CHAPTER 8

The Derivative

Learning Objectives:

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

• Solve the derivative of a function

• Familiarize with the different theorems on differentiation
• Derive algebraic, trigonometric and other function
• Derive higher order derivatives
• Compute and solve maxima and minima
• Solve equations using L’ Hopital’s Rule

Pre – Test

Before starting, try to answer the following problems

Differentiate the given functions

a. 𝑓 (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 + 3
b. 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 7 + 6𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 3
2𝑦+3
c. 𝑓 (𝑥) = 3𝑦2 −7𝑥
d. 𝑓 (𝑥) = (𝑥 3 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 9)
2𝑥+1
e. 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥+5 (3𝑥 − 3)

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The Tangent Line
Many of the important problems in calculus depend on the problem of
finding the tangent line to a given curye at a specific point on the curve. If
the curve is a circle, we know from plane geometry that the tangent line
at a point P on the circle is defined as the line intersecting the circle at only
one point P. This definition does not suffice for a curve in general.

For example, in the figure below, the line which we wish to be the tangent
line to the curve at point P intersects the curye at another point Q.

In this chapter we arrive at a suitable definition of

the tangent line to the graph of a function at a point
on the graph. We proceed by considering how we
should define the slope of the tangent line at a
point, because if we know the slope of a line and a
point on the line, the line is determined.

Let the function f be continuous at x1. We wish to define the slope of the tangent
line to the graph of f at P(x1, f(x1)). Let Q(x2, f(x2)) be another point on the graph
of f such that x2 is also in l. Draw a line through P and Q. Any line through two
points on a curve is called a secant line; therefore, the line through P and Q is a
secant line.

Refer to the figure below. In the figure, Q is to the right of P. However, Q may be
on either the right or left side of P.

Let us denote the difference of the

abscissas of Q and P by Δx so that

Δx = x2 – x1

Δx may be either positive eo

rnegative. The slope of the secant
line PQ then is given by

𝑓 (𝑥2 ) − 𝑓(𝑥1 )
𝑚𝑃𝑄 =
Δx
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Provided that line PQ is not vertical. Because 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 + 𝛥𝑥, we can write
the equation above as

𝑓(𝑥1 + 𝛥𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥1 )

𝑚𝑃𝑄 =
Δx

Now, think of point P as being fixed, and move point Q along the curve
toward P; that is, Q approaches P. This is equivalent to stating that 𝛥𝑥
approaches zero. As this occurs, the secant line turns about the fixed point
P. If this secant line has a limiting position, it is this limiting position which
we wish to be the tangent line to the graph at P. So we want the slope of
the tangent line to the graph at P to be the limit of 𝑚𝑃𝑄 as 𝛥𝑥 approaches
zero, if this limit exists.

If lim 𝑚𝑃𝑄 = +∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞ , then as 𝛥𝑥 approaches zero the line PQ

𝛥𝑥→0
approached the line through P which is parallel to the y axis. In this case
we would want the tangent line to the graph at P to be the line 𝑥 = 𝑥1 .
This leads us to the following definition.

If the function f is continuous at 𝑥1 , then the tangent line to the graph of f

at the point (x1, f(x1)) is

a. The line through P having slope m(x1), given by

𝑓(𝑥1 + 𝛥𝑥) − 𝑓 (𝑥1 )
𝑚(𝑥1 ) = lim
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx
If this limits exists;
𝑓(𝑥1+𝛥𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥1)
b. The line 𝑥 = 𝑥1 𝑖𝑓 lim = +∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx

If neither a nor b holds, then there is no tangent line to the graph of f at

the point P(x1, f(x1)).

Example 1: Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 at the
point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1)

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Solution: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 ; therefore 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑥12 − 4𝑥1 + 3 and 𝑓(𝑥1 +
𝛥𝑥) = (𝑥1 + 𝛥𝑥)2 − 4(𝑥1 + 𝛥𝑥) + 3. From equation a we have 𝑚(𝑥1 ) =
𝑓(𝑥1+𝛥𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥1)
lim Δx
𝛥𝑥→0

[((𝑥1+𝛥𝑥)2−4(𝑥1+𝛥𝑥)+3]−[𝑥12 −4𝑥1 +3]

= lim
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx

𝑥12+2𝑥1 𝛥𝑥+(𝛥𝑥)2 −4𝑥1−4𝛥𝑥+3−𝑥12 −4𝑥1 −3

= lim
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx

2𝑥1𝛥𝑥+(𝛥𝑥)2−4𝛥𝑥
= lim
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx

Because Δx ≠ 0, we can divide the numerator and the denominator by

Δx and obtain

𝑚(𝑥1 ) = lim (2𝑥1 + 𝛥𝑥 − 4) or 𝑚(𝑥1 ) = 2𝑥1 − 4

𝛥𝑥→0

Example 2: Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve of Example 1

at the point (4, 3)

Solution: Because the slope of the tangent line at any point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is
given by 𝑚(𝑥1 ) = 2𝑥1 − 4, the slope of the tangent line at the point (4,
3) is 𝑚 (4) = 2(4) − 4 = 4. Therefore, an equation of the desired line, if
we use the point-slope form is

𝑦 − 3 = 4(𝑥 − 4) which is equal to 4𝑥 − 𝑦 − 13 = 0

The normal line to a curve at a given point is the line perpendicular to the
tangent line at that point

Example 3: Find an equation of the normal line to the curve 𝑦 = √𝑥 − 3

which is parallel to the line 6x + 3y – 4 = 0

Solution: Let l be the given line. To find the slope of l we write its equation
4
in the slope – intercept form which is 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + .
3

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Therefore, the slope of l is – 2 and the slope of the desired normal line is
also – 2 because the two lines are parallel.

To find the slope of the tangent line to the given curve at any point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
we use

√𝑥1 + 𝛥𝑥 − 3 − √𝑥1 − 3
𝑚(𝑥1 ) = lim
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx

To evaluate this limit, we rationalize the numerator

(√𝑥1 + 𝛥𝑥 − 3 − √𝑥1 − 3)(√𝑥1 + 𝛥𝑥 − 3 + √𝑥1 − 3)

𝑚(𝑥1 ) = lim
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx (√𝑥1 + 𝛥𝑥 − 3 + √𝑥1 − 3)

𝛥𝑥
= lim
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx (√𝑥1 +𝛥𝑥−3+√𝑥1−3)

Dividing numerator and denominator by 𝛥𝑥 (since 𝛥𝑥 ≠ 0), we get

1
𝑚(𝑥1 ) = lim
𝛥𝑥→0 (√𝑥1 + 𝛥𝑥 − 3 + √𝑥1 − 3)

1
= 2√𝑥1−3

Because the normal line at a point is perpendicular to the tangent line at

that point, the product of their slopes is – 1. Hence, the slope of the
normal line at (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is given by −2√𝑥1 − 3. As shown before, the slope
of the desired line is – 2. So we solve the equation

2√𝑥1 − 3 = −2 giving us 𝑥1 = 4

Therefore, the desired line is the line through point (4, 1) on the curve and
has a slope of – 2. Using the point-slope form, we get

𝑦 − 1 = −2(𝑥 − 4) then 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 9 = 0

Exercise: Find an equation of the tangent line and an equation of the

normal line to the given curve at the indicated point
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 a. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5; (−2, 7)
b. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1; (1, 4)
c. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ; (−2, , 4)
1
d. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 ; (4, 8)
8
e. 𝑦 = √9 − 4𝑥; (-4, 5)

The Derivative of a Function

The derivative of the function f is that function, denoted by f ‘, such that

its value at any number x in the domain of f is given by

𝑓(𝑥+𝛥𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥) = lim Δx
if this limit exists.
𝛥𝑥→0

(𝑓 ′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑠 f prime, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 "𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥")

Another symbol that is used instead of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝐷𝑥 𝑓 (𝑥) which is read “the
derivative of f of x with respect to x”

If 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓′(𝑥) is the derivative of y with respect to x and we use

the notation 𝐷𝑥 𝑦. The notation 𝑦′ is also used for the derivative of y with
respect to an independent variable, if the independent variable is
understood.

If 𝑥1 is a particular number in the domain of f, then

𝑓(𝑥1+𝛥𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥) = lim if this limit exists.
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx

Example 1: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 12, find the derivative of 𝑓

Solution: If x is any number in the domain of 𝑓, we obtain

𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝛥𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥) = lim
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx
[3(𝑥+𝛥𝑥)2+12]−(3𝑥 2+12)
= lim
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx

3𝑥 2+6𝑥𝛥𝑥+3(𝛥𝑥)2+12−3𝑥 2−12
= lim Δx
𝛥𝑥→0
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 6𝑥𝛥𝑥+3(𝛥𝑥)2
= lim Δx
= lim (6𝑥 + 3𝛥𝑥)
𝛥𝑥→0 𝛥𝑥→0

= 6x

Therefore, the derivative of 𝑓 is the function 𝑓′ defined by 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 6𝑥.

The domain of 𝑓′ is the set of all real numbers, which is the same as the
domain of 𝑓.

If the function 𝑓 is given by the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), we can let

𝛥𝑦
𝛥𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝛥𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) and write 𝐷𝑥 𝑦 = lim .
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx

2+𝑥
Example 2: Given 𝑦 = 3−x find 𝐷𝑥 𝑦

𝛥𝑦
Solution: 𝐷𝑥 𝑦 = lim
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx

𝑓(𝑥+𝛥𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
= lim Δx
𝛥𝑥→0

(2+𝑥+𝛥𝑥)/(3−𝑥−𝛥𝑥)−(2+𝑥)/(3−𝑥)
= lim
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx

(3−𝑥)(2+𝑥+𝛥𝑥)−(2+𝑥)+(3−𝑥−𝛥𝑥)
= lim Δx(3−x−𝛥𝑥)(3−𝑥)
𝛥𝑥→0

(6+𝑥−𝑥 2+3𝛥𝑥−𝑥𝛥𝑥)−(6+𝑥−𝑥 2−2𝛥𝑥−𝑥𝛥𝑥)

= lim
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx(3−x−𝛥𝑥)(3−𝑥)

5𝛥𝑥
= lim
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx(3−x−𝛥𝑥)(3−𝑥)

5
= lim
𝛥𝑥→0 (3−x−𝛥𝑥)(3−𝑥)

5
=
(3−x−𝛥𝑥)(3−𝑥)

5
= (3−𝑥)2

Differentiability and Continuity

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Theorem: If a function 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑥1 , then 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥1

Definition: If the function 𝑓 is defined at 𝑥1 , then the derivative from the

𝑓(𝑥1+𝛥𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥1 )
right of 𝑓 at 𝑥1 , denoted by 𝑓+′ = lim + or equivalently
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥1)
𝑓+′ (𝑥1 ) = lim x−x1
if the limit exists.
𝑥→𝑥𝑖+

2𝑥 − 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 3
Example: Let 𝑓 be the function defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = {
8 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 3 ≤ 𝑥

a. Prove that 𝑓 is continuous at 3

b. Find 𝑓−′ (3) and 𝑓+′
(3), and
c. Is 𝑓 differentiable at 3?

Solution:

a) To prove that 𝑓 is continuous at 3, we verify the three conditions

for continuity at a number
(i) 𝑓 (3) = 5
(ii) lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− (2𝑥 − 1) = 5
𝑥−3 𝑥−3
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ (8 − 𝑥) = 5
𝑥−3 𝑥−3
Therefore, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 5
𝑥−3
(iii) lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑓(3)
𝑥−3
𝑓(3+𝛥𝑥)−𝑓(3)
b) 𝑓−′ (3) = lim − Δx
𝛥𝑥→0
[2(3 + 𝛥𝑥) − 1] − 5
= lim −
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx
(6 + 2𝛥𝑥) − 6
= lim −
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx
(2𝛥𝑥)
= lim −
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx
= lim − 2
𝛥𝑥→0
=2

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 𝑓(3 + 𝛥𝑥) − 𝑓(3)
𝑓+′ (3) = lim −
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx
[8 − (3 + 𝛥𝑥) − 1] − 5
= lim −
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx
(8 − 3 − 𝛥𝑥) − 5
= lim −
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx
(−𝛥𝑥)
= lim −
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx
= lim −(−1)
𝛥𝑥→0
= -1
𝑓(3+𝛥𝑥)−𝑓(3) 𝑓(3+𝛥𝑥)−𝑓(3)
c. Because lim − ≠ lim + we conclude that
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx 𝛥𝑥→0 Δx

𝑓(3+𝛥𝑥)−𝑓(3)
lim does not exist. Hence 𝑓 is not differentiable at 3.
𝛥𝑥→0 Δx
However, the derivative from the left and the derivative from the right
both exist at 3.

Exercises:

Do each of the following: a) Determine if 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥1 ; b) find

𝑓−′ (𝑥1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓+′ (𝑥1 ) if they exist and c) determine if 𝑓 is differentiable at
𝑥1 .

𝑥 + 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ −4
a. 𝑓 (𝑥) = { 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥1 = −4
−𝑥 − 6 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > −4
3 − 2𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 2
b. 𝑓 (𝑥) = { 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥1 = 2
3𝑥 − 7 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 2
𝑥 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 0
c. 𝑓 (𝑥) = { 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥1 = 0
−𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 0
d. 𝑓 (𝑥) = { 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥1 = 0
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
𝑥 2 − 4 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 2
e. 𝑓 (𝑥) = { 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥1 = 2
√𝑥 − 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 2
Some Theorems on Differentiation of Algebraic Functions

➢ If c is a constant and if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 for all 𝑥, then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0

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 Example: If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 5, then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0

➢ If 𝑛 is a positive integer and if 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1

Example: a) If 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 8 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 8𝑥 7

b) If 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1 • 𝑥 0 = 1

➢ If 𝑓 is a function, c is a constant, and g is the function defined by

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑐 • 𝑓(𝑥) then if 𝑓′(𝑥) exists, 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑐 • 𝑓′(𝑥)
Example: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 7 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 5 • 7𝑥 6 = 35𝑥 6
➢ If 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 are functions and if h is the function defined by ℎ(𝑥) =
𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) then If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 5 , then 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔′ (𝑥) exist,
ℎ ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑔′ (𝑥)
➢ The derivative of the sum of a finite number of functions is equal
to the sum of their derivatives if these derivatives exist.

Example: Given 𝑓 (𝑥) = 7𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 + 5, find 𝑓′(𝑥)

Solution: 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝐷𝑥 (7𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 + 5)

= 𝐷𝑥 (7𝑥 4 ) + 𝐷𝑥 (−2𝑥 3 ) + 𝐷𝑥 (8𝑥) + 𝐷𝑥 (5)

= 28𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 8

➢ If 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 are functions and if h is the function defined by ℎ(𝑥) =

𝑓 (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) then 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔′ (𝑥) exist, ℎ ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥) +
𝑔(𝑥)𝑓′(𝑥)

Example: Given ℎ(𝑥) = (2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 )(3𝑥 5 + 𝑥 2 ), find ℎ ′ (𝑥)

Solution: ℎ ′ (𝑥) = (2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 )(15𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 ) + (3𝑥 5 + 𝑥 2 )(6𝑥 2 − 8𝑥)

= (30𝑥 7 − 69𝑥 6 + 4𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 ) + (18𝑥 7 − 24𝑥 6 + 6𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 )

= (48𝑥 7 − 84𝑥 6 + 10𝑥 4 − 16𝑥 3 )

➢ If 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 are functions and if h is the function defined by ℎ(𝑥) =

𝑓(𝑥)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0, then if 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔′ (𝑥) exist,
𝑔(𝑥)

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 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓 ′ (𝑥) − 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑔′(𝑥)
ℎ ′ (𝑥) =
[𝑔(𝑥)]2
➢ The derivative of the quotient of two functions is the fraction
having as its denominator the square of the original denominator,
and as its numerator the denominator times the derivative of the
numerator minus the numerator times the derivative of the
denominator if these derivatives exist.
2𝑥 3+4
Example: Given ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2−4𝑥+1 , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 ℎ′(𝑥)

(𝑥 2−4𝑥+1)(6𝑥 2)−(2𝑥 3+4)(2𝑥−4)

Solution: ℎ′(𝑥) = (𝑥 2−4𝑥+1)2

6𝑥 4−24𝑥 3+6𝑥 2−4𝑥 4+8𝑥 3−8𝑥+16

= (𝑥 2−4𝑥+1)2

2𝑥 4−16𝑥 3+6𝑥 2−8𝑥+16

= (𝑥 2−4𝑥+1)2

➢ If 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 −𝑛 , where −𝑛 is a negative integer and 𝑥 ≠ 0, then

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −𝑛𝑥 −𝑛−1
3
Example: 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 6 , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑓′(𝑥)

15
Solution: 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3(−5𝑥 −6 ) = −15𝑥 −6 = − 𝑥 6

Exercises: Differentiate the given functions by applying the different

theorems
2
a. 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥5𝑥 −2
b. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 5𝑥 3 − 7𝑥
7 5

c. 𝐺 (𝑦) = 𝑦10 + 7𝑦 5 − 𝑦 3 + 1
𝑥 2+2𝑥+1
d. 𝐻 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2−2𝑥+1
𝑥 3−8
e. 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3+8

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