate this work to Prof. C.O. Mgbemene and all
partners at the AEDJAC Laboratory, who helped not only by sharing his knowledge in
Fluid mechanics, but also availing the Laboratory to us for our use during this study.

iv
 DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to God Almighty for His unrelenting Grace, Wisdom, Knowledge
and Love in my life, and to my family for their undying support through the course of
my academic journey.

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ABSTRACT

vi
Contents

Certification and Approval ii

Acknowledgment iv

Dedication v

Abstract vi

Contents vii

List of Figures ix

List of Tables x

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background of Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Statement of Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Aim and Objectives of Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Significance of Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Scope of Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Literature Review 4
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Investigations into Design of Tubular Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Effects of Heat and Fluid Flow on the VEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4 Reduction of Heat and Thermal Stresses in a VEM . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5 Justification of Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3 Methodology 11
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 Model of the Exhaust manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3 CFD Analysis of the Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3.1 Preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

vii
 3.3.2 Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3.3 Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3.4 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3.5 Choice of Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3.6 Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.4 Expressions: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.5 Postprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4 Results and Discussion 22

4.1 Iterations and Time steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 Temperature Profile and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3 Velocity Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.3.1 Turbulence in the Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.4 Mass Flow Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.5 Pressure Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

5 Conclusions and Recommendations 31

5.1 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

References 33

viii
List of Figures

2.1 A log-type (left) and a tubular (right) manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.2 A crack generated on the manifold of a Nissan Frontier . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 A turbocharger showing the direction of exhaust gas flow . . . . . . . . 8

3.1 Exhaust manifold model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3.2 Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3 ANSYS WORKBENCH USER INTERFACE (Abbey, 2019) . . . . . . 12
3.4 Generated mesh of the exhaust manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

4.1 Iteration graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.2 Plot of Average value of Manifold Wall Temperature against flow time . 24
4.3 Contour of Manifold Wall Temperature in 0.005s time step variations . 25
4.4 Velocity Streamline at different time steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.5 Variation of (a) inlet and (b) outlet velocities with time . . . . . . . . . 26
4.6 Variation of Turbulence Kinetic Energy in the flow with time . . . . . . 27
4.7 Graph of Mass Flow Rate in the inlets against time . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.8 Graph of Mass Flow Rate in the outlet against time . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.9 Mass Balance in the manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.10 Pressure contour at different 0.005s time steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.11 Plot of Outlet Pressure against flow time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

ix
List of Tables

3.1 Engine Specifications of the 2013 Toyota E140 Corolla Sedan 1.33
VVT-i Dual Active . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Comparison of the Constituents of Air and the Products of Gasoline
Combustion by Mass (for Research on Cancer et al., 1989) . . . . . . . 15
3.3 Relevant Properties of Grey Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.4 ANSYS expression code used in the Analysis of an exhaust manifold. . 20

4.1 Time Advancement Settings for the Exhaust manifold Simulations . . . 23

x
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background of Study

An engine can simply be defined as any machine that converts a source of energy into
mechanical motion. Since the first combustion engine was manufactured by Thomas
Newcomen in 1712, a steam engine for pumping water with coal as its fuel, the engine
has become an integral part of our everyday lives, with it being at the heart of virtually
every piece of technology we own. The internal combustion engine serves as the driving
force of the transportation industry, with virtually every form of travel being run on IC
engines. Up to 90% of vehicles sold in 2022 were non-EV (i.e. burn some fuel to
produce energy) (Boston, 2023), and virtually all forms of air travel utilize internal
combustion engines. However, all internal combustion engines generate exhaust fumes
as a byproduct by burning some type of hydrocarbon during operation. These exhaust
gases have to be removed from the engine and are removed by utilizing the exhaust
system. The exhaust system consists of several parts and the first component is the
exhaust manifold.
A vehicle exhaust manifold (VEM) is a component of a vehicle’s internal combus-
tion engine that collects exhaust gases from the engine’s cylinders and directs them to
the exhaust system. VEMs are usually made of stainless steel or cast iron. VEMs are
important because they manage the engine temperature by effectively removing hot ex-
haust gases from the engine, and they affect the engine back pressure, which affects its
volumetric efficiency. The efficient removal of exhaust gases requires a good under-
standing of the heat and fluid flow in the component. Naturally, as the transportation
industry is a multi-billion dollar one, extensive research and experimentation have been
carried out to improve every component of the IC engine, with the exhaust manifold
being no exception. These experiments can be very expensive and time-consuming.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis can provide a valuable alternative to tra-
ditional testing.

1
 CFD is a branch of mechanical engineering that uses computer simulations to study
and predict the behavior of fluids, such as gases and liquids, in different situations. CFD
simulations can be used to analyze various phenomena, such as fluid flow, heat transfer,
and combustion. Since the first CFD simulation was run in the 1950s at the Los Alamos
National Lab, CFD simulations have allowed engineers to predict the performance of
a system and optimize its design without the need for costly and time-consuming ex-
perimental testing. CFD utilises the Navier-Stokes equations, which are a set of partial
differential equations that describe fluid motion. These equations have no analytical
solutions.
CFD resolves fluid flow by discretizing the Navier-Stokes equations. This is accom-
plished by creating a grid-like mesh out of the flow domain, which reduces the system
of partial differential equations to algebraic equations with defined analytical solutions
for each grid point in the mesh. These equations are then solved iteratively over time
steps for every grid point in time and space, with the solution process involving iterating
over time steps till a steady-state or transient behaviour is achieved. The equations are
solved at every time step and the values obtained are used to update the solution until
the iteration process reaches convergence, i.e. the changes in variables in the solution
become small (James, 2023; Anderson and Wendt, 1995).
In recent years, CFD simulations have become an integral part of the design process,
as they provide valuable insights into the flow behavior and heat transfer characteristics
of systems and components. It allows engineers to simulate and analyze the behav-
ior of fluids and heat transfer within a vehicle’s various components, enabling them to
optimize design and performance with accurate predictions of fluid flow patterns, tem-
perature distribution, pressure drop, and other critical parameters. It allows for virtual
testing and prototyping of different design configurations and scenarios, eliminating the
need for physical prototypes in the early stages of development and reducing costs and
time.

1.2 Statement of Problem

As exhaust gas flows through the manifold from the engine cylinders, it interacts ther-
mally with the walls of the manifold. These walls are subjected to severe cyclic thermal
stresses from the gases entering the manifold in a cyclic manner, as the exhaust valves
of the cylinders open and close following the sequence of the firing order of the en-
gine. These stresses have the potential to damage the manifold because of cracks and
extensive plastic deformations caused by the flow of hot gases.
This report aims to evaluate the design of, and analyze fluid flow in the design of the
manifold chosen for this study and to offer recommendations to improve the designs and

2
optimize performance. This report will investigate the performance of the exhaust man-
ifold under normal vehicle operating conditions and will also profer recommendations
to improve the performance of the VEM using parameters from reviewed literature.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of Study

This study aims to model an exhaust manifold using a CAD software, analyze heat and
fluid flow in the manifold under vehicle working conditions using CFD and analyze the
results.
The objectives that would need to be met to achieve this aim include:
1. Modelling an exhaust manifold using Fusion 360.
2. Simulating heat and fluid flow in the manifold using ANSYS Fluent 2022.
3. Analyzing the results obtained from the simulations.

1.4 Significance of Study

As stated previously, CFD has become crucial in the design process in recent years.
Anderson and Wendt (1995) described CFD as ”the third dimension in fluid dynamics,
the other two dimensions being the classical cases of pure experiment and pure theory.”
The performance of the exhaust manifold is directly correlated to fuel consumption and
emission efficiency. Utilizing CFD software to analyze fluid flow in an exhaust mani-
fold, we are able to study the behavior of exhaust gas flow in the component and its ther-
mal interactions with the manifold as it flows through it. The findings of this study are
expected to provide valuable insights into the design and optimization of exhaust mani-
folds and can also be used to develop strategies for reducing the engine’s emissions and
improving its efficiency, which is crucial in today’s environmentally conscious world.

1.5 Scope of Study

This work will involve modelling a model tubular manifold will be created using Fusion
360 and simulating heat and fluid flow would be done using ANSYS Fluent under tran-
sient conditions, simulating the alternating inlet conditions due to the firing sequence of
the engine cylinders. There will be no experiments involved, however dimensions and
boundary conditions will be obtained from real life internal combustion engines.

3
Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction
The VEM plays a critical role in the performance and efficiency of an internal com-
bustion engine. Getting the design right is important to achieve any desired engine
performance. Manifolds are usually of two types; log-type and tubular. A log-type
manifold, also known as a ”log-style” manifold, is an exhaust manifold design that
features individual exhaust runners that merge into a single collector in a layout that re-
sembles a log cabin. A tubular manifold, on the other hand, features individual exhaust
runners for each cylinder that are designed to have equal lengths and smooth bends (Fig
2.1). While the log-type manifold is characterized by its compact and space-efficient
construction, there can be some interference between cylinders, potentially leading to
less-than-optimal exhaust flow and performance. On the other hand, a tubular manifold
improves exhaust gas flow by reducing interference between cylinders and ensuring
each cylinder’s exhaust gases reach the collector without significant restrictions. This
leads to better engine performance, increased horsepower, and improved throttle re-
sponse (Teja et al., 2016).
The choice of manifold for an engine is therefore dependent on the performance
requirements of the engine. For example; in turbo engines, on factory turbocharged
cars, log-type manifolds (Figure 2.1a) are commonly used because manifold reliability
is a more important requirement than high performance while in race cars, tubular man-
ifolds (Figure 2.1b) are used to reduce backflow of exhaust and increase performance
(Bajpai et al., 2017).

4
 Figure 2.1: A log-type (left) and a tubular (right) manifold

The exhaust manifold helps to improve the engine’s breathing by reducing exhaust
back pressure, which allows the engine to operate more efficiently. This leads to better
fuel economy, reduced emissions, and improved overall engine performance.
The VEM also helps to prevent exhaust leaks by sealing the exhaust system at the
engine block. This is important because exhaust leaks can allow harmful gases, such
as carbon monoxide, to enter the vehicle’s cabin. Additionally, exhaust leaks can cause
a decrease in engine performance and may even cause damage to other engine compo-
nents. The VEM also impacts the sound of the engine.
The design of a VEM plays a crucial role in the performance and volumetric effi-
ciency of a vehicle. Reducing back pressure is one of the ways a VEM improves engine
performance. Back pressure is the exhaust gas pressure produced by the engine to over-
come its hydraulic resistance and it is created as the exhaust valve opens and during
the overlap of the exhaust and intake strokes. Umesh and Rajagopal (2013) noted that
approximately 1-2 hp is lost for every inch of Mercury (in.Mg) of back pressure, as
well as increasing emissions, fuel consumption, causing oil leakage due to failure of
turbocharger seals, among a host of other downsides. Exhaust velocity is also a key
performance factor that is controlled by the VEM.
Baxendale (1993) used STAR-CD to simulate fluid flow in cast and pressed mani-
folds regarding velocity distribution and determined that pressed manifolds were a bet-
ter design but less durable. This is due to the fact that while it had a lesser velocity
maldistribution index, most of the maldistribution was located close to the walls, which
can cause erosion of insulating material. Manohar and Krishnaraj (2018) concluded
that grey cast iron has a better strength to weight ratio than stainless steel and is eco-
nomically better.

5
 Bajpai et al. (2017) compared the back pressure and temperature distribution cre-
ated in an IC engine using three different fuels and pointed out that the temperature,
pressure and velocity graphs from the VEM were identical. Cihan and Bulut (2019)
used ABAQUS software to compare fluid flow parameters between a log-type manifold
with a runner and a tubular manifold and noted that there was increased exhaust veloc-
ity and back pressure in the former. Teja et al. (2016) pointed out that this is due to
all the exhaust gases colliding at the inlet. They also analysed the exhaust system of a
Kawasaki Z 750 to find ways to improve the geometry (Teja et al., 2016), confirming
uneven pressure and velocity distribution in the cross-sectional area of the outlet duct.

2.2 Investigations into Design of Tubular Manifold

The runner length of an intake manifold plays a significant role in the performance
characteristics of an engine. Shorter runners promote better torque production at lower
engine speeds by promoting faster exhaust gas flow and better scavenging at lower en-
gine speeds, while longer runner lengths favour high-end power and RPM range by
increasing the gas velocity due to the longer path the gases need to travel and main-
taining this gas velocity even at high speeds which improves scavenging (Siddha et al.,
2022).
Umesh et al. (2013) investigated the effect of using a nozzle (reducer) to reduce the
exit area of the runner of a tubular manifold. The effect of the reducer is improved
scavenging due to increased exhaust gas velocity at the exit, but reduced breathability
and increased temperature at the exit.
Umesh and Rajagopal (2013) compared four different tubular manifold configura-
tions with and without reducers from an emissions standpoint. They found that a long
bend center exit (LBCE) VEM without a reducer recorded the least amount of back
pressure and the highest exhaust velocity for the same load conditions.
Due to this, many performance vehicle VEMs have long curved inlet tubes. Ahmed
and Kailash (2015) carried out analyses for five different configurations of outlet ge-
ometries for a center exit manifold to achieve optimal geometry. The optimal outlet
design was one with diverging and converging sections of equal length with a straight
section in between, which facilitated easy flow of exhaust without recirculation and low
backpressure at the exhaust outlet, and reduced turbulence kinetic energy to near-zero.
Bajpai et al. (2017) carried out a vibrational analysis of a diesel engine VEM to
identify maximum stress concentration areas which show areas of likely failure. The
velocity vector, pressure and temperature distribution was found to be highest at the
junction of the inlets from the cylinders.

6
 Increasing the wall thickness of the manifold increases its lifespan by reducing the
maximum stress (Fu et al., 2009). However this effect has an optimal value beyond
which further increase in thickness adversely affects the lifespan. Some designs utilize
baffles to restrict the flow area of the inlet manifold, increasing the velocity of the exit
gases which improves scavenging and optimizes the flow of exhaust gases within the
manifold. But these baffles are prime locations for crack generation because a lot of
heat is transferred to it from the exhaust gases due to the small surface area of the baffle
(Chen et al., 2015). So they aren’t used in manifolds that undergo high load conditions
regularly.

2.3 Effects of Heat and Fluid Flow on the VEM

High temperature combustion gases are constantly in contact with the inner walls of
the manifold, which means that it is subjected to a cyclic thermal load as the exhaust
cycles of the cylinders alternate. This can lead to uneven temperature distribution and
cause failure in the manifold due to cracking. Manohar and Krishnaraj (2018) noted that
crack generation is usually prevalent on curved profiles and welded regions in the VEM.
These cracks,shown in Figure 2.2 are generated due to thermal strain and fatigue. There
are two types of thermal fatigue that are created in a manifold which are high-cycle and
low-cycle fatigue.

Figure 2.2: A crack generated on the manifold of a Nissan Frontier

Another function of an exhaust manifold is to provide exhaust gas at a velocity that

is sufficient enough to drive a turbocharger, if present. A turbocharger (Figure 2.3)
is a type of forced induction system that uses the energy from exhaust gases to drive
a turbine, which, in turn, compresses the intake air. It provides a cost-effective way
to enhance engine performance. Naeimi et al. (2011) evaluated the pros and cons of
different types of turbochargers and deduced that a modular pulse converter (MPC)

7
turbocharger was the best turbocharger in terms of performance under different loads
and reduction of back pressure.

Figure 2.3: A turbocharger showing the direction of exhaust gas flow

Joy (2018), in order to reduce burning issues in turbochargers due to improper tem-
perature distribution, proposed to fuse the manifold and the turbine housing of the tur-
bocharger into one operational unit, optimizing the flow path of the VEM with turbine
housing to properly guide inlet exhaust gases into the volute thereby reducing friction
losses and improving temperature distribution.
Alphonse and Kumar (2021) investigated the heat dissipation in VEM and came up
with some recommendations to reduce manifold temperature, which included spraying
ceramic paint and curing in an oven to reduce engine bay heating by lessening the heat
output via radiation and using a tough ceramic coating mixture to bond to the manifold
via thermal spraying, which is very good for thermal insulation.
The thermal fatigue life of a VEM was estimated using finite element (FE) analysis
and CFD by predicting the number of cycles till crack generation. The two main causes
of thermal fatigue were fatigue due to constant strain from repetitive thermal stress
(high-cycle fatigue) and that due to expansion and contraction of the manifold during
warm up and cooling (low-cycle fatigue) . It was noted that a 1.8 times increase in wall
thickness at the convergence of the ports reduces the amount of stain and improves the
thermal fatigue life by a factor of 1.6 (Mamiya et al., 2002). Additionally a gap can
be created between the flange and the engine head when the VEM is too hot. This gap
doesn’t close completely upon cooling and can lead to leakages. A maximum gap of
72µm can be created without leakages occurring. This is used as a target for judging
whether leakages will occur in a design (Meda et al., 2012).

8
2.4 Reduction of Heat and Thermal Stresses in a VEM
Partoaa et al. (2017) investigated the effect of fin attachment on the thermal stress re-
duction of the log-type manifold of an off road diesel engine. The result was a decrease
in thermal stresses by at least 17% when fins are attached alone regardless of shape and
up to 28% when fins are attached to the manifold outlet and combined with increased
body shell thickness.
Liquid cooling is widely used in the manifolds of turbocharged diesel engines. Fu
et al. (2009) carried out FE analysis to determine the thermal stresses in a 6-cylinder
log-type VEM cooled with engine coolant, made up of 50% water and 50% ethylene
glycol. It was shown that with coolant use, there is no temperature fluctuation with
time throughout several firing cycles, and as a result, no thermal stress fluctuation,
and therefore high-cycle fatigue load is eliminated from the manifold. However, low-
cycle fatigue is still present due to heating and cooling and there is crack generation
present at the manifold outlet, which is the area of maximum thermal strain and the main
determinant of the manifold’s life span. This life span can be increased by increasing
the mass flow rate of coolant; an additional 200 life cycles for every 0.25kg/m3 increase
in coolant flow rate.
Sahoo and Thiya (2019) added a 50g material to the high stress-concentrated notch
area and showed that this modification reduced the stress level in this failure location
by 13% and eliminated stress concentration in this area. Thermal coatings using high-
temperature-resistant materials for the exhaust manifold can help withstand and dissi-
pate heat more effectively. Valarmathi et al. (2020) carried out thermal analysis on a
VEM coated with zirconia on the inside wall and 60% alumina and 40% titania on the
outside wall, and compared it to an uncoated VEM. The coated manifold showed im-
proved thermal distribution over the uncoated one. The thickness of the coating was
of great importance too, as a 250 µm thick coating (125 µm on either side of the wall)
showed better results than 200 µm and 150µm thick coatings. Kishi et al. (1998) de-
veloped an ultra-low heat capacity and highly insulating (ULOC) exhaust manifold by
creating a hollow, double structure whose inner tube has a 0.6mm thickness. They de-
duce the thickness of the inner side of a dual-wall structure to lower the heat capacity
and achieve the benefits of heat insulation, with the theory being that the inner side will
eventually reach the same temperature as the exhaust gas.
Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) are specialized coatings applied to surfaces that
are exposed to high temperatures to provide thermal insulation, reduce heat transfer
and protect the underlying surface from thermal degradation. These TBCs are different
from the coatings mentioned previously, as TBCs are only applied to the inner wall
of the manifold and provide insulation only. To lower the material temperature of an
exhaust manifold, Ekström et al. 2015 investigated seven different thermal barrier coat-

9
ings for their thermal insulation properties. It was found that it was possible to lower
the manifold surface temperature by 50K by using either a TBC that is 0.2 mm thick
with a thermal conductivity of about 0.1 W/mK or one that is 3-6 mm thick with a ther-
mal conductivity of 1.5–3 W/mK to achieve this reduction. Some of the collaborators
on the study developed a test method for evaluating simultaneously different coatings’
thermal characteristics and thermal cycle life under actual manifold conditions (Thib-
blin and Olofsson, 2019).
However It is important that the exit temperature of the gases are not reduced too
much, as this would delay activation of the catalysts in the catalytic converter, which
is usually located, leading to emission of harmful gases thus violating emission regula-
tions. The optimal temperature for the catalytic converter is 400C - 500C

2.5 Justification of Study

Having reviewed the available literature, it can be seen that significant interest is being
shown and progress being made to optimize engine performance by improving the ex-
haust manifold as its own unit. This study will analyze manifold parameters such as
runner length, shape, material used in manufacturing, etc. and their effect on manifold
performance and subsequently, engine performance.

10
Chapter 3

Methodology

3.1 Introduction
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis has gained significant attention in recent
years for the design and optimization of exhaust manifolds. In this study, the ANSYS
Fluent software package will be used for simulating the flow of exhaust gases inside the
manifold. This methodology aims to offer a comprehensive understanding of the flow
behavior and its impact on engine performance within the exhaust manifold.

3.2 Model of the Exhaust manifold

The exhaust manifold’s CAD design is produced using Autodesk Fusion 360 software.
The design, displayed in Figure 3.1, includes four distinct pipes that link to a central
pipe for the passage of exhaust gases into the exhaust system. Figure 3.2 illustrates
the domain, which serves as the computational area for fluid flow and heat transfer
simulations. Precisely capturing the physical system under study is essential to derive
significant outcomes from these simulations.

Figure 3.1: Exhaust manifold model

11
 Figure 3.2: Domain

The complete model used for the examination comprises the exhaust manifold pipes
alongside the corresponding computational fluid domain.

3.3 CFD Analysis of the Manifold

In this study, the CFD analysis is done using the ANSYS workbench which is a com-
prehensive software platform developed by ANSYS, Inc. that serves as an integrated
environment for performing various engineering simulations and analyses. The user
interface shown in Figure 3.3 provides a graphical interface that allows users to seam-
lessly set up, manage, and analyze simulations across different domains of engineering,
including structural mechanics, fluid dynamics, electromagnetics, computational fluid
dynamics, and more. The Fluid Flow (FLUENT) system was used for the CFD analysis
of the exhaust manifold.

Figure 3.3: ANSYS WORKBENCH USER INTERFACE (Abbey, 2019)

12
3.3.1 Preprocessing
In order to prepare for the simulation, the pre-processing stage in this study involves
several steps. These include importing the CAD model of the Exhaust manifold from
Autodesk Fusion 360, extracting the fluid domain from the geometry, performing cleanup
operations on the CAD model, and generating a mesh to be used in the simulation.

1. Importing the 3D model into ANSYS fluent: The 3D model is brought into
the ANSYS design moduler and refined, where the solid components (such as
exhaust pipes) and the fluid region (domain) materials are defined.

2. Meshing:

Figure 3.4: Generated mesh of the exhaust manifold

Meshing involves dissecting a complex shape into smaller elements, forming a grid
used in simulations. It resembles transforming a continuous form into a digital puzzle,
aiding in solving equations related to fluid flow and heat transfer. Mesh quality directly
influences the accuracy and efficiency of simulations. As depicted in Figure 3.4, the ex-
haust manifold mesh consisted of 237,977 elements, exhibiting a skewness of 78.654%,
an acceptable value for accurate results (below 90%). Some boundaries were refined
using inflation and resizing techniques. This process also assigns boundary conditions,
namely inlet 1, inlet 2, inlet 3, inlet 4, outlet, and manifold walls.

13
3.3.2 Solving
The approach utilized by ANSYS Fluent for solving involves employing numerical
techniques to address the governing equations of fluid dynamics. This consists of spec-
ifying the governing equations, boundary conditions, choice of solver, and computa-
tional model

3.3.3 Governing Equations

In this study, the ANSYS Fluent software will be utilized to model and analyze the
flow of exhaust gases in a car exhaust manifold using various mathematical equations.
These equations comprise the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy, together
with the equation of state and the ideal gas law. To consider turbulence effects, the
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations are usually employed. Addition-
ally, the convective heat transfer equation is used to simulate the heat transfer between
the gases and the solid walls of the manifold. Lastly, the finite volume method is applied
to solve these equations numerically.

Conservation of Mass
Continuity:
∂(ρv) ∂(ρw)
(ρu)∂x + + =0
∂y ∂z

Conservation of Momentum
x = momentum:
           
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂p ∂ ∂u →
− →− ∂ ∂u ∂v ∂ ∂w ∂u
ρ u +v +w = ρgx − + 2µ + λ ▽. V + µ + + µ +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂x

y = momentum:
           
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂p ∂ ∂v ∂u ∂ ∂v →
− →− ∂ ∂v ∂u
ρ u +v +w = ρgy − + µ + + 2µ + λ ▽. V + µ +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂y

z-momentum:
           
∂w ∂w ∂w ∂p ∂ ∂w ∂u ∂ ∂v ∂w ∂ ∂w →
− →−
ρ u +v +w = ρgz − + µ + + µ + + 2µ + λ ▽. V
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z

Energy Equation
Energy:
   
∂T ∂T ∂T ∂P ∂P ∂P →
−  →− 
ρcp +v +w = βT u +v +w + ▽. K ▽T + Φ
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

14
Reynolds-Average Navier-Stroke (RANS) Equation
RANS Equation:
   
∂ui ∂ ∂ui ∂uj
ρuj = ρf i + −pδ ij + µ + − ρu′i u′j
∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xi

3.3.4 Boundary Conditions

Material Selection

The engine that will be utilized for this study is that of a 2013 Toyota E140 Corolla
Sedan 1.33 VVT-i Dual Active, running at a constant engine speed of 4000 RPM. The
required specifications for this model are shown in Table 3.1 This data was sourced
from ultimatespecs.com.

Table 3.1: Engine Specifications of the 2013 Toyota E140 Corolla Sedan 1.33 VVT-i
Dual Active

Category Specification
Fuel Type Gasoline
Number of Cylinders 4
Firing Order 1-3-4-2
Bore x Stroke 72.5 x 80.5 mm (2.85 x 3.7 in)
Maximum Torque 132 Nm at 3800 RPM

For the purpose of this study, air is used as the working fluid in the CFD software.
This is because both air and the constituents of the gases entering the manifold have
similar nitrogen content, which is the heaviest constituent in both, taking up more than
70% by mass as shown in Table 3.2

Table 3.2: Comparison of the Constituents of Air and the Products of Gasoline Com-
bustion by Mass (for Research on Cancer et al., 1989)

Constituent Air Gasoline Exhaust

N2 75.523% 73%
CO2 0.053% 13%
O2 23.13% 13%

15
 The inner and outer diameters of the model manifold are 39 mm and 42 mm respec-
tively. Since the manifold is subjected to high temperatures and pressures generated by
the exhaust gases flowing through it, it has to have thick walls to prevent deformation
or failure of the manifold due to thermal expansion, as well as reduce heat transfer to
the surrounding components or engine bay. The ratio of the diameter of the pipe to its
thickness, i.e. the d/t ratio for the model manifold is 39 ÷ (42-39) = 13, which is less
than 20 and as such qualifies as a thick-walled pipe (Rajput, 2004).
The manifold for the chosen vehicle model is made of grey cast iron. The properties
of gray cast iron were not available in the ANSYS Fluent Materials panel so the material
gray cast iron was created using average values obtained from studies at normal engine
operating temperature of 350◦ C (Fundições, 2005; Speich et al., 1980; Ashouri, 2019).

Table 3.3: Relevant Properties of Grey Cast Iron

Property Value
Thermal Conductivity 43 W/mK
Density 7050 kg/m3
Specific Heat 480 J/kgK

Setting up a Velocity Profile at the Inlets

From a study done by Alghafis et al. (2022), for normal engine performance at 4000
RPM, the exhaust valves of the cylinders are open for 240 crank angles for gasoline
engines. The time for which the exhaust valve is open at this speed is given by this
expression by Hepperlee (1998);

CA 1 240 1
T= × = × = 0.01s (3.1)
360 N 360 4000 ÷ 60
where CA = crank angle degrees and N = engine speed. This time is used as the
period used to define the velocity profile. The sinusoidal velocity profile is given by the
expression below;

π 3π
vsin = vmax sin (ωt + φ), φ = 0, , π, (3.2)
2 2
where φ is the phase shift for cylinders 1,3,4 and 2 respectively. The angular velocity ω
is given by
2π 2×π
ω= = = 628.3185 (3.3)
T 0.01
The maximum speed is determined using the following relations obtained from (Baech-
tel, 2011) in imperial units for 4-cylinder engines using the data obtained from Table
3.1:

16
 The maximum exhaust velocity vmax is given by

V̇
vmax = (3.4)
A
where V̇ is the volumetric flow rate of exhaust, and A is the cross-sectional area of the
exhaust valve. The area of the exhaust valve is 80% the size of the inlet valve. The
minimum area of the inlet valve (in inches) is given by

bore2 × stroke × N ÷ 19000 (3.5)

= 2.852 × 3.7 × 4000 ÷ 190000 = 0.6327 in2

Since this is a design minimum, 0.7 in2 will be used as the inlet valve diameter. The
Area of the exhaust valve now becomes

A = 0.8 × 0.7 = 0.56 in2 = 3.6129 × 10−4 m2

The volumetric flow rate of the exhaust is given by

Swept V olume × N
V̇ = (3.6)
2 × 60
π × 0.07252 × 0.0805 × 4000
= = 0.01107746841 m3 /s
4 × 2 × 60
So Equation 3.4 becomes
0.01107746841
vmax = = 30.66m/s
3.6129 × 10−4
So the velocity profile is given by
 
2×π
v = 30.66 sin t + φ = 30.66 sin (628.3185t + φ) (3.7)
0.01

Since the exhaust gas velocity can only be a positive value and there is no exhaust
gas entering the cylinder when it is closed, the function that describes the velocity of
exhaust at the inlets is given by

30.66 sin(628.3185t + φ) if v ≥ 0
v= (3.8)
0 if v < 0
This velocity profile is applied to each of the four inlets under the boundary conditions
π
tab in the setup phase, with the value of φ varying as 0 for inlet 1, 2
for inlet 3, π for
3π
inlet 4, and 2
for inlet 2. This is set up by using the ”IF” command when creating a
named user-defined expression under boundary conditions.

17
Creating the Inlet Pressure Profile

The pressure at the inlets also varies in the same manner as the velocity, with the max-
imum pressure being derived from the exhaust gas equation. The temperature of the
exhaust at the inlet for this study is taken as 800◦ C, so the peak inlet pressure is given
as
Pmax = ρRT = 1.225 × 287 × 1073 = 377239.975 N/m2
so the pressure profile becomes

377239.975 sin(628.3185t + φ) if P ≥ 0
P = (3.9)
0 if P < 0

Other Boundary Conditions

The gauge pressure at the outlet was set to 0 Pa and the initial temperature at the outlet
set to the ambient temperature of 26.85 °C. The walls of the fluid boundary were set to
have no-slip conditions and were thermally coupled with the system i.e. the boundary
conditions are dependent on the properties of the system. For the solid wall of the
manifold, the thermal boundary conditions were set to heat flux. The expression for
heat flux across a wall is given by
dT
q̇ = −k
dx
where q̇ is the heat flux, k is the thermal conductivity of the wall material, dT is the
temperature difference between the two wall surfaces and dx in this case is the wall
thickness. Fournier and Bayne (2007) recorded under-the-hood surface temperatures
for different components of a car engine under normal running conditions and recorded
a surface temperature of about 450-550 0 C on the exhaust manifold after 15 minutes.
So an expression, Equation 3.10 was formulated for the heat flux across the manifold
using the recorded wall temperatures on the fluid-solid boundary during the simulation
to accurately reflect real-life behaviour
(W all T emperature [f luid]) − 5000 C
q̇ = −43 × (3.10)
0.003
The heat generation rate was set to zero since there is no heat entering the system
from the outside.

3.3.5 Choice of Solver

ANSYS Fluent can be described as a digital lab used to study how fluids behave. The
solvers in ANSYS Fluent can subsequently be described as a variety of tools or tech-
niques used in this digital lab to understand how fluids flow and behave. The two

18
types of solvers present in ANSYS are pressure-based and density-based. The choice
of solver used in this study is the pressure-based solver.

Pressure-Based Solver: The pressure-based solver uses an algorithm that falls un-
der a category of techniques known as the projection method. Within this method, the
aim is to maintain the balance of mass in the velocity field, which is done by solving
an equation related to pressure (or a correction for pressure). This pressure equation
is created based on solving the continuity and momentum equations sequentially. The
idea is to adjust the velocity field using the pressure information so that the continuity
requirement is met. Because the equations that govern this process are complex and
interconnected, the solving process involves repeating iterations. During these itera-
tions, the entire set of governing equations is tackled over and over until the solution
converges (Ansysinc, 2009).

Transient Simulations: Transient simulations are used to simulate systems that involve
changes that occur with time. This could be a fluid flow that evolves over a period, such
as water filling up a tank or an object moving through the fluid. Transient simulations
show how variables like velocity, pressure, and temperature change over time.

3.3.6 Model
In ANSYS Fluent, the term ”model” generally describes a specific representation, either
physical or mathematical, that’s employed to explain specific aspects of a simulation.
Models supply extra information or equations that aid in simulating particular behaviors
within the fluid movement. For this study, the SST (2-equation) k-omega model was
used.
The Shear-Stress Transport (SST) k-omega model is a widely used turbulence model
in CFD simulations, particularly for simulating complex flow phenomena involving
boundary layers, separation, and reattachment. This model is a hybrid combination
of two popular turbulence models: the k-epsilon and the k-omega models. It aims to
capture both the near-wall behavior of the k-omega model and the free-stream behavior
of the k-epsilon model, making it suitable for a wide range of flow scenarios.
The SST k-omega model is characterized by two transport equations:
k-Equation: This equation tracks the turbulent kinetic energy (k) within the flow. Tur-
bulent kinetic energy represents the energy associated with turbulent eddies in the fluid

19
and is a measure of turbulence intensity. The k-equation is given as

∂(ρk) ∂(ρui k) ∂
+ = [(ν + σk2νt )∂k/∂xj ] − ρϵ
∂t ∂xi ∂xj

Omega (ω)-Equation: This equation tracks the specific rate of dissipation (ω), which
represents the rate at which turbulence dissipates in the flow. It quantifies the effect of
turbulence on the viscous dissipation of kinetic energy. The omega equation is given as

∂ω ∂ω ∂ (ν + σω2νt /ω)
+ Uj = P − βω 2 + 2(1 − F1 )δϵω − 2F2 ρω 2 /κ2 + ( ∂
∂t ∂xj ∂xj ∂x j

3.4 Expressions:
These refer to mathematical formulae or equations that are created to define a relation-
ship between different variables. Expressions are used to compute or manipulate values
based on specified input variables, constants, and mathematical operations. These ex-
pressions can be utilized for various purposes within the simulation setup and analysis.
Expressions used in this study are shown in Table 3.4

Table 3.4: ANSYS expression code used in the Analysis of an exhaust manifold.

Expression ANSYS expression code

V̇
vmax = A
(0.01107746841[m3 /s])/(0.00036129[m2 ])
Zerovelocity 0[m/s]
expr1 V max ∗ sin(wt)
expr2 V max ∗ sin(wt + (1.5 ∗ P I))
expr3 V max ∗ sin(wt + (0.5 ∗ P I))
expr4 V max ∗ sin(wt + P I)
heatflux k(W allAdjacentT emperature(′ wall − 17′ ,′ contact region − src′ ) − 773[K])/3[mm]
k 43[W/(m ∗ K)]
vprofile1 IF (expr1 < 0[m/s], Zerovelocity, expr1)
vprofile2 IF (expr2 < 0[m/s], Zerovelocity, expr2)
vprofile3 IF (expr3 < 0[m/s], Zerovelocity, expr3)
vprofile4 IF (expr4 < 0[m/s], Zerovelocity, expr4)
wt 200[s−1 ] ∗ P I ∗ f low − time

20
3.5 Postprocessing
Post-processing encompasses the visual evaluation and analysis of simulation outcomes
subsequent to conducting simulations associated with fluid flow, heat transfer, or anal-
ogous phenomena using the solver. This encompasses activities such as interpreting
numerical data derived during the simulation to attain a more comprehensive compre-
hension of the observed behavior of the studied phenomenon.
i. Variables Extracted For this study, the following variables will be extracted: veloc-
ity, temperature, turbulence kinetic energy and pressure.

ii. Visualization In ANSYS Fluent, visualization pertains to generating graphical de-

pictions and animated presentations of simulation outcomes, aiming to enhance com-
prehension and communication regarding fluid flow, heat transfer, and associated phe-
nomena. ANSYS Fluent offers a variety of tools and strategies for visualizing simu-
lation data. Here are several typical visualization approaches utilized within ANSYS
Fluent:

1. Contour Plots: Contour plots display scalar quantities (e.g., pressure, tempera-
ture, velocity magnitude) as contour lines with different colours on surfaces or
planes within the domain. These plots help visualize variations of the chosen
variable, with the colours changing by magnitude of the quantity it represents.

2. Vector Plots: Vector plots show velocity vectors at various locations within the
domain. They provide insight into the direction and magnitude of fluid motion.

3. Streamline Plots: Streamlines depict the paths followed by fluid particles in a

flow field. They help visualize flow patterns and separation zones.

These tools will be used to show the results of the analyses conducted.

21
Chapter 4

Results and Discussion

4.1 Iterations and Time steps

In transient CFD simulations of an exhaust manifold, the fundamental aspects of ”iter-
ations” and ”time steps” are pivotal in grasping and capturing the fluid flow’s dynamic
behavior and associated phenomena as they develop over time. Table 4.1 displays the
appropriate configurations for the transient simulation of the exhaust manifold.

Iterations: CFD uses iterations to achieve convergence by repeatedly solving the gov-
erning equations for fluid flow with updated values of flow variables. In each iteration,
the CFD solver calculates new values for parameters such as temperature, velocity, pres-
sure, and turbulence based on the previous iteration’s results. This process continues
until the changes in these variables between iterations become sufficiently small, in-
dicating that the solution has converged to a stable and accurate representation of the
flow behavior. Figure 4.1 shows the residuals in the flow as the program solves the
flow, which is the difference between the observed response and the fitted response val-
ues which are the values that appear on the report. Figure 4.1 shows the residuals for
solving continuity (black line) and velocity (red, green, and blue lines), while those for
energy solving is shown by the sky blue line. Additionally, the pink and yellow lines
represent the turbulence kinetic energy, k, and the specific rate of dissipation of kinetic
energy, omega, for the turbulence model. Through this iterative approach, differences
between consecutive iterations are minimized, enhancing solution accuracy.

22
 Figure 4.1: Iteration graph

Figure 4.1 also helps to show when the solution became stable. After about 2500 it-
erations, the differences between the values for the residuals between iterations became
minimized which shows the stability of the solution

Time Steps: Time steps are small intervals of time used in transient simulations. They
represent the increments at which the simulation progresses, capturing changes in fluid
behavior over time. Balancing time step size is crucial for accuracy and computational
efficiency.

Table 4.1: Time Advancement Settings for the Exhaust manifold Simulations

Number of Time-steps 350

Time Steps Size [s] 0.0005
Max iteration/Time Step 20
Reporting Interval 1
Profile Update Interval 1

From Equation 3.1, the period of the waveform of the inlet exhaust into the manifold
is 0.01s. As such it was important to set an appropriate time step size that would al-
low the solver to accurately solve the flow in a reasonable amount of time, because too
large a time step can lead to instability of the solution, while too small of one can result
in excessive computational time. As shown in Table 4.1, a time step size of 0.0005s

23
was chosen so that 20 data points were obtained over a single wavelength, allowing the
results to be well defined as will be seen in subsequent sections.

4.2 Temperature Profile and Distribution

The average temperature of the inner wall of the manifold reaches a steady average
value of about 710 °C across the manifold after 0.04 seconds of engine run time as
shown in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2: Plot of Average value of Manifold Wall Temperature against flow time

The visual contour of the temperature distribution in the manifold wall after 0.05
seconds is shown in Figure 4.2. The reduction in temperature is attributed to the heat
dissipation to the surroundings and heat transfer to the manifold walls The maximum
temperature in the manifold is recorded at the inlet, which is the temperature of the
exhaust leaving the engine cylinders, 800 °C. As is shown, the temperature is distributed
evenly in the runners from the inlets at about 600 °C after 0.04s, and the temperature in
the joints is just below that at about 570 °C. As this region is a prime location for crack
generation (Manohar and Krishnaraj, 2018), this relatively low-temperature value will
lead to a low cyclic thermal stress on the joint which would make crack generation less
likely.

24
 (a) 0.0005s (b) 0.001s (c) 0.0015s

(d) 0.0020s (e) 0.0025s (f) 0.0030s

(g) 0.0035s (h) 0.0040s

Figure 4.3: Contour of Manifold Wall Temperature in 0.005s time step variations

Also, the outlet temperature can be seen from the contours in Figure 4.3 to be about
420-450 °C which is in tandem with the optimal temperature range of exhaust gas leav-
ing the manifold gotten from literature which is 400-500 °C (Thibblin and Olofsson,
2019).

25
4.3 Velocity Profile

(a) 0.0005s (b) 0.001s (c) 0.0015s

(d) 0.0020s (e) 0.0025s (f) 0.0030s

(g) 0.0035s (h) 0.0040s (i) 0.0045s

Figure 4.4: Velocity Streamline at different time steps

Figure 4.5: Variation of (a) inlet and (b) outlet velocities with time

As specified in the boundary conditions in the FLUENT setup, the inlet of exhaust
into the manifold varies by inlet with time according to the firing order, with the inlet
velocity varying according to the firing order as shown in Figures 4.4 and 4.5a. The
different colours represent the inlet velocities of the different pipes. It can be seen in
Figure 4.5b that the velocity at the outlet is also a periodic function with a maximum
value of 42 m/s and a minimum of 31 m/s.

26
 The flow from the inlets accelerates on joining the collective runner from inlet 4.
Maximum flow velocity in the manifold is recorded between inlets 1 and 2 at 61.884
m/s when inlets 2 and 4 are in phase. However, the flow is consistently seen to be fastest
just after inlet 1 before it flows into the manifold outlet. This can be attributed to an
increase in momentum from the flows from the individual inlets joining the flow from
the common runner. As the flow progresses, the velocity profile becomes more uniform,
with the highest velocities recorded towards the outlet of the manifold. This indicates a
more efficient flow distribution, reducing the likelihood of hotspots or uneven combus-
tion.

4.3.1 Turbulence in the Flow

The turbulent behaviour in the flow can be observed by recording the turbulence ki-
netic energy in the flow. The turbulence kinetic energy is the mean kinetic energy per
unit mass associated with eddies in turbulent flow which can be used to represent the
turbulence intensity in a given flow.

Figure 4.6: Variation of Turbulence Kinetic Energy in the flow with time

From Figure 4.6, the turbulence kinetic energy can be seen to change with time in
the direction of the flow. The average value of the turbulence kinetic energy is 17 m2 /s2
but it increases in the direction of the flow. It can be observed that at junctions, there
is some increase in turbulence. This are flow recirculation zones associated with flow
disturbances and increased turbulence. The maximum recorded value of the turbulence
K.E. is 62 m2 /s2 just after the last inlet before the outlet and just before the bend toward
the outlet. This is due to the merging of flows from different pipes as well as the change
in the direction of the pipe toward the outlet.

27
4.4 Mass Flow Rate
The plot of the mass flow rates in the inlets and outlet are shown in Figures 4.7 and 4.8
respectively. The negative value in the plot of the outlet indicates that flow is leaving
the system.

Figure 4.7: Graph of Mass Flow Rate in the inlets against time

Figure 4.8: Graph of Mass Flow Rate in the outlet against time

28
 The maximum value of the inlet flow rate is 0.045 kg/s while the maximum value
of the outlet flow rate is 0.063 kg/s.
The mass balance in the system is shown below in Figure 4.9. For mass to be
conserved in the system, the mass balance should be equal to or very close to zero.
In this system, the discrepancy between the mass flow rates in the inlets and outlets is
2.08167 ×10−17 kg/s.

Figure 4.9: Mass Balance in the manifold

4.5 Pressure Distribution

(a) 0.0005s (b) 0.001s (c) 0.0015s

(d) 0.0020s (e) 0.0025s (f) 0.0030s

Figure 4.10: Pressure contour at different 0.005s time steps

29
Figure 4.10 shows the pressure distribution in the manifold across different time steps.
It is seen that at any point in time, the upstream pressure is higher than the pressure
downstream. This is a requirement for flow to occur in the manifold. Also, the pressure
can be seen to reach negative values downstream, which shows that suction is taking
place in the manifold. This helps in drawing exhaust from the engine cylinder.

Figure 4.11: Plot of Outlet Pressure against flow time

Figure 4.11 shows the pressure variations at the outlet. The outlet pressure varies
between 8000 Pa and -8000 Pa.

30
Chapter 5

Conclusions and Recommendations

This report undertook a comprehensive analysis of fluid flow within an exhaust man-
ifold utilizing Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) to understand the distribution of
temperature, pressure, and velocity throughout the manifold and their variations as the
flow progresses from the inlets to the outlet using appropriate boundary conditions.
Examining temperature variations made it possible to track how heat was dissipated
or retained within the manifold, which is crucial for optimizing thermal performance
and mitigating potential issues such as overheating. The analysis of the velocity profile
over time allowed for the identification of flow patterns and variations in fluid velocities
within the manifold, which is instrumental in designing exhaust systems that promote
efficient gas evacuation, reduce backpressure, and enhance engine performance. The
pressure distribution and turbulence kinetic energy in the manifold were also examined.
While this study focused on an engine running at constant RPM, the methodologies
and insights gained here can be applied to a wide range of vehicle conditions, contribut-
ing to a more comprehensive understanding of exhaust manifold dynamics.

5.1 Recommendations
1. Given the significant temperature differentials observed along the manifold, it’s
recommended to explore innovative thermal management techniques. Use of heat
shields, thermal barrier coatings (TBCs), or coolants to reduce the temperature of
the manifold wall at the inlet to prevent thermal degradation of the manifold at
the cylinder head which could lead to exhaust leakage into the engine.

2. The outlet temperature recorded in this study is adequate enough for catalytic
activation in the catalytic converter (400 - 500 °C) and thus makes this design
desirable from an emissions standpoint.

3. The velocity and turbulence kinetic energy profiles show that the flow in the man-

31
 ifold is not too disorganized which could cause erosion of the manifold wall.

4. While the transient simulation approach enhances accuracy, validating the results
against real-world data could further bolster the study’s credibility. Experimenta-
tion under controlled conditions could provide empirical evidence to support the
observed temperature, velocity, and pressure trends.

32
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