POLITICAL SCIENCE

Class – XII
PART – A

CONTEMPORARY WORLD POLITICS

S.NO. Contents Marks
1. The End of Bipolarity 8
2. New Centres of Power 12
3. Contemporary South Asia
4. United Nations and its Organizations 10
5. Security in Contemporary World
6. Environment and Natural Resources 10
7. Globalization

Total 40

PART – B
POLITICS IN INDIA SINCE INDEPENDENCE
S.NO. Contents Marks
1. Challenges of Nation-Building 08
2. Planned Development
3. India’s Foreign Policy 08
4. Parties and Party System in India 12
5. Democratic Resurgence
6. Regional Aspirations 12
7. Indian Politics: Recent Trends and Development

Total 40

CH-I END OF BIPOLARITY

What Was Soviet System
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) came into being after the socialist revolution in
Russia in 1917.
➢ The revolution was inspired by the ideals of socialism, as opposed to capitalism and the need for
an egalitarian society.
➢ The biggest attempt in human history to abolish the institution of private property and consciously
design a society based on principles of equality.
➢ The Soviet political system centered on the communist party.
➢ No other political party or opposition was allowed.
➢ The economy was planned and controlled by the state.
➢ The east European countries that the Soviet army had liberated from the fascist forces came under
the control of the USSR.
➢ The political and the economic systems of all these (Socialist) countries were modelled after the
USSR.
➢ This group of countries was called the Second World or the ‘Socialist Bloc’.
➢ The Warsaw Pact (1955), a military alliance, held them together. The USSR was the leader of the
Bloc.
➢ The Soviet Union became a great power after the Second World War.
➢ The Soviet economy was then more developed than the rest of the world except for the USA.
➢ It had a complex communications network, vast energy resources including Oil, Iron and Steel,
Machinery Production.
➢ Transport Sector connected its remotest areas with efficiency.
➢ It has a domestic consumer industry that produce everything from Pins to Cars.
➢ Quality of Goods and Services was not good as compare to Western Countries.
➢ Soviet state ensured a minimum standard of living for all citizens.
➢ Government subsidized basic necessities including Health, Education, Child-care and other
Welfare Schemes.
➢ There was no unemployment.
➢ State ownership was the dominant form of ownership.
➢ Land and productive assets were owned and controlled by Soviet State.
➢ Soviet System became very Bureaucratic and Authoritarian making life very difficult for citizens. Life
was difficult for the citizens.
➢ Lack of Democracy and absence of Freedom of Speech for citizens.
➢ People expressed their dissent through Jokes and Cartoons.
➢ Institutions of Soviet State needed Reform.
➢ One Party system represented by Communist Party.
➢ Communist Party was not Accountable to the people.
➢ 15 Republics formed Soviet Union.
➢ Russia was only one of the 15 Republics.
➢ People from other regions felt neglected and often suppressed.
➢ Soviet Union lagged behind in Technology and Infrastructure as compare to the West.
➢ Political and Economic aspirations was not fulfilled.
➢ Soviet invasion in Afghanistan in 1979 weakened the economic conditions.
➢ Shortage of all Consumer Goods.
➢ Food was imported.
➢ Soviet Economy was Faltering and Stagnant.

Gorbachev and the Disintegration:

➢ Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary of Communist Party in 1985.
Information and Technological revolution taking place in West.
➢ Decision of Gorbachev was to Normalize Relations with the West.
➢ The people of East European Countries started to protest against their own Government and Soviet
Control.
➢ Gorbachev initiated the policies of economic and political reform and democratization.
➢ Reforms were opposed by leaders within the Communist Party.
➢ A Coup took place in 1991.
➢ This coup encouraged by Communist Party hardliners.
➢ Boris Yeltsin emerged as a National Hero in opposing coup.
➢ Boris Yeltsin won election and shake off Centralized Control.
➢ Power began to shift from Soviet Centre to Republics.
➢ The Central Asian Republics did not ask for independence.
➢ Central Asian Republics (CARs) wanted to remain with Soviet Federation.
➢ Under the leadership of Yeltsin, Russia, Ukraine and Belarus declared that Soviet Union was
disbanded.
➢ Communist Party was banned.
➢ Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) came as other Republics.
➢ Russia was now accepted as the successor state of the Soviet Union.
➢ Russia accepted all the International Treaties and commitments of the Soviet Union.
➢ The Old Soviet Union was dead and buried.

Why did Soviet Union Disintegrate?

➢ Internal weaknesses of Soviet Political and Economic institution was failed to fulfilled aspirations of
the people.
➢ Economic Stagnation.
➢ Shortages of Consumer Goods.
➢ Large section of the society began doubt.
➢ The Soviet economy used much of its resources in maintaining a nuclear and military arsenal.
➢ This led to a huge economic burden.
➢ Ordinary citizens became more knowledgeable about the economic advance of the West.
➢ They could see the disparities between their system and the systems of the West.
➢ The reality of its backwardness came as a political and psychological shock.
➢ The Soviet Union had become stagnant in an administrative political sense.
➢ The Communist Party that had ruled the Soviet Union for over 70 years.
➢ The Communist Party was not accountable to the people.
➢ Rampant corruption.
➢ Inability of the system to correct mistakes.
➢ The unwillingness to allow more openness in government.
➢ Centralization of authority in a vast land.
➢ The party bureaucrats gained more privileges than ordinary citizens.
➢ Gorbachev promised to reform the economy and loosen the administrative system.
➢ Gorbachev’s accurate diagnosis of the problem.
➢ There were sections of Soviet society which felt that Gorbachev should have moved much faster.
➢ They did not benefit in the way they had hoped, or they benefited too slowly.
➢ In this ‘tug of war’, Gorbachev lost support on all sides and divided public opinion.
➢ People felt that he did not adequately defend his own policies.
➢ The rise of nationalism and the desire for sovereignty within various republics including Russia.
Baltic Republics (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania), Ukraine, Georgia, and others proved to be the
final and most immediate cause for the disintegration of the USSR.
➢ During the Cold War many thought that nationalist unrest would be strongest in the Central Asian
republics.
➢ Ethnic and religious differences with the rest of the Soviet Union.
➢ The collapse of the second world of the Soviet Union and the socialist systems in Eastern Europe had
profound consequences for world politics.
➢ Three broad kinds of enduring changes that resulted from it.

• I - End of Cold War:

❖ Ideological dispute over.
❖ Capitalist system was not an issue.
❖ Dispute had engaged the military of the two blocs, had triggered a massive arms race and
accumulation of nuclear weapons.
❖ End of the confrontation demanded an end to this arms race and a possible new peace.

• II- Power Relations Changed:

❖ The end of the Cold War open only two possibilities: 1- world dominate, 2- create a unipolar
system.
❖ Different countries or groups of countries could become important players in the international system,
thereby bringing in a multi-polar system.
❖ Where no one power could dominate. As it turned out, the US became the sole superpower.
❖ The capitalist economy was now the dominant economic system internationally.

• III- Emergence of New Countries:

❖ WARSAW countries had their own independent aspirations.
❖ The Baltic and East European States, wanted to join the European Union and become part of the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
❖ The Central Asian countries wanted to take advantage of their geographical location and continue
their close ties with Russia.
❖ The international system saw many new countries emerge, each with its own identity, interests, and
economic and political difficulties.

Shock Therapy
➢ Countries by a painful process of transition from an authoritarian socialist system to a democratic
capitalist system.
➢ The model of transition in Russia, Central Asia and east Europe that was influenced by the World
Bank and the IMF came to be known as ‘Shock Therapy’.
➢ Shock therapy varied in intensity and speed amongst the former second world countries, but its
direction and features were quite similar.
➢ These countries were required to make a total shift to a capitalist economy,
➢ Private ownership was to be the dominant pattern of ownership of property.
➢ Privatization of state assets and corporate ownership patterns were to be immediately brought in.
➢ Collective farms were to be replaced by private farming and capitalism in agriculture.
➢ Shock therapy also involved a drastic change in the external orientation of economies.
➢ The free trade regime and foreign direct investment (FDI) were to be the main engines of change.
This involved openness to foreign investment, financial opening up or deregulation and currency
convertibility.

Consequences of Shock Therapy

➢ Shock therapy did not lead the people into the promised utopia of mass consumption.
➢ Ruin to the economies.
➢ Large state-controlled over industrial complex almost collapsed.
➢ 90 per cent of its industries were put up for sale to private individuals.
➢ Restructuring was carried out through market forces and not by government-directed industrial
policies. This was called ‘the largest garage sale in history’, as valuable industries were
undervalued and sold at throwaway prices.
➢ Vouchers were given to citizens.
➢ Citizens sold their vouchers in the black market because they needed the money.
➢ The value of the RUBLE, (Russian currency) declined dramatically.
➢ Rate of inflation was so high.
➢ People lost all their savings.
➢ The collective farm system disintegrated.
➢ Russia started to import food.
➢ The old trading structure broke down.
➢ The old system of social welfare was systematically destroyed.
➢ Withdrawal of government subsidies.
➢ Large sections of the people fell into poverty.
➢ The middle classes were pushed to the periphery of society,
➢ Academic and intellectual manpower disintegrated or migrated.
➢ A mafia emerged in these countries and started controlling many economic activities.
➢ Privatization led to new disparities.
➢ Russia, were divided between rich and poor regions.
➢ The construction of democratic institutions was not given the same attention and priority as the
demands of economic transformation.
➢ The constitutions of all these countries were drafted in a hurry, including Russia.
➢ In Central Asia, the presidents had great powers and became very authoritarian.
➢ The presidents of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan appointed themselves to power first for ten years.
➢ Economy of Russia, started reviving in 2000, ten years after their independence.
➢ The reason for the revival for most of their economies was the export of natural resources like oil,
natural gas and minerals.
➢ Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan are major oil and gas producers.

Tensions and Conflict

➢ Soviet Republics are prone to conflicts and many have civil wars and insurgencies.
➢ In Russia, two republics, Chechnya and Dagestan, have had violent secessionist movements.
➢ Moscow’s method of dealing with the Chechen rebels and indiscriminate military bombings have led to
many human rights violations but failed to deter the aspirations for independence.
➢ Tajikistan witnessed a civil war that went on for ten years till 2001.
In Azerbaijan’s province of Nagorno-Karabakh, some local Armenians want to secede and join
Armenia.
➢ In Georgia, the demand for independence has come from two provinces, resulting in a civil war.
➢ There are movements against the existing regimes in Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan and Georgia. Countries
and provinces are fighting over river waters.
➢ The Central Asian Republics are areas with vast Hydrocarbon Resources, which have brought them
economic benefit.
➢ Central Asia has also become a zone of competition between outside powers and oil companies.
➢ After 11 September 2001, the US wanted military bases in the region.
➢ Russia perceives these states as its ‘Near Abroad’ and believes that they should be under Russian
influence.
➢ China has interests here because of the oil resources.
➢ Czechoslovakia split peacefully into two, with the Czechs and the Slovaks forming independent
countries.
➢
➢ Balkan republics of Yugoslavia. After 1991, it broke apart with several provinces like Croatia,
Slovenia and Bosnia and Herzegovina declaring independence.

India and Post-Communist

➢ India has maintained good relations with all the post-communist countries strongest relations are still
those between Russia and India.
➢ India’s relations with Russia are an important aspect of India’s foreign policy.
➢ Indo-Russian relations are embedded in a history of trust and common interests.
➢ Russia and India share a vision of a multipolar world order.
➢ A Multipolar World is the co-existence of several powers in the international system, collective
security greater regionalism, negotiated settlements of international conflicts and an independent
foreign policy for all countries.
➢ More than 80 Bi-lateral Agreements have been signed between India and Russia as part of the Indo-
Russian Strategic Agreement of 2001.
➢ India stands to benefit from its relationship with Russia on issues like Kashmir, Energy Supplies,
➢ Sharing information on international terrorism access to Central Asia, and balancing its relations with
China.
➢ India is the Second Largest Arms Market for Russia.
➢ The Indian military gets most of its Hardware from Russia.
➢ India is an Oil Importing Nation.
➢ India is seeking to increase its energy imports from Russia and the republics of Kazakhstan and
Turkmenistan.
➢ Russia is important for India’s Nuclear Energy plans and assisted India’s Space Industry by giving,
for example, the Cryogenic Rocket when India needed it.
➢ Russia and India have collaborated on various Scientific Projects.

CH-II NEW CENTERS OF POWER

Gist of New Centers of Power
➢ ASEAN – Association of South East Asian Nations.
➢ EU – European Union.
➢ In 1945, the European states confronted the ruin of their economies and the destruction of the
assumptions and structures on which Europe had been founded.
➢ European integration after 1945 was aided by the Cold War.
➢ America extended massive financial help for reviving Europe’s economy under the ‘Marshall Plan’. ➢
The US also created a new collective security structure under NATO.
➢ Under the Marshall Plan, the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was
established in 1948 to channel aid to the West European States.
➢ It became a forum where the western European states began to cooperate on trade and economic
issues.
➢ The Council of Europe established in 1949, was another step forward in political cooperation.
➢ The process of economic integration of European capitalist countries proceeded step by step leading
to the formation of the European Economic Community in 1957.
➢ This process acquired a political dimension with the creation of the European Parliament.
➢ The collapse of the Soviet bloc put Europe on a fast track and resulted in the establishment of the
European Union in 1992.
The foundation was thus laid for a common foreign and security policy cooperation on justice and
home affairs, and the creation of a single currency.
➢ The EU has started to act more as a nation state.
➢ A Constitution for the EU have failed, it has its own flag, anthem, founding date, and currency.
➢ It also has some form of a common foreign and security policy in its dealings with other nations.
➢ The European Union has tried to expand areas of cooperation.
➢ Many countries are not very enthusiastic in giving the EU powers.
➢ The EU has economic, political and diplomatic, and military influence.
➢ The EU is the world’s biggest economy.
➢ Its currency, the Euro, can pose a threat to the dominance of the US dollar.
➢ Its share of world trade is three times larger.
➢ It also functions as an important bloc in international economic organizations such as the World Trade
Organization (WTO).
➢ The EU also has political and diplomatic influence.
➢ Two members of the EU, Britain and France, hold permanent seats on the UN Security Council.
➢ The EU includes several non-permanent members of the UNSC.
➢ Its use of diplomacy, economic investments, and negotiations rather than coercion and military
force has been effective as in the case of its dialogue with China on human rights and environmental
degradation.
➢ Military, The EU’s combined armed forces are the second largest in the world.
➢ The EU’s total expenditure on defence is second after the US.
➢ Two EU member states, Britain and France, also have nuclear arsenals.
➢ It is also the world’s second most important source of space and communications technology.
➢ The EU is able to intervene in economic, political and social areas.

EUROPEAN UNION
➢ Member states have their own foreign relations and defence policies.
➢ Britain’s Prime Minister Tony Blair was America’s partner in the Iraq invasion.
➢ EU’s newer members made up the US led ‘coalition of the willing’ whereas Germany and France
opposed American policy.
➢ There is also a deep-seated ‘Euro Skepticism’ in some parts of Europe about the EU’s integrationist
agenda.
➢ Britain’s former Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, kept the UK out of the European Market.
➢ Denmark and Sweden have resisted the Maastricht Treaty and the adoption of the euro, the common
European currency.
ASEAN
➢ During the Second World War, South –East Asian region suffered the economic and political
consequences.
➢ It confronted problems of nation-building, the ravages of poverty and economic backwardness and
the pressure to align with one great power or another during the Cold War.
➢ Efforts at Asian and Third World unity, such as the Bandung Conference and the Non-Aligned
Movement, were ineffective in establishing the conventions for informal cooperation and interaction.
➢ The Southeast Asian nations sought an alternative by establishing the Association for South East
Asian Nations (ASEAN).
➢ ASEAN was established in 1967 by five countries Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore
and Thailand (Five Founder) — by signing the Bangkok Declaration.
The objectives of ASEAN were primarily to accelerate economic growth and through that ‘social
progress and cultural development.
➢ Secondary objective was to promote regional peace and stability based on the rule of law and the
principles of the United Nations Charter.
➢ Over the years, Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam, Lao PDR, Myanmar (Burma) and Cambodia joined
ASEAN taking its strength to ten.
➢ Unlike the EU there is little desire in ASEAN for supranational structures and institutions.
➢ The ‘ASEAN Way’, a form of interaction that is informal, non-confrontationist and cooperative. The
respect for national sovereignty is critical to the functioning of ASEAN.
➢ The fastest growing economies in the world, ASEAN broadened its objectives beyond the economic
and social spheres.
➢ Three pillars, namely, the ASEAN Security Community, the ASEAN Economic Community and
the ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community in 2003.
➢ The ASEAN security community was based on the conviction that outstanding territorial disputes
should not escalate into armed confrontation.
➢ ASEAN had several agreements in place by which member states promised to uphold peace,
neutrality, cooperation, non-interference and respect for national differences and sovereign
rights.
➢ The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), which was established in 1994.
➢ The objectives of ARF is the organization that carries out coordination of security and foreign
policy.
➢ ASEAN was and still remains principally an economic association.
➢ ASEAN region as a whole is a much smaller economy compared to the US, the EU, and Japan. Its
economy is growing much faster than all these.
➢ The objectives of the ASEAN Economic Community are to create a common market and
production base within ASEAN states and to aid social and economic development in the region.
➢ The Economic Community like to improve the existing ASEAN Dispute Settlement Mechanism to
resolve economic disputes.
➢ ASEAN has focused on creating a Free Trade Area (FTA) for investment, labor, and services.
➢ The US and China have already moved fast to negotiate FTAs with ASEAN.
➢ ASEAN is rapidly growing into a very important regional organization.
➢ Vision 2020 :- has defined an outward-looking role for ASEAN in the international community. This
builds on the existing ASEAN policy to encourage negotiation over conflicts in the region.
➢ ASEAN has mediated the end of Cambodian conflict and East Timor crisis.
➢ Economic strength of ASEAN relevance as a trading and investment partner.
➢ During the Cold War years Indian foreign policy did not pay adequate attention to ASEAN.
➢ India has tried to make amends in FTA and signed FTAs with three ASEAN members, Singapore,
Malaysia and Thailand. India sign an FTA with ASEAN itself in 2010.
➢ ASEAN’s strength :- policies of interaction and consultation with member states.
➢ ASEAN is the only regional association in Asia that provides a political forum where Asian countries
and the major powers can discuss political and security concerns.

Rise of the Chinese Economy

➢ Third major alternative Center of power is China.
➢ China’s economic success since 1978 has been linked to its rise as a great power.
➢ China has been the fastest growing economy.
The US as the world’s largest economy by 2040.
➢ Its economic integration into the region makes it the driver of East Asian growth.
➢ It enormous influence in regional affairs.
➢ The strength of its Economic factors such as population, land mass, resources, regional location
and political influence, together with other.
➢ People’s Republic of China in 1949, following the communist revolution under the leadership of Mao.
➢ Its economy was based on the Soviet model.
➢ The economically backward communist China chose to sever its links with the capitalist world.
➢ The model was to create a state-owned heavy industries sector from the capital accumulated from
agriculture.
➢ It was short of foreign exchange.
➢ It needed in order to buy technology and goods on the world market.
➢ China decided to substitute imports by domestic goods.
➢ Employment and social welfare was assured to all citizens.
➢ China moved ahead of most developing countries in educating its citizens and ensuring better health.
➢ The economy also grew at a respectable rate of 5-6 per cent.
➢ But an annual growth of 2-3 per cent in population meant that economic growth was insufficient.
➢ Agricultural production was not sufficient to generate a surplus for industry.
➢ A similar crisis was to faced China - its industrial production was not growing fast enough,
international trade was minimal and per capita income was very low.
➢ The Chinese leadership took major policy decisions in the 1970s.
➢ China ended its political and economic isolation with the establishment of relations with the United
States in 1972.
➢ Zhou Enlai proposed the ‘Four Modernizations’ (Agriculture, Industry, Science and Technology and
Military) in 1973.
➢ Deng Xiaoping announced the ‘Open Door’ policy and economic reforms in China in 1978.
➢ The policy was to generate higher productivity by investments of capital and technology.
➢ China followed its own path in introducing a market economy.
➢ Chinese did not go for ‘shock therapy’ but opened their economy step by step.
➢ The privatization of agriculture was followed in 1982.
➢ Privatization of industry was followed in 1998.
➢ Trade barriers were eliminated only in Special Economic Zones (SEZs).
➢ In China, the state played central role in setting up a market economy.
➢ New economic policies helped the Chinese economy to break from stagnation.
➢ Privatization of agriculture led to a remarkable rise in agricultural production and rural incomes.
➢ Personal savings in the rural economy lead to an exponential growth in rural industry.
➢ Chinese economy grew a faster rate including both industry and agriculture.
➢ New trading laws and the creation of Special Economic Zones led to rise in foreign trade.
➢ China has become the most important destination for foreign direct investment (FDI) in the world. ➢
China has large foreign exchange reserves.
➢ China’s accession to the WTO in 2001 has been a further step in its opening to the outside world.
➢ China plans to deepen its integration into the world economy and shape the future world economic
order.
➢ China has become an economic power regionally and globally.
➢ Fears of China’s rise have also been mitigated by its contributions to the stability of the ASEAN
economies after the 1997 financial crisis.

India-China Relations
➢ India and China are great powers in Asia. China has long history of dynastic rulers. Mongolia, Korea
was the parts of Indo-China.
➢ Tibet accepted China’s authority.
➢ Various kingdoms and empires in India also extended their influence beyond their Borders.
➢ India and China exercised influence rarely ever overlapped.
➢ There was limited political and cultural interaction.
➢ There is a hope that both the countries would come together to shape the future.
➢ The slogan of ‘Hindi-Chini Bhai-Bhai’ was popular.
➢ Military conflict over a border dispute.
➢ Both states were involved in differences arising when the Chinese takeover over the Tibet in 1950.
➢ China and India were involved in a border conflict in 1962, territorial claims in Arunachal Pradesh
and Aksai Chin region of Ladakh.
➢ The conflict of 1962, in which India suffered military reverses, which had long-term implications for
India–China relations.
➢ Diplomatic relations between the two countries were downgraded until 1976.
➢ China’s policy became more pragmatic and less ideological.
➢ A series of talks to resolve the border issue were also initiated in 1981.
➢ After the end of the Cold War, there have been significant changes in India– China relations.
➢ Their relations are now strategic as well as an economic.
➢ As rising powers in global politics, both the countries play a major role in the Asian economy and
politics.
➢ In December 1988, Rajiv Gandhi’s (Prime Minister) visited to China provided an improvement in
Indo-China Relations.
➢ India China have taken measures to contain conflict and maintain ‘peace and tranquility’ on the
border.
➢ They have also signed agreements on cultural exchanges, cooperation in science and technology
and opened four border posts for trade.
➢ Bilateral trade relations between India and China has increased. Both countries have agreed to
cooperate with each other.
➢ India and China have adopted similar policies in international Issues like the World Trade
Organization and Environment.
 ➢ Conflict between India and China : Nuclear Tests in 1998, China’s military relations with Bangladesh
and Myanmar, Border Disputes, Arunachal Pradesh and Aksai Chin. ➢ India and China are now
becoming more familiar with each other.

CH-3 CONTEMPORARY SOUTH ASIA

Gist of Contemporary South Asia
➢ SAARC- South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (8 December,1985)
➢ Secretariat – Kathmandu in Nepal
➢ The expression ‘South Asia’ usually includes the following countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Afghanistan.
➢ South Asia -Himalayas in the north and the vast Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the Bay of
Bengal in the south, west and east respectively provide a natural insularity to the region, which is
largely responsible for the linguistic, social and cultural distinctiveness of the subcontinent.
➢ China is not considered to be a part of the region.
➢ South Asia stands for Diversity in every sense and yet constitutes one Geo-Political space.
➢ Many countries in South Asia do not have the same kind of political systems.
➢ Pakistan and Bangladesh have experienced both civilian and military rulers.
➢ Pakistan began successive democratic governments under Benazir Bhutto (1988) and Nawaz
Sharif respectively.
Pakistan suffered a military coup in 13 October, 1999.
Till 2006, Nepal was a constitutional monarchy with the king taking over executive powers.
➢ A successful popular uprising led to the restoration of democracy and reduced the powers of the king
to a nominal position in 2006.
➢ The experience of Bangladesh and Nepal, we can say that democracy is becoming an accepted
norm in the entire region of South Asia.
➢ Bhutan is still a monarchy but the king has initiated plans for its transition to multi-party democracy.
➢ The Maldives, the other island nation, was a Sultanate till 1968 when it was transformed into a
republic with a presidential form of government.
➢ In June 2005, the parliament of the Maldives voted unanimously to introduce a multi-party system.
➢ The Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP) dominates the political affairs of the island.
➢ Democracy strengthened in the Maldives after the 2005 elections.
➢ The people of all these countries share the aspiration for democracy.
➢ The attitudes of the people in the five big countries (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Nepal)
of South Asian Region showed widespread support for democracy in all these countries.
➢ Rich as well as poor and belonging to different religions, have the idea of democracy and support the
representative democracy.
➢ In earlier, It was believed that democracy could flourish and find support only in prosperous countries
of the world.
➢ The South Asian countries experience of democracy have expanded the global imagination of
democracy.
MILITATRY AND DEMOCRACY IN PAKISTAN
➢ In Pakistan, General Ayyub Khan took over the administration of the country.
➢ General Ayyub Khan got himself elected and to give up office when there was popular dissatisfaction
against his rule.
➢ This gave way to a military takeover once again under General Yahya Khan.
➢ During Yahya’s military rule, Pakistan faced the Bangladesh crisis, and after a war with India in
1971,
➢ East Pakistan broke away to emerge as an independent country called Bangladesh.
➢ An elected government under the leadership of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto came to power in Pakistan from
1971 to 1977.
➢ The Bhutto government was removed by General Zia-Ul-Haq in 1977.
➢ General Zia faced a pro-democracy movement from 1982 onwards
➢ An elected democratic government was established once again in 1988 under the leadership of
Benazir Bhutto.
➢ Pakistan politics centered on the competition between the Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) and the
Muslim League (ML).
➢ The elective democracy lasted till 1999 when the army stopped in again. General Pervez Musharraf
removed Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif.
➢ In 2001, General Musharraf got himself elected as the President.
➢ Several factors have contributed to Pakistan’s failure in building a stable democracy : - The
social dominance of the military, clergy and landowning aristocracy has led to the frequent
overthrow of elected governments.
Pakistan’s conflict with India has made the Pro-Military groups more powerful.
Political parties and democracy in Pakistan are flawed, that Pakistan’s security would be harmed
by selfish-minded parties and chaotic democracy.
➢ Pakistan has a courageous and relatively Free Press and a strong human rights movement. ➢ The
lack of genuine international support for democratic rule in Pakistan ➢ Pakistan has further
encouraged the military to continue its dominance.
➢ United States and other Western countries have their fear of the threat of what they call ‘Global
Islamic Terrorism’.
➢ Pakistan’s nuclear arsenal might fall into the hands of these terrorist groups,
➢ The military regime in Pakistan has been seen as the protector of Western interests in West Asia and
South Asia.

DEMOCRACY IN BANGLADESH
➢ Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan from 1947 to 1971.It consisted of the partitioned areas of Bengal
and Assam from British India.
➢ The people of this region resented the domination of western Pakistan and the imposition of the
Urdu language.
➢ After the partition, People began protests against the unfair treatment meted out to the Bengali
culture and language
➢ People also demanded fair representation in administration and a fair share in political power.
➢ Sheikh Mujib-Ur-Rehman led the popular struggle against West Pakistan domination.
➢ Sheikh Mujib-Ur-Rehman demanded autonomy for the Eastern Region.
➢ The Awami League led by Sheikh Mujib won all the seats in East Pakistan and secured a majority in
the proposed constituent assembly for the whole of Pakistan in the 1970 elections.
➢ West Pakistan leaders refused to convene the assembly.
➢ Sheikh Mujib was arrested. Under the military rule of General Yahya Khan, ➢ Pakistan’s army tried to
suppress the mass movement of the Bengali people.
➢ Thousands were killed by the Pakistan army. This led to a large-scale migration and creating a huge
refugee problem for India.
➢ India supported the demand of the people of East Pakistan for their independence and helped them
financially and militarily.
➢ This resulted in a war between India and Pakistan in December 1971 that ended in the surrender of
the Pakistani forces in East Pakistan
➢ This was formation of Bangladesh as an independent country.
➢ Bangladesh drafted its constitution declaring faith in secularism, democracy and socialism.
➢ In 1975 Sheikh Mujib got the constitution amended to shift from the parliamentary to Presidential
form of government.
➢ The military ruler, Zia-Ur-Rahman, formed his own Bangladesh National Party and won elections in
1979.
➢ Military takeover followed under the leadership of Gen H. M. Ershad.
➢ The people of Bangladesh soon rose in support of the demand for democracy.
➢ Mass public protests made Ershad step down in 1990. Elections were held in 1991.
➢ Since then, representative democracy based on Multi-Party Elections has been working in
Bangladesh.

MONARCHY IN NEPAL
Nepal was a Hindu kingdom in the past and then a constitutional monarchy.
Political Parties and common people of Nepal have wanted a more open and responsive system of
government.
➢ The king accepted the demand for a new democratic constitution in 1990, democratic governments
had a short.
➢ The Maoists of Nepal believed in Armed Insurrection against the monarch and the ruling elite.
This led to a violent conflict between the Maoist guerrillas and the armed forces of the king ➢ There
was a Triangular Conflict among the Monarchist Forces, Democrats and Maoists. ➢ The king
abolished the parliament and dismissed the government in 2002 ➢ In April 2006, there were
massive, country wide, pro-democracy protests.
➢ The king was forced to restore the House of Representatives
➢ The non-violent movement was led by the Seven Party Alliance (SPA), Maoists and Social
Activists.
➢ The Maoist groups have agreed to suspend armed struggle.
➢ The Maoist want to include the Radical Programmes of social and economic restructuring in the
constitution.
➢ Nepal become a Democratic Republic after abolition of Monarchy in 2008.
➢ Nepal adopted New Constitution from 2015.

ETHNIC CONFLICT AND DEMOCRACY IN SRI LANKA

➢ Sri Lanka was known as Ceylon.
➢ Sri Lanka has retained its democracy since 1948. Sri Lanka faced a serious challenge, from the
military, monarchy and ethnic conflict. They demand for secession by one of the regions.
➢ Sri Lanka was dominated by forces that represented the interest of the majority Sinhala community.
➢ Sinhala community were hostile to a large number of Tamils who had migrated from India to Sri Lanka
➢ The Sinhala nationalists thought that Sri Lanka should not give ‘concessions’ to the Tamils because
Sri Lanka belongs to the Sinhala people only.
➢ The neglect of Tamil concerns led to militant Tamil Nationalism
➢ The militant organization, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) has been fighting an armed
struggle with the army of Sri Lanka and demanding ‘Tamil Eelam’ or a separate country for the Tamils
of Sri Lanka from 1983.
➢ The Sri Lankan involves people of Indian origin in their problems.
➢ The government of India negotiate with the Sri Lankan government on the Tamil Question
➢ India signed an accord with Sri Lanka and sent troops to stabilize relations between the Sri Lankan
government and the Tamils in 1987,
➢ The presence of Indian troops was not liked by the Sri Lankans.
➢ Sri Lankan Government think that India is interfering in the internal affairs of Sri Lanka.
➢ In 1989, the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) pulled out of Sri Lanka without attaining its objective.
➢ The Sri Lankan crisis continues to be violent.
➢ The Scandinavian countries such as Norway and Iceland have been trying to bring the warring
groups back to negotiations.
 ➢ Sri Lanka has registered considerable economic growth in spite of the ongoing conflict.
➢ Sri Lanka recorded high levels of human development.

Sri Lanka was one of the first developing countries to successfully control the rate of growth of
population.
➢ Sri Lanka was the first country in the region to liberalize the economy.

INDIA-PAKISTAN CONFLICT
➢ India won a decisive war against Pakistan but the Kashmir issue remained unsettled in 1971.
➢ India’s conflict with Pakistan is strategic issues like the control of the Siachen glacier and acquisition
of arms.
➢ Acquire nuclear weapons and missiles to deliver arms against to each other.
➢ India conducted Nuclear Test at Pokhran May, 1974
➢ Pakistan conducted nuclear tests in the Chagai Hills in 1999.
➢ The Indian government has blamed the Pakistan government for using a strategy of low-key
violence by helping the Kashmiri militants with arms, training, money and protection to carry out
terrorist strikes against India.
➢ Indian government also believes that Pakistan had aided Pro- Khalistani Militants with arms. Its spy
agency Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), is involved in various anti-India campaigns through
Bangladesh and Nepal.
➢ The government of Pakistan, blames the Indian government and its security agencies for fomenting
trouble in the provinces of Sindh and Baluchistan.
➢ India and Pakistan have had problems over the sharing of river waters. India and Pakistan signed
the ‘Indus Waters Treaty’ with the help of the World Bank, In 1960.
➢ The two countries are not in agreement over the demarcation line in Sir Creek in the Rann of Kutch.

INDIA AND IT’S NEIGHBOURS

INDIA + BANGLADESH

CONFLICTS
➢ India and Bangladesh have had differences on several issues including the sharing of the Ganga and
Brahmaputra river waters.
➢ Illegal Immigration to India,
➢ Support for anti-Indian, Islamic fundamentalist groups.
➢ Bangladesh’s refusal to allow Indian troops to move through its territory to North-Eastern India, ➢
Bangladesh did not allow to export Natural Gas through Myanmar.
➢ Encouraging rebellion in the Chittagong Hill Tracts,

COOPERATION
➢ Economic relations have improved considerably.
➢ Bangladesh is a part of India’s Look East policy, Disaster Management and Environmental Issues.

INDIA + NEPAL

➢ Indian government has often expressed displeasure at the warm relationship between Nepal and
China.
➢ Nepal government’s inaction against anti- Indian elements.
Indian security agencies see Maoist movement in Nepal as a growing security threat to India.
➢ Many leaders and citizens in Nepal think that the Indian government interferes in its internal affairs,
has designs on its river waters and hydro-electricity, and prevents Nepal, a landlocked country,
from getting easier access to the sea through Indian Territory.
➢ Indo-Nepal relations are fairly stable and peaceful.
INDIA + SRI LANKA
➢ India and Sri Lanka relations are not normalizing on the issue ethnic conflict in the island nation.
➢ India prefers a policy of disengagement vis-à-vis Sri Lanka’s internal troubles.
➢ India signed a free trade agreement with Sri Lanka.

INDIA + BHUTAN
➢ India has a very special relationship with Bhutan and does not have any major conflict with the
Bhutan.
➢ India is involved in big Hydroelectric Projects in Bhutan

INDIA + MALDIVES
➢ India’s relations with Maldives are cordial.
➢ In November 1988, when some Tamil mercenaries from Sri Lanka attacked the Maldives, On the
request of Maldives Government the Indian air force and Navy reacted quickly and stop the invasion.

PEACE AND COOPERATION

➢ The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is a major regional initiative by the
South Asian states to evolve cooperation through multilateral means.
➢ SAARC members signed the South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) which promised the
formation of a free trade zone for the whole of South Asia.
➢ SAFTA was signed in 2004 and came into effect on 1 January 2006. SAFTA aims at lowering trade
tariffs by 20 percent by 2007.
➢ SAFTA is influenced by outside powers.
➢ China and the United States remain key players in South Asian politics.
➢ The demands of development and globalization have brought the two Asian giants closer and their
economic ties have multiplied rapidly since 1991.

CH-4 UNITED NATIONS AND ITS ORGANIZATIONS

“The United Nations was not created to take humanity to heaven, but to save it from hell” - Dag
Hammarskjold, (The UN's Second Secretary General).
The United Nations was founded at 24th October 1945. It consisted 51 countries at the time of establishment.
Now it is composed of 193-member countries.

Objectives of UNO:
1. Maintain peace and security in the world.
2. To stop war and international Disputes.
3. Protection of Human Rights.
4. Economic Development of the world.
5. Promote international Co-operation.

Organs of the United Nations Organization –

 Name of Organ Number of Members Headquarter
Security Council 5 Permanent + 10 New York
nonpermanent= 15 total
members
General Assembly 193 New York
Trusteeship Council Suspended on 1 Nov. 1994 New York
International Court of Justice 15 Judges Hague
Secretariat Secretary Generals secretariat New York
Social and Economic Council 54 New York

The most powerful part of the united nation is the security council.
It has 15 members, USA, Russia, China, France and Britain.
5 members are permanent members and the rest of the members are non-permanent members.
Permanent members have veto power.
The secretary General of the United Nations is the representative of the United Nations.
The present secretary General of the United Nations is Antonio Guterres from Portugal.

S.NO Secretary-General Country Term

1. Trygve Lie Norway 2 February 1946 – 10 November 1952

2. Dag Hammarskjöld Sweden 10 April 1953 – 18 September 1961

3. U Thant Burma (Myanmar) 3 November 1961-31 December 1971

4. Kurt Waldheim Austria 1 January 1972 – 31 December 1981

5. Javier Pérez de Cuellar Peru 1 January 1982 – 31 December 1991

6. Boutros Boutros-Ghali Egypt 1 January 1992 – 31 December 1996

7. Kofi Annan Ghan 1 January 1997 – 31 December 2006

a
8. Ban Ki-moon South Korea 1 January 2007 – 31 December 2016

9. António Guterres Portugal 1 January 2017 – present

• India has always been a consistent nation in giving contribution in United Nations.
• India has always given its balanced opinion on the matter of Security, Disarmament, South Korea
crisis, Suez Canal and the Iraq invasion of Kuwait.
• India has played an important role in human rights protection, against colonialism, racism.
• India also promoted and become a part of the educational, financial and cultural activities of United
Nations.

The points defending the Permanent Membership of India in United Nations-

• Largest population in the world.
• Stable democracy and obligations towards human rights.
• A rising economy.
• A continuous support to the United Nations in monetary budget.
• India's role in peace.
Measures to make the United Nations relevant in a Uni-polar world-
1. Establishment of Peace building Commission.
2. Establishment of Human Rights Council.
 3.
Agreed to achieve the Millennium development goals (MDGs).
4.
Creation of Democratic Fund.
5.
Elimination of the terrorism in all its forms and manifestations.
6.
Wind up the Trusteeship Council.
Key Agencies of UNO:
1. UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was
established on 4 November 1946.
Headquarter is in Paris, France.
UNESCO is a special body of the United Nations whose main objective is to promote education,
natural science, society and anthropology, culture and communication.
UNESCO promotes literacy, technical, educational training and independent media etc. all across its
member nations.

2. UNICEF
The United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) was established in
1946.
Main task to collect emergency funds for children and to help in their development work all across
the world.
UNICEF helps and encourages the works that promote children's health and better life in all parts of
the world.
Headquarter is in New York, United States.
UNICEF working successfully in almost 193 countries of the world.

3. ILO
The International Labor Organization (ILO), founded in October 1919. Headquarter is
in Geneva, Switzerland.

Promote efficient conditions of social justice and work for workers through international labor
standards at the global level.
There is an incentive for women and male worker to engage in productive work and to create safety,
parity and self-respectful conditions for them at the workplace.

4. WHO
WHO is known as World Health Organization.
It was founded on 7th April 1948.
Headquarter is in Geneva, Switzerland.

1. Prevent all communicable disease.

2. Develop health facilities.
3. Check epidemics.
4. Monitor public health risks.
Security council and Need for its Expansion:
Security council is an important organ of UNO as per UN charter . its
primary responsibility is to maintain peace and security.
There are total 5 permanent and 10 non-permanent members in security council.
Five permanent members have veto power.
India has become UNSC non-permanent member for the eight time since January 2021.
Security Council was restructured only once in 1965.
Non-permanent members were increased from 6 to 10.
Need for reforms in Security Council:
In 1992, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution. The resolution reflected three main complaints:

1. UNSC no longer represents contemporary political realities.

2. Its decisions reflect only western values and interests and are dominated by a few powers.

3. It lacks equitable representation.

In view of these growing demands for the restructuring of the UN, on 1st January 1997, the UN
Secretary General Kofi Annan initiated an inquiry into how the UN should be reformed.
Consequently, few following criteria were suggested for a new member countries to be included in
UNSC -
1. A major economic power.
2. A major military power.
3. A substantial contributor to the UN budget.
4. A big nation in terms of its population.
5. A democratic nation.
6. Country which represents worlds diversity in terms of geography, economic systems
and Culture.

OTHER AGENCIES of United Nations

There are other institutions and non-Government Organizations that are completely dedicated
towards fulfilling the aims of the United Nations.
1. International Monetary Fund
This organization (IMF) promotes the financial balance of States on the international platform.
It helps countries in getting financial and technological assistance. IMF
has 189 members countries.
2. World Bank (1944)
It provide Loans and Grants to member countries.
It enormous influence on the economic policies of developing countries.
It works for Human Development, Agriculture, Rural Development, Environmental Protection
and Governance.
3. World Trade Organization (1995)
WTO frame rules for Global Trade.
It was set up in 1995, as the successor to the General Agreement on Trade and Tariff (GATT).
It has 164 Members as on 29 July, 2016.
4. International Atomic Energy Agency
It was established in 1957.
Promotes the minimal and productive use of Atomic Energy.
To ensure that civilian reactors are not being use for military purposes.
5. Amnesty International
This is Non-Governmental Organization.
Campaign for the Human Rights
It promote respect for all the Human Rights.
It prepare and publish report on Human Rights.
6. Human Rights Watch
• Involved in Research and advocacy on Human Rights
• It is the largest International Human Rights Organization in the US. • It draws global
media’s attention to Human Rights abuses
• To stop the use of child soldiers.
Conclusion :-
Although there are certain problems in the United Nations but without this International platform, the world will
be worse. The United Nations, all the economic institutions and NGOs mentioned above have increased
mutual dependence, so that the responsibilities of the institutions are also increasing. There is a need to find
ways to support International Organizations.

CH-5 SECURITY IN CONTEMPORARY WORLD

Gist of Security in Contemporary World
➢ Security implies freedom from threats.
➢ Human existence are full of threats.
➢ Every time a person steps out of house, there is some threat to their existence and way of life.
➢ Our world would be saturated with security issues.
➢ Those who study security, say that those things threaten ‘core values’ should be regarded as being of
interest in discussions of security.
➢ Every time another country does something or fails to do something, this may damage the core values
of one’s country
➢ Every time a person is robbed in the streets, the security of ordinary people as they live their daily lives
is harmed.
➢ The various notions of security under two groups: traditional and non-traditional conceptions of
security.

Traditional Notion of Security: External

➢ When we read about security we are talking about traditional, national conceptions of security.
➢ In the traditional conception of security, the greatest danger to a country is from military threats.
➢ The source of this danger is another country which by threatening military action endangers the Core
Values of Sovereignty, Independence and Territorial Integrity.
➢ Military action endangers the lives of ordinary citizens.
➢ Ordinary men and women are made targets of war, to break their support of the war.
➢ Traditional security policy has a Three Components - Deterrence, balance of power, Alliance
Building.

In responding to the threat of war, a government has three basic choices (Deterrence):

1- To surrender.
2- To defend itself when war actually and to turn back or defeat the attacking forces altogether.
3- Governments may choose to surrender when actually confronted by war, but they will not advertise
this as the policy of the country.

➢ Security Policy is concerned with preventing war, which is called - deterrence, and with limiting or
ending war, which is called - defence.
➢ Countries see that some nations are bigger and stronger.
➢ A neighboring country may not say it is preparing for attack.
➢ There may be no obvious reason for attack.
➢ Governments are very sensitive to the balance of power between their country and other countries.
➢ They do work hard to maintain a favorable balance of power with other countries
➢ A good part of maintaining a balance of power is to build up one’s military power, economic and
technological power.
➢ A third component of traditional security policy is Alliance Building.
 ➢ An alliance is a coalition of states that coordinate their actions to deter or defend against military
attack.
➢ Most alliances are formalized in written treaties and are based on a fairly clear identification of who
constitutes the threat.
➢ Countries form alliances to increase their effective power relative to another country or alliance.
➢ Alliances are based on national interests and can change when national interests change. For
example, the US backed the Islamic militants in Afghanistan against the Soviet Union in the 1980s,
but later attacked them when Al Qaeda—a group of Islamic militants led by Osama Bin Laden—
launched terrorist strikes against America on 11 September 2001.
➢ In traditional view of security, most threats to a country’s security come from outside its borders
because the international system is brutal arena in which there is no central authority capable of
controlling behavior.
➢ The threat of violence is regulated by an acknowledged central authority of the government in a
country.
➢ There is no acknowledged central authority that stands above everyone else in world politics.
➢ The UN is a creature of its members has authority only to the extent that the membership allows it to
have authority and obeys it.
➢ Every country has to be responsible for its own security.

Traditional Notion of Security: Internal

➢ Traditional security must concern itself with internal security. It is not given so much importance after
the Second World War.
➢ Internal security was more or less assured.
➢ It is important to pay attention to context and situation.
➢ After 1945, the US and the Soviet Union appeared to be united and could expect peace within their
borders.
➢ The powerful Western European countries faced no serious threats from groups or communities living
within those borders.
➢ These countries focused primarily on threats from outside their borders.
➢ The two alliances (USA, USSR) feared a military attack from each other.
➢ Some European powers continued to worry about violence in their colonies, from colonized people
who wanted independence. We have remembered the French fighting in Vietnam in the 1950 or the
British fighting in Kenya in the 1950 and 1960.
➢ Some of the newly independent Countries European powers had to worry about the Cold War
becoming a hot war.
➢ The Cold War between the two superpowers was responsible for approximately one-third of all wars in
the Post-Second World War period.
➢ The security challenges facing the newly-independent countries of Asia and Africa were different from
the challenges in Europe in two ways. -1- The new countries faced the prospect of military conflict
with neighboring countries. 2- They had to worry about internal military conflict.
➢ The new states worried about threats from separatist movements which wanted to form independent
countries.

Traditional Security and Cooperation

➢ In traditional security, there is a recognition that cooperation in limiting violence is possible.
➢ These limits relate both to the ends and the means of war.
➢ It is accepted view that countries should only go to war for the right reasons, primarily self-defence or
to protect the people from genocide.
➢ War must also be limited in terms of the means that are used.
➢ Force must in any case be used only after all the alternatives have failed.
 ➢ Traditional views of security do not rule out other forms of cooperation as well. The most important of
these are disarmament, arms control and confidence building.
➢ Disarmament requires all states to give up certain kinds of weapons. For example, the 1972
Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) and the 1992 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) banned
the production and possession of these weapons.
➢ More than 155 Countries acceded to the BWC and 181 Contrives acceded to the CWC.
➢ The US and Soviet Union did not want to give up the third type of weapons of mass destruction,
namely, nuclear weapons, so they pursued arms control.
➢ The Anti-ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty in 1972 tried to stop the United States and Soviet Union from
using ballistic missiles as a defensive shield to launch a nuclear attack.
➢ The US and Soviet Union signed a number of other arms control treaties including the Strategic Arms
Limitations Treaty (SALT) I and II and the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) I and II.
➢ The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 was an arms control Treaty. Those countries that
had tested and manufactured nuclear weapons before 1967 were allowed to keep their weapons
and those had not done so were to give up the right to acquire them.
➢ Traditional security also accepts confidence building as a means of avoiding violence.
➢ Confidence building is a process in which countries share ideas and information with their rivals.

Non-Traditional Notion
➢ Non-traditional views of security have been called ‘Human Security’ or ‘Global Security’.
➢ Human security is about the protection of people more than the protection of states.
➢ Protecting citizens from foreign attack may be a necessary condition for the security of individuals.
➢ More people have been killed by their own governments than by foreign armies.
➢ Proponents of the ‘narrow’ concept of human security focus on violent threats to individuals.
➢ UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan puts it, “the protection of communities and individuals from
internal violence”.
➢ Proponents of the ‘broad’ concept of human security argue that the threat agenda should include
hunger, disease and natural disasters because these kill far more people than war, genocide and
combined.
➢ The human security agenda also encompasses economic security and ‘threats to human dignity’.
➢ The broadest formulation stresses what has been called ‘Freedom from Want’ and ‘Freedom from
Fear’, respectively.

The idea of global security emerged in the 1990 in response to the global nature of threats such as global
warming, international terrorism and health epidemics.

➢ No country can resolve these problems alone.

➢ One country may have to disproportionately bear the brunt of a global problem such as
environmental degradation.
➢ For example- due to global warming, a sea level rise of 1.5–2.0 meters would flood 20 percent of
Bangladesh, inundate most of the Maldives, and threaten nearly half the population of Thailand.

New Sources of Threats

➢ The non-traditional conceptions both human security and global security focus on the changing
nature of threats to security.

Terrorism
➢ Terrorism refers to political violence that targets civilians deliberately and indiscriminately.
➢ International terrorism involves the citizens or territory of more than one country.
 ➢ Civilian targets are usually chosen to terrorize the public and to use the unhappiness of the public as a
weapon against national governments.
➢ The terrorism involve hijacking planes or planting bombs in trains, cafes, markets and other crowded
places.
➢ 11 September 2001 when terrorists attacked the World Trade Centre in USA, other governments and
public have paid more attention to terrorism.
➢ The terror attacks have occurred in the Middle East, Europe, Latin America and South Asia.

Human Rights
Human rights have come to be classified into three types. 1- The first type is political rights such as
freedom of speech and assembly. 2- The second type is economic and social rights. 3- The third
type is the rights of colonized people or ethnic and indigenous minorities.
➢ Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990, the genocide in Rwanda, and the Indonesian military’s killing
of people in East Timor have led to a debate on whether or not the UN should intervene to stop
human rights abuses.

Global Poverty
➢ Global poverty is another source of insecurity.
➢ Half the world’s population growth occurs in just six countries—India, China, Pakistan, Nigeria,
Bangladesh and Indonesia.
➢ Among the world’s poorest countries, population is expected to triple in the next 50 years.
➢ High per capita income and low population growth make rich states or rich social groups get
richer, whereas low incomes and high population growth reinforce each other to make poor states
and poor groups get poorer.
➢ This disparity contributes to the gap between the Northern and Southern countries of the world.
➢ The world’s armed conflicts now take place in sub-Saharan Africa, which is also the poorest region of
the world.

Migrations

➢ Poverty in the South has led to large-scale migration to seek a better life, better economic
opportunities in the North.
➢ International law and norms make a distinction between migrants (those who voluntarily leave their
home countries) and refugees (those who flee from war, natural disaster or political persecution).
➢ States are generally supposed to accept refugees but they do not have to accept migrants.
➢ While refugees leave their country of origin, people who have fled their homes but remain within
national borders are called ‘internally displaced people’.
➢ Kashmiri Pandits that fled the violence in the Kashmir Valley in the early 1990 are an example of
an internally displaced community.
➢ Individuals, families and whole communities have been forced to migrate because of fear of violence
or destruction of livelihoods, identities and living environments.

Health Epidemic
➢ Health epidemics such as HIV-AIDS, bird flu, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and
COVID-19 have rapidly spread across countries through migration, business, tourism and military
operations.
➢ One country’s success or failure in limiting the spread of these diseases affects infections in other
countries.
➢ Estimated 4 Crore people were infected with HIV-AIDS worldwide, two-thirds of them in Africa and half
of the rest in South Asia.
 ➢ But these treatments were too expensive to help poor regions like Africa where it has proved to be a
major factor in driving the region backward into deeper poverty.
➢ Other new and poorly understood diseases such as Ebola virus, Hantavirus, and hepatitis C have
emerged, while old diseases like tuberculosis, malaria, dengue fever and cholera have mutated
into drug resistant forms that are difficult to treat.
➢ Since the late 1990, Britain has lost billions of dollars of income during an outbreak of the
madcow disease, and bird flu shut down supplies of poultry exports from several Asian countries.
➢ Such epidemics demonstrate the growing interdependence of states making their borders less
meaningful than in the past and emphasize the need for international cooperation.
➢ Expansion of the concept of security does not mean that we can include any kind of disease or
distress in the ambit of security.
➢ Maldives may feel threatened by global warming because a big part of its territory may be
submerged with the rising sea level,
➢ South Africa HIV-AIDS poses a serious threat as one in six adults has the disease (one in three for
Botswana, the worst case).
➢ In 1994, the Tutsi tribe in Rwanda faced a threat to its existence as nearly five lakh of its people were
killed by the rival Hutu tribe in a matter of weeks.
➢ This shows that non-traditional conceptions of security, like traditional conceptions of security, vary
according to local contexts.

Cooperative Security
➢ Military force may have a role to play in combating terrorism or in enforcing human rights (there is a
limit to what force can achieve) but it is difficult to see what force would do to help alleviate poverty,
manage migration, refugee movements and control epidemics.
➢ Far more effective is to devise strategies that involve international cooperation. Cooperation may be
bilateral (between any two countries), regional, continental or global.
➢ Cooperative security may also involve a variety of other players, both International and National.
➢ International Organizations (the UN, the World Health Organization, the World Bank, the IMF etc.),
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) - (Amnesty International, the Red Cross, private
foundations and charities, churches and religious Organizations, trade unions, associations, social and
development Organizations), businesses and corporations and great personalities (Mother Teresa,
Nelson Mandela).

India’s Security Strategy

➢ India has faced traditional (military) and non-traditional threats to its security that have emerged from
within as well as outside its borders.

➢ Strengthening Military Capabilities:

➢ The first component was strengthening its military capabilities.
➢ India has been involved in conflicts with its neighbors — Pakistan in 1947–48, 1965, 1971 and 1999;
and China in 1962.
➢ India’s decision to conduct nuclear tests in 1998 was justified by the Indian government in terms of
safeguarding national security.
➢ India first tested a nuclear device in 1974.

➢ strengthen international norms :

The second component of India’s security strategy has been to strengthen international norms and
international institutions to protect its security interests.
➢ India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, supported the cause of Asian solidarity, decolonization,
disarmament.
 ➢ India also took initiatives to bring about a universal and non-discriminatory non-proliferation regime in
which all countries would have the same rights and obligations with respect to weapons of mass
destruction (nuclear, biological, chemical).
➢ India joined 160 countries that have signed and ratified the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, which provides a
roadmap for reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases to check global warming.

➢ Security Strategy :
➢ The third component of Indian security strategy is geared towards meeting security challenges within
the country.
➢ India has tried to preserve national unity by adopting a democratic political system, which allows
different communities and groups of people to freely articulate their grievances and share political
power.

CH-6 ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Gist of Environment and Natural Resources

In this chapter we shall look at the major environmental issues such as:
➢ Important environmental movement against the backdrop of the rising profile of environmentalism.
Common property resources.
➢ India’s stand in more recent environmental debates.
➢ Geopolitics of resources competition.
➢ Voice, Concern and right of indigenous people.

Environmental Concerns in world Politics.

Lack of
Cultivable
Ozone layer area
Deplation
Global
warming
Reason for
environmental
Threat of concern in
human contemporary
existence politics
Reduction
in the
amount of
Limited potable
Resources water
Increasing
pollution
 ➢ Throughout the world Decline in area of cultivable land, Agriculture land is losing fertility.
➢ Quantity of water has also been decreased from water bodies.
➢ Grassland has been decreased.
➢ The population of the world is increasing day by day
➢ Natural forest are very helpful to stabilize the climate, moderate water supplies and
balancing ecosystem.
➢ But Deforestation, Loss of Natural forests,
➢ Loss of biodiversity continues due to destruction of Natural Habitat of different spices. ➢ People
are being displaced.
➢ Coastal pollution and coastal water are polluted largely due to land-based activities.
➢ Steady decline in the total amount of Ozone in the Earths Stratosphere Depletion (Ozone hole)
poses a real danger to ecosystems and human health.
➢ According to the human development report 2016 of United Nations Development Programme 663
million people in developing countries have no access to safe water and 2.4 billion have no access
to sanitation. It’s major concern for world politics.
Environmental Programmes
➢ No single country of the world can resolve these problems so these issues are included into
world politics.
➢ The club of Rome, a global think tank, published a book in 1972 entitled ‘Limits to growth’
point out the depletion of the earth’s resources.
➢ United Nations Environment program (UNEP) began international conferences and promoting
detailed studies to get a more coordinate and effective response to environmental problems.
The Earth Summit – 1992
➢ United Nations conference on environment and development held at Rio-De-Janeiro, Brazil
in June 1992
➢ This is known as Earth summit.
➢ The summit was attended by 170 states, thousands of NGO’s and many multinational
corporations.
➢ The Rio summit produced conventions dealing with climate change, biodiversity forestry.
➢ Agenda 21 was passed in Rio summit it recommended a list of development practices.
➢ Development should take place without harming the environment it is called sustainable
development

North South
Located in Northern hemisphere of the Located in Southern hemisphere of the
world world
Rich and Developed Countries Poor and developing Countries
The main concern of southern countries is
Northern states were concern with ozone relationship between economic
depletion and global warming development and environment
management.
Referred to as the global North and First Referred to as the global South and Third
world world
.

The Protection of Global Commons

➢ Commons are those resources which are not owned by anyone but rather shared by a community.
 ➢ Similarly, there are some areas or regions of the world which are located outside the sovereign
jurisdiction of any one state, and therefore require common governance by the international
community. These are known as global commons.
➢ It includes the earth’s atmosphere, Antarctica, the ocean floor and outer space.
➢ Some agreements have been signed to protect and conserve global commons. ➢ Antarctic
Treaty 1959
➢ Montreal protocol 1987
➢ Antarctic Environment Protocol 1991

Common but Different Responsibilities

➢ This argument was accepted in the Rio Declaration in 1992 and is called the principle of common
but differentiated responsibilities.
North South
The developed countries of the north want to
discuss the environment environmental issue The developing countries of the south feel that
much of the ecological degradation in the
as it stands now and want everyone to be
world is the product of industrial development
equally responsible for ecological
undertaken by developed countries. If they
conservation. have caused more degradation must also take
more responsibility for undoing the damage
now.
The developing countries are in the process of
industrialization and they must not be
subjected to the same restrictions.

➢ Thus, special needs of the developing countries must be taken

into account of development.
United Nations framework convention on climate change: (UNFCCC -1992)
➢ It is a United Nations protocol for climate change.
➢ It provides that countries shout act to protect the climate change “on the basis of equality and in
according to their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities.
Kyoto Protocol
➢ The Kyoto protocol is an international agreement setting target to cut their greenhouse gas emission.
➢ Certain gases like Carbon dioxide, Methane, Hydro-fluoro carbons etc. are considered at least partly
responsible for global warming.
➢ The Kyoto protocol was agreed to in 1997 at Kyoto in Japan based on principles set out in UNFCCC.

Common Property Resources

➢ Common property resources represent common property for the group. the underlying norms here is
that members of the group have right and duties with respect to the nature.

India’s stand on environment issues

➢ India has always supported efforts for the prevention degradation and always been a supporter of
environment conservation and protection.
➢ India signed and ratified the Kyoto protocol in August 2002. India, china and other developing
countries were exempt from the requirement of Kyoto protocol because their contribution to the
emission of greenhouse gases during the industrialization period was not significant at the G-8
meeting in June 2005 India point out that the per capita emission.
➢ Emission rate of the developing countries is very low compare to the developed countries. India also
believes that developed countries are more responsible for environment degradation since they
 released much greenhouse gases during period of industrialization so it is great responsibility to
developed countries t reduce emission rate to greenhouse gases
➢ India supporter principle of Historical responsibility as enshrined in UNFCCC.
➢ Indian government is participating in global effort through a number of programs for example India’s
National auto fuel policy mandated cleaner fuel for vehicle promoting use of CNG in metro cities.
➢ India encourage the use of renewable energy as – Wind energy, solar energy etc. and also
encourages the use of alternative of petrol and diesel as bio-diesel.
➢ The central government has mandated that vehicle makers must manufacture, sell and register only
BS-VI (BS6) vehicles from April 1, 2020.

Environmental Movements
➢ When people are not satisfied to the political system, they show their agitation through movements.
➢ Environment movements are the most vibrant, diverse and powerful social movements access the
world today.
➢ These movements raise new idea and visions towards environmental issues.
➢ The forest movement of the south in Mexico, Chile, Brazil, Malaysia, Indonesia, continental Africa and
India are faced with enormous pressures.

Need of environmental movements.

1. Deforestation is being continued at an alarming rate in many countries of the world.
2. Exploitation of minerals is being continued. They are using chemicals for the exploitation of mineral
and harming the environment.
3. Mega –dam is being built in many countries of the world. Due to mega dam projects a large number
of people are displaced from their home. It is also harmful for biodiversity.
Examples: Narmada Bachao movement (Andolan) is one of the best known of these movements.

Resource Geopolitics
➢ Resource geopolitics is all about who gets what, when, and how. Resource have provided some of
the key means and motives of global European power expansion.
➢ During the cold war the industrialized countries of north adopted a number of methods to ensure a
steady flow of resources.
➢ They deploy military forces near exploitations sites.
➢ They established friendly government in the resources producing countries.
➢ The global economy relied on oil for much of the 20th century.
➢ The history of petroleum is also the history of war and struggle.
Examples:
➢ US’s attack on Iraq
➢ Iraq’s attack on Kuwait
➢ The gulf region account for about 30 percent of global oil production but it has about 64% of the earth
resources.
➢ There are several disputes over water sharing in the world.
➢ Dispute between Israel, Syria, and Jordan over water of river Jordan and yarmulke.
➢ Dispute between India and Pakistan over Indus water

The Indigenous people and their Rights

➢ The question of indigenous people brings the issues of environment, resources and politics together.
 ➢ The UN defines indigenous the descendants of people who inhabited the present territory of a country
at the time when persons of a country different culture or ethnic origin arrived there from other parts of
the world and overcame them.
➢ Issue related to the rights of the indigenous communities have neglected in domestic and international
politics for very long.
➢ The world Council of Indigenous People was formed in 1975.
➢ Every year 9th August celebrate world indigenous day.

CH-7 GLOBALIZATION
➢ Globalization means opening up the economy to integrate with the world economy.
➢ Through globalization it becomes easy to sell goods and services world over and also get the same
from anywhere in the world.
➢ Globalization is the word used to describe the growing interdependence of the world's economies,
cultures and populations.

THE CONCEPT OF GLOBALIZATION

➢ Through three examples we will understand the concept of Globalization.
➢ In the first example- Janardhan was participating in the globalization of services by doing job in a call
centre.
➢ Ramdhari's birthday purchases tell us something about the movement of commodities from one part of
the world to another.
➢ Ramdhari on his daughter’s insistence had bought her a Barbie doll, which was originally
manufactured in the US but was being sold in India.
➢ Sarika is faced with a conflict of values partly originating from a new opportunity that earlier was not
available to the women in her family but today is part of a reality that has gained wider acceptability.
➢ If we look for examples of the use of the terms 'globalization' in the in real life we will realise that it is
used in various contexts. Some farmers committed suicide because their crops failed.
➢ Many retails shopkeepers fear that they would lose their livelihoods because of major international
companies.
➢ A film producer in Mumbai was accused of lifting the story of his film from another film made in
Hollywood.
➢ A militant group issued a statement threatening college girls who wear western clothes.
➢ These examples show us that globalization need not always be positive, it can have negative
consequences for the people.
➢ There are many who believe that globalization has more negative consequences than positive.
➢ Globalization as a concept fundamentally deals with FLOWS.

Flows could be of various kinds-

➢ Ideas moving from one part of the world to another.
➢ Capital shunted between two or more places, commodities being traded across borders, and people
moving in search of better livelihoods in different parts of the world.
➢ The world-wide inter-connectedness that is created as a consequence of these constant flows.
➢ Globalization is a multi-dimensional concept.
CAUSES OF GLOBALIZATION
➢ Globalization is about the flows of ideas, capital, Goods and Services and people.
➢ Globalization is not caused by any single factor technology remains a critical element.
 ➢ Globalization is the result of historical factors, technological innovations, and opening of multinational
companies.
➢ Flows has been made possible largely by technological advances.
➢ The movement of capital and commodities will likely be quicker and wider than the movement of
peoples across different parts of the world.
➢ Through globalization events taking place in one part of the world could have an impact on another
part of the world. Improved communications are the major causes of globalization.
➢ When major economic events take place, there impact is felt outside their local, national or regional
environment at the global level.

POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES
Positive Political Impact
➢ Globalization does not always reduce state capacity.
➢ State capacity has received a boost as a consequence of globalization, with enhanced technologies.
➢ All over the world, the old welfare state that perform certain core functions such as maintenance of law
and order and the security of it citizens.

Negative Political Impact

➢ Globalization results in an erosion of state capacity.
➢ The entry and the increased role of Multi-National Companies (MNCs) is all over the world leads to
reduction in the capacity of government to take decision on their own.
➢ In place of the welfare state, it is the market that becomes the prime determinant of economic and
social priorities.

ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES
➢ Economic globalization involves greater economic flows among different countries of the world.
➢ It draws attention towards the role of IMF and WTO for the whole world.
➢ It has created an intense division of opinion all over the world.
➢ Supporters of economic globalization argue that it generates greater economic growth and wellbeing
for larger sections of the population.

CULTURAL CONSEQUENCES
Negative Cultural effect
➢ Threat to cultures in the world.
➢ Dominant of western culture.
➢ Less powerful society.
➢ Emerge and enlarge modified culture. ➢ cultural HOMOGENISATION ➢ HETEROGENISATION.

INDIA AND GLOBALIZATION

➢ Globalization has occurred in earlier periods in history in different parts of the world.
➢ Flows related to the movement of capital, commodities, ideas and people go back several centuries in
Indian history.
➢ India became an exporter of primary goods, raw materials and a consumer goods.
➢ In 1991, for achieving high economic growth India started a programme of economic reforms.
RESISTANCE TO GLOBALIZATION
➢ Critics of globalization make a variety of arguments.
➢ A particular phase of global capitalism that makes the rich- richer and the poor -poorer.
➢ Critics of globalization fear the weakening of the state.
 ➢ Economically they want a return to self- reliance and protectionism.
➢ Culturally, they are worried that traditional culture will be harmed and people will lose their age-old
values and ways.
➢ Anti-globalization movements too participate in global networks.
➢ In 1999, at the World Trade Organization (WTO), ministerial meeting were against unfair trading
practices by the economically powerful States.
➢ It was argued that the interests of the developing world were not given sufficient importance.
➢ The world social forum is another global platform, which brings together a wide coalition of peoples.
➢ The First Word Social Forum meeting was organized in Porto Alegre, Brazil in 2001.
➢ Fourth WSF meeting was held in Mumbai in India, 2004.

INDIA RESISTANCE TO GLOBALIZATION

➢ Resistance to globalization in India has come from different quarters.
➢ Protest the economic liberalization through Indian Social Forum.
➢ Trade Union of Industrial representing farmers protest against the entry of Multinationals.
➢ The patenting of certain plants like NEEM by USA and European firms.

PART - B
CH-1 CHALLENGES OF NATION BUILDING
INTRODUCTION
➢ After independence, India faced many challenges.
➢ National unity and territorial integrity of India was one of the big challenges.
➢ After Independence India was facing large scale violence and displacement.
➢ The integration of the princely states into the Indian union needed urgent resolution.

NATION AND NATION BUILDING

➢ On 14 - 15 August 1947 India got independence.
➢ Jawaharlal Nehru became the first PM of India.
➢ The famous “Tryst with destiny" speech given by Jawaharlal Nehru.
➢ India had two goals-
To run India through democratic government.
Government run for good of all.

CHALLENGES FOR THE NEW NATION

➢ The year 1947 was a year of precedent violence and displacement.
THREE CHALLENGES
➢ The first challenge was to shape nation.
➢ The second challenge was to establish democracy and develop democratic practices according to the
constitution.
➢ The third challenge was to ensure the economic development and wellbeing of the entire society.
PARTITION: DISPLACEMENT AND REHABILITATION
➢ On 14 -15 August 1947, ‘Two Nation Theory’ came into existence that is India and Pakistan.
➢ The result of partition was Two Nation Theory which was given by Mohammad Ali Zinnah.
➢ 'Two nation theory' proposed by the Muslim league, India consisted two community, Hindus and
Muslims not one.
➢ Congress opposed Two Nation Theory.
PROCESS OF PARTITION.
➢ Partition of India was the result of creation of India and Pakistan.
➢ Pakistan will comprise East Pakistan and West Pakistan.
➢ There was no single belt of Muslim majority areas in British India.
➢ One belt was in the east and the other in west and both these parts could not be joined.
➢ All Muslim majority area did not want to be a part of Pakistan.
➢ Abdul Gaffar Khan was known as Frontier Gandhi opposed the two-nation theory.
➢ The major problem of India was the issue of' Minorities on both sides of the border.
➢ Lakhs of Hindu and Sikhs on both sides of the border became the easy targets of attacks.

➢ The minorities on both sides of the border were left with no option except to leave their homes.

CHALLENGE OF REFUGEE RESETTLEMENT

➢ The year 1947 was the witness of most abrupt, unplanned and tragic transfer of population from both
side of the border.
➢ There were killings and atrocities.
➢ Women were abducted in forced into convert to the religion of the abductor and forced into marriage.

CONSEQUENCES OF PARTITION
➢ Many women were killed by their own family members to preserve the" family honor".
➢ The employees of the Government and the railways were also divided.
➢ Approximately 80 lakh people were forced to migrate across the new border.
➢ Amritsar, Lahore and Kolkata became divided into communal zones.
➢ Minorities on both sides of the border left their home and secured temporary shelter in 'refugee
camps’.
➢ Writers, poets and film- makers in India and Pakistan have expressed the ruthlessness of the killings,
displacement and the violence in their novels, short- stories, poems and films.

MAHATMA GANDHI
➢ Mahatma Gandhi was sad by the communal violence and because of Ahinsa and Satyagraha that he
had lived and worked for, had failed.
➢ In many states, the communal tensions grew and Mahatma Gandhi resorted to fast to bring peace.
INTEGRATION OF PRINCELY STATES
➢ BRITISH INDIAN PROVINCES - directly under control of the British government.
➢ PRINCELY STATES - States ruled by princess.
➢ Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and VP Menon played major role in integration of princely states.
➢ Few of the states declared their desire to remain free -
➢ MANIPUR
➢ BHOPAL
➢ TRAVANCORE
➢ HYDERABAD
➢ KASHMIR
➢ British government said to princely states that if they wanted to merge either in India or in Pakistan or
to remain free, they would legally free to do so.
➢ First of all, the ruler of Travancore announced for the independence.
➢ Nizam of Hyderabad made a similar announcement on the next day.

ROLE OF SARDAR VALLABHBHAI PATEL AND INTEGRATION OF STATES

➢ Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was the first deputy prime minister and home minister of India.
 ➢ Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, emerged as a major leader.
➢ The problem of integration of Princely States was a big challenge.
➢ Sardar Patel completed the difficult work of Uniting all princely states of India.
He was known as an ' Iron Man 'of India.
➢ In British India there were 565 Princely States.
➢ He did not want to compromise with the territorial integrity of India.
➢ Sardar Patel played a major role in integration of Princely States.
➢ Hyderabad, Junagarh and Kashmir integration were very much challenging.
➢ Raja Hari Singh was a ruler of Kashmir.
➢ By Sincere efforts of Patel, Hyderabad and Junagadh was merged with India.
➢ The ruler of the most states signed a document called the ‘Instrument of Accession’.

HYDERABAD
➢ Hyderabad, the largest of The Princely States was surrounded by Indian Territory.
➢ Its ruler carried the title, “Nizam” and he was one of the world's richest men.
➢ He signed the Stand Still agreement with India in November 1947.
➢ People of Hyderabad state against the Nizam's rule gathered force.
➢ In the Telangana region people was against the oppressive rule of Nizam.
➢ Para Military Force of Nizam is known as RAZAKARS.
➢ To handle the situation in Hyderabad, the government had to order the army.
➢ In September 1948, Indian army moved in to control the Nizam's forces and Nizam surrendered.
➢ This led to Hyderabad accession to India.

MANIPUR
➢ The Maharaja of Manipur was, Bodh Chandra Singh he signed the ‘Instrument of Accession’ with
the Indian government.
➢ The Maharaja held elections in Manipur in June 1948.
➢ Manipur was the first part of India to hold an election based on "Universal Adult Franchise".
➢ The Government of India succeeded into signing a merger agreement in September 1949.
RE-ORGANIZATION OF STATE
➢ Nagpur Session of Congress was held in 1920.
➢ Protest began in Telugu speaking areas of Madras Province.
➢ The Madras province which was included present day, Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and
Karnataka.
➢ Potti Sriramulu, a Congress leader went on an indefinite fast and led the movement which is knonwn
as ‘Vishal Andhra Movement’. This caused great violence in Andhra region.
➢ During this movement many people were injured or lost their lives in police firing.
➢ In December 1952 the Prime Minister (Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru) announced for the separate Andhra
state.
➢ Re-Organization commission was formed in 1953 to look into the redrawing of the boundaries of
States.
➢ The state Reorganization act was passed in 1956, which led to the creation of 14 States and 6 Union
Territories.

CREATION OF NEW STATES

➢ Andhra Pradesh was the first state which was created on the basis of Language in 1953.
There was Bilingual Bombay State consisting of Guajarati and Marathi Speaking People.
Maharashtra and Gujarat were created in 1960 from Bombay.
 ➢ In Punjab there were two linguistic groups – Hindi Speaking and Punjabi speaking. Haryana and
Himachal Pradesh were created from Punjab in 1966.
➢ Major reorganization of states took place in the North-East 1972 ------------- Meghalaya, Manipur,
Tripura
1963 ------------- Nagaland
1987 ------------ Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram
➢ Three States Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand were created in 2000.
➢ Telangana state was created in 2 June 2014.
CONCLUSION
➢ The linguistic States is the principle of diversity.
➢ Democracy was related with plurality of ideas and ways of life.
➢ Much of the politics in the latter period was to take place within this framework.

CH-2 PLANNED DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION
➢ At the time of independence, leaders had two models of modern development First-Liberal-
Capitalist and Socialist model.
➢ India adopted Mixed Economic Model (Socialist as well as Capitalist) of development.
IDEAS OF DEVELOPMENT
➢ Prominent development models of the period were the liberal capitalist system and the socialist
system.
➢ A large section of the people and leaders of Indian society were supporters of the socialist model.
➢ India adopted a mixed economy.
➢ Development means the process of living standard and attaining an economic level of industrial
production.
➢ After independence, the Indian government took up the task of removing poverty, social and
economic redistribution and development of agriculture.
➢ Planning is a systematic regulation of purpose to achieve the national goals.
➢ A certain section of big industrialists got together in 1944 and drafted a joint proposal for setting up
a planned economy. This was called the Bombay plan.
➢ The planning commission of India was set up in 15 March 1950.
➢ Planning commission established as an extra constitutional body with the Prime minister as its
chairman.

PLANNING
➢ For development of a Nation planning was designed.
➢ After Independence there was a need of planning for rebuilding economy and for this involvement of
Government was also needed.
➢ Planning was needed for the proper distribution of resources
MAJOR AIMS OF INDIA’S ECONOMIC PLANNING
➢ ECONOMIC GROWTH
➢ INCREASE THE LEVEL OF NATIONAL INCOME
➢ IMPROVE THE AREAS LIKE AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY ETC.
➢ POVERTY ELLEVIATION
➢ IMPROVED JOB OPPORTUNITIES
➢ PROTECT ENVIRONMENT
THE EARLY INITIATIVES
➢ The planning commission of India adopted 5-year plans from the Model of USSR.
➢ The Budget of the central and all state governments was divided into two parts - planned and Non-
planned.
➢ Planed – That is spent on five-year basis as per the priorities fixed by the plan.
➢ Non-Plan – That is spent on routine items on yearly basis.

FIVE YEAR PLANS IN INDIA

PLAN YEAR
First (1951-56)
Second (1956-61)
Third (1961-66)
THREE ANNUAL PLANS (1966-69)
Fourth (1969-74)
Fifth (1974-78)
PLAN HOLIDAY (1978-80)
Sixth (1980-85)
Seventh (1985-90)
PLAN HOLIDAY ((1990-92)
Eighth (1992-97)
Ninth (1997-2002)
Tenth (2002-2007)
Eleventh (2007- 2012)
Twelve (2012-2017)

The first five- year plan Agriculture sector

➢ The first five- year plan, 1951- 56 adopted to take the country’s economy out of poverty.
➢ Mr K.N. Raj played important role in India's planned redevelopment. He drafted the first five a plan.
➢ The focus of First Five Year Plan was on Agriculture.
➢ Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, presented the first five-year plan in the parliament
of India.
➢ The First Five Year plan mainly focused on Agriculture Sector including Investment in Dams and
Irrigation.

The second five-year plan

➢ Rapid-Industrialization
➢ The second five-year plan, 1956-61, was drafted by a team of economists and planners under the
leadership of P.C. Mahala Nobis.
➢ It emphasized on heavy industrialization in the urban as well as rural areas.
THE KEY CONTROVERSIES

➢ There are two controversial issues that was a result of strategies of development:
1. Agriculture versus industry
2. Public versus private sector.
Agriculture versus industry.
➢ Alternative Blue Print was given by J.C. Kuma Rappa.
➢ Objective of Alternative Blue Print was emphasis on Rural Industrialization.
➢ Chaudhary Charan Singh form a party Bhartiya Lok Dal.
➢ Chaudhary Charan Singh articulated keeping Agriculture at the centre of planning for India.

Supporters of agricultural sector argued that

1. Negligence towards agriculture sector may affect the livelihood and lives of many people.
2. Stable agriculture sector is essential to ensure food security.

Supporters of industry
➢ Industrialization is essential for rapid economic development of the country.
➢ Proper industrial development is helpful to remove rural poverty.
➢ Industrialization generate more employment opportunities in urban and rural areas.
➢ industrialization helps India to earn more foreign exchange.
➢ Industrial production was essential for eradication of poverty in rural and urban areas.
PUBLIC VERSUS PRIVATE SECTOR
➢ Indian economy is described as mixed economy.
➢ Public sector organized by the government and the private sector controlled by business men.
Supporters of private sector complaints

➢ Supporters of private sector complained that not enough space for private sector in India.
➢ The powerful public sector creates hurdles by installing License system (Difficulty to get licenses
and permits by corrupt government officials) and approval by Government for investment in Private
Sector.
➢ Inefficiency and corruption were the main demerits of public sector.
➢ State is inactive in public education and healthcare.
MAJOR OUTCOMES
➢ Land reforms did not implement effectively in most parts of the country.
➢ Major steps were not taken properly in direction of achieving equal development.
➢ Political Power remaining in the hand of land-owning classes.
FOUNDATIONS
➢ During this period, the foundation of India’s future economic growth was laid down.
➢ During this time some of the largest development Projects in India’s history were undertaken, like
Bhakra Nangal Dam, Hira Kund Dam for irrigation and power generation.
➢ Heavy industries in the public sector like a steel plants, oil refineries, manufacturing units, defence
production etc. started in this period.

LAND REFORMS
➢ Abolition of the colonial system of Zamindari.
➢ Reduce the capacity of landlords to dominate in politics.
 ➢ Consolidation of land started (bringing small piece of land together in a one place) so that the farm
size become large for agriculture.

FOOD CRISIS
➢ The agriculture situations went from bad to worse in the 1960s.
➢ Already in 1940 and 1950s, the rate of growth of food grain production was barely staying above the
rate of population growth.
➢ Severe droughts occurred in several parts of the country.
➢ The two component of land reforms which make these reforms lack successful – A- How much
agriculture land one person could own. (B-) The tenants who works on someone else’s land were
given greater legal security against eviction. Result – But these provisions were rarely
implemented.

THE GREEN REVOLUTION (Major focus was on wheat and Rice)

For ensuring food security

➢ High yielding variety of seeds were used for more production.

➢ It was decided by the government to put more resources into those areas which already had
irrigation and those farmers who were already well off.
➢ The government offered HYV seeds, Fertilizers, pesticides and better irrigation and highly
subsidized prices.
➢ The government also gave a guarantee to buy the product of farmers at a given price.

Negative
➢ The rich peasant and the landholders were the major benefices of the Green Revolution.
➢ Moderate agriculture growth in Wheat production and raised the availability of the food in the
country but increased polarization between classes and the regions.
➢ Some regions like Punjab Haryana and Western UP become agriculturally prosperous but other
remained backward.
➢ In many parts there was stark contrast between the poor peasantry and landlord.
Positive:

➢ The green revolution resulted in the rise of the middle peasant sections.
➢ The landlords produced conditions favorable for left-wing organization the poor peasants.

THE WHITE REVOLUTION

➢ The White Revolution was started by Varghese Kurian (Milkman of India) in Anand (Gujarat).
➢ Amul products lies a successful history of cooperative dairy farming in India.
➢ Operation Flood was started in 1970 is known as White Revolution.
LETTER DEVELOPMENT
➢ The development in India took a significant turn from the end of the 1960.
➢ Indira Gandhi decided to strengthen the role of state in controlling and directing the economy she
imposed many new restrictions on private industries from 1967 onwards.
➢ 14 private banks were nationalized. The government announced many Pro- poor programmes.
NITI AAYOG (NATIONAL INSTITUTION FOR TRANSFORMING INDIA)
➢ The Government of India replaced the planning commission with a new institution name the NITI
AAYOG.
➢ This came into existence on 1st January 2015.
➢ On 15th August 2014, Prime Minister Narendra Modi talk about the abolition of the planning
commission.
➢ NITI Aayog was constituted in place of planning commission on first January, 2015.

Objective of NITI AAYOG

➢ Providing the necessary and technical advice to the union government regarding policy making at
the central and the state levels.
➢ To foster cooperative federalism.
➢ To develop mechanisms to formulate credible plans at the village level.
➢ To design strategic and long -term policy and program.
➢ The Prime Minister of India is the Ex-Officio of NITI AAYOG and he appoints the Vice-Chairperson
of Niti Aayog.
➢ The first Vice-Chairperson of NITI Aayog was Arvind Panigarola.
➢ At present Shri Suman Bery is vice chairperson of NITI AAYOG. ➢ Niti Aayog acts as a Think-
Tank of the Union Government.
➢ The Niti Aayog acts by adopting a ' Bottom- up Approach’,
➢ In the spirit of co-operative federalism as it ensures equal participation of all states in the country.

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL

➢ The National development council is Apex body for decision making and deliberations on
development matters in India, presided over by the Prime Minister.
➢ It was set -up on 6 August,1952 to strengthen and mobilize the effort and resources of the nation in
support of the five-year plans made by the Planning Commission.
➢ It promotes common economic policies in all vital spheres and ensures balanced and rapid
development of all parts of the country.

➢ The council comprises of the Prime Minister, the Union Cabinet Ministers, chief ministers of all
states and their substitutes, representatives of the Union Territories and members of Niti Aayog.

CH-3 INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY

International context

➢ Many new countries were emerging as a result of the collapse of colonialism.

➢ New countries were trying to come to terms with the twin challenges of – Welfare and Democracy.
➢ Free India’s Foreign policy reflected all these concerns in the period immediately after
Independence.
➢ The British Government left behind the legacy of many International disputes – Partition Created,
Poverty Alleviation.
➢ India decided to conduct its Foreign Relations with an aim to respect the sovereignty of all other
nations and to achieve Security through the maintenance of Peace.

The Constitutional Principles

Art. 51 of the Indiana Constitution lays down some Directive Principles of State Policy on promotion of
International Peace and Security.
➢ Promote International Peace and Security
➢ Maintained just and honorable relations between nations.
➢ Foster respect for International Law and treaty obligations in the dealing of organized people with one
another.
➢ Encourage settlement of International disputes by arbitration.

The Police of non- alignment

➢ The Foreign Policy of the nation reflects the interplay of domestic and external factors.
➢ The noble ideals that inspired India’s struggled for freedom influenced the making of foreign policy.
➢ The period of the cold war was witness of political, economic and military confrontation at the global
level between the two blocs US and USSR.

Nehru’s role
➢ The first Prime-Minister played a role in setting the national agenda.
➢ He exercised in the formulation and implementation of India’s foreign policy from 1946 to 1964.
 The three major objective of the Nehru foreign policy were –
1- To preserve the hard-earned sovereignty,
2- Protect territorial integrity
3- Promote rapid economic development.

➢ Nehru wished to achieve these objectives through the strategy of Non- Alignment.
➢ There were parties and groups in the country believed that India should be friendlier with the US
because US claimed to be Pro-democracy. Among those who thought on these lines were leaders
like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

Distance from two camps

➢ The foreign policy of independent India pursued the dream of a peaceful World 1- By advocating
the policy of non-alignment.
2- By reducing cold war tensions.
3- By contributing human resources.
4- By UN peace-keeping operations.
5- India did not join two power blocs (USA, USSR) during the cold war era.
6- India keeps away from the military alliance led by US and USSR.
7- India advocated non-alignment as the ideal foreign policy approach.
8- India was trying to convince the other developing countries about the policy of non-alignment.

Afro-Asian Unity
➢ 1Sensing India size and position and power potential, Nehru dreamed of playing a bigger role for
India in world affairs, especially in Asian affairs.
➢ During Nehru’s time India contacted new lovely independent countries of Asia and Africa ➢
Throughout the 1940 and 1950 Nehru had been an ardent advocate of Asian unity.
➢ India convened the Asian relation conference in March 1947.
➢ The Afro-Asian conference held in the Bandung (Indonesia) in 1955 known as the Bandung
conference,
➢ The first summit of the NAM was held in Belgrade in September 1961.
➢ Nehru was a co-founder of the NAM.

India-China Relations
➢ In 1949 India was the first country to recognize the Communist Government.
➢ Nehru felt that China coming out the shadow of Western domination and helped the New
Government in International Community.
➢ The Joint enunciation of Panchseel (Five Principles) of Peaceful Co-existence by Nehru and Zhou
En Lai on 29 April, 1954 was a step in the direction of stronger relationship between India and
China.

Tibet Issue
1- Tibet is a small country located between India and China.
2- The Plateau of the Central Asian Region called Tibet.
3- Tibet is the major caused and tensions between India and China.
4- Tibet was independent country but China had claimed administrative control over Tibet.
5- Large sections of the Tibetan population opposed China took over the control of Tibet in 1950.
6- India tried to peruse China to recognize Tibet’s claims for independence.
7- The Tibetan Spiritual Leader Dalai Lama accompanied the Chines Premier Zhou En-Lai during
the official visit of China in India in1956.
8- China ensured to India that Tibet will be given greater autonomy than enjoyed by any other
region of China.
9- In 1958-armed uprising in Tibet against China’s occupation.
 10- In 1959 the Dalai Lama crossed the Indian Border and sought asylum which was granted by
India.
11- The Chines government strongly protested against asylum of Dalai Lama.
12- A large number of Tibetan has sought refuge in India.
13- Dharamshala in Himachal Pradesh is the largest refuge settlement of Tibetan in India.
14- Dalai Lama has also made Dharamshala (HP) his home.
15- In the 1950s and 1960s many political leaders and parties in India including the Socialist Party
and the Jana Sangh supported the causes of Tibet’s independence.
16- China has created the Tibet autonomous region which is an integral part of China.
17- Tibetan opposes the Chinese claim that Tibet is a part of Chinese territory.
18- Tibetan opposes the policy of bringing Chine settlers in the Tibet.

The Chinese invasion, 1962

➢ China annexed Tibet in 1950 and removed a historical buffer between India and China.
➢ The government of India did not oppose this openly.
➢ China alleged that the government of India was allowing anti-China activities to take place from
within India.
➢ Boundary dispute had surfaced between India and China.
➢ India claimed that the boundary was a matter settled in colonial time but China said that any
colonial decision did not apply.
➢ The main dispute was about the Western and the Eastern end of the long border.
➢ China claimed two area within the Indian Territory.
➢ Aksai-Chin area in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir
➢ Much of the state of Arunachal Pradesh was then called NEFA (North Eastern Frontier Agency).
➢ 1957-59, the Chinese occupied the Aksai Chin area and build a strategic road there despite a very
long correspondence and discussion among top leaders.
➢ China launched a shift and massive invasion in October 1962 on both the disputed regions.
➢ The first attack lasted one week and Chinese forces captured some key areas in Arunachala
Pradesh.
➢ The second wave of attack comes next month. While the Indian forces could block the chines
advances on the western front in Ladakh.
➢ China declared a unilateral ceasefire and its troops withdrew to where they were before the
invasion began.
➢ The China war dented India’s image at home and abroad.
➢ India had to approach the Americans and the British for military assistance to tide over the crisis.
➢ The Soviet Union remained neutral during the conflict.
➢ It induced a sense of national humiliation and at the same time strengthened a spirit of nationalism.
➢ Some of the top army commanders either resigned or were retired.
➢ Nehru’s close associate and the then Défense Minister, V. Krishna Menon. Had to leave the
cabinet.
➢ First time, a no-confidence motion against his government was moved and debated in the Lok
Sabha.

Sino-Indian relation since 1962

➢ The Sino –Indian conflict affected the opposition as well.
➢ This and the growing rift between China and Soviet Union created irreconcilable differences within
the CPI.
The pro-USSR faction remained within CPI and moved towards closer ties with the congress.
➢ The party split in 1964 and its leaders of the latter function formed the communist party of India
(Marxist) (CPI-M).
➢ In the walk of the China war, many leaders of what became CPI (M) were arrested for being pro-
China.
 ➢ China war alerted the Indian leadership to the volatile situation in the north east region.
➢ Apart from being isolated and extremely underdeveloped.
➢ This reason also presented India with the challenge of national integration and political unity.
➢ The process of its reorganization begins soon after the china war.
➢ Nagaland was granted statehood: Manipur and Tripura, though union territories, were given the
right to elect their own legislative assemblies.

Wars and peace with Pakistan

➢ The conflict started just after the partition over the dispute of Kashmir.
➢ The issue was then referred to the UN.
➢ The Kashmir conflict did not prevent cooperation between the governments of India and Pakistan.
Both the governments worked together to restore the women abducted during Partition to their
original families.
➢ The India-Pakistan Indus Waters Treaty was signed by Nehru and General Ayub Khan in 1960.
Despite all ups and downs in the Indo-Pak relations this treaty has worked well.
➢ In April 1965 Pakistan launched armed attacks in the Rann of Kutch area of Gujarat.
➢ This was followed by a bigger offensive in Jammu and Kashmir in August-September.
➢ The Prime Minister Shastri ordered Indian troops to launch a counter offensive on the Punjab
border.
➢ In a fierce battle, the Indian army reached close to Lahore.
➢ The hostilities came to an end with the UN intervention.
➢ Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistan's General Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent
Agreement, brokered by the Soviet Union, in January 1996.

Bangladesh War, 1971

➢ Beginning in 1970, Pakistan faced its biggest internal crisis.
➢ The country first general election produced a split verdict - Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's party emerged a
winner in West Pakistan, when the Awami League led by Sheikh Mujib0ur-Rahman swept through
East Pakistan.
➢ The Pakistani rulers were not willing to accept the democratic verdict.
➢ The Pakistani army arrested Sheikh Mujib-Ur-Rehman and unleashed a reign of terror on the
people of Each Pakistan.
➢ In response to this, the people started a struggle to liberate 'Bangladesh' from Pakistan.
➢ Throughout 1971, India had to bear the burden of about 80 lakh refugees who fled East Pakistan
and took shelter in the neighboring areas in India.
➢ Pakistan accused India of a conspiracy to break it up.
➢ Support for Pakistan came from the US and China.
➢ Henry Kissinger, the adviser to the US President Richard Nixon, made a secret visit to China,
Pakistan in July 1971.
➢ In order to counter the US-Pakistan-China axis, India signed a 20-year Treaty of Peace and
Friendship with the Soviet Union in August 1971.
➢ This treaty assured India of Soviet support if the country faced any attack.
➢ A full-scale war between India and Pakistan broke out in December 1971.
➢ Pakistani aircrafts attacked Punjab and Rajasthan.
➢ India retaliated with an attack involving the air force, navy and the army on both the Western and
the Eastern front.
➢ Within ten days the Indian army had surrounded Dhaka from three sides and the Pakistani army of
about 90,000 had a surrender.
➢ With Bangladesh as a free country, India declared a unilateral ceasefire.
➢ Later, the signing of the Shimla Agreement between India Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on 3 July
1972 formalized the return of peace between the two nations.

Effects of 1962, 1965 and 1971 War

 ➢ A decisive victory in the war led to national jubilation.
➢ After the 1971 war assembly elections in most States took place, bringing large majorities for the
Congress party.
➢ The resources were diverted to the defence sector especially after 1962,
➢ The Department of Défense Production was established in November 1962 ➢ The Department of
Défense Supplies was established in November 1965.
➢ The Third Five Year Plan (1961-66) was affected and it was followed by three Annual Plans.
➢ The Fourth Five Year Plan could be initiated only in 1969.
➢ India's defence expenditure increased enormously after the wars.

India Israel Relations

➢ India and Israel always have friendly relations with each other.
➢ Israel gained independence from the British Colonial rule in 1948.
➢ On September 17, 1950, India recognized Israel as a nation.
➢ India and Israel are strategic and trading partner of India.
➢ The political relation between India and Israel are very warm and forward- looking.
➢
➢ Diplomatic relations formally developed between India and Israel after the opening of Israel
Embassy in India in 1992.
➢ Israel helped India by giving sophisticated weapons.
➢ Both countries have agreement to exchange information on terrorism.
➢ Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi's first visit to Israel has promised a number of agreements
between both countries on defence, space, technology, agriculture, water and security.
➢ India has successfully completed 25 years of good political relations with Israel. After Russia and
the United States, Israel is India's largest exporter.

India’s Relationship with Russia: -

➢ India’s Relationship with Russia an important aspect of India’s foreign policy.
➢ India-Russia relations are embedded in a history of trust and common interests and are matched by
popular perceptions.
➢ India and Russia s bilateral agreements have been signed between India and Russia as part of the
into Russian strategic Agreement of hare a vision of a multipolar world order
➢ Russia stand to benefit from the relationship because India is the second largest arms market for
Russia.
➢ The Indian military gets most of its hard ware from Russia. ➢ India is an oil important nation.
➢ India is seeking to increase its energy imports from Russia.
➢ Russia is important for India’s nuclear energy plant.
Russia assisted India’s space industry by giving, for example the cryogenic rocket when India
needed in.
➢ Russia and India have collaborated on various scientific projects.

➢ Russia president Boris Yeltsin in and India signed nine agreement s in respect of scientific
Equipment, Environment protection and research in to space Russia agreed to deliver to India the
most ultra –modern aircraft (Sukoi-30).
➢ Indo Russian strategic agreement for joint fighting international terrorism
➢ An agreement signed in 2006 enabled India to import space Technology from Russia.
➢ An agreement signed in 2008 construction of Russia designed Nuclear plants in kundankulam.
➢ An inter- government cooperation for long term gas supply
➢ Military and Technical Co-operation always remained an important pillar on strategic partnership
between the two countries.
➢ In April, 2019 Russia conferred its highest civil award on Indian prime minister for his “exceptional
servicer’ in promoting the strategic partnership between the two countries.
India’s Relationship with the US
➢ After the collapse of the USSR. India has liberalized its economy and integrated it with the global
economy.
➢ India- US bilateral relation increasing our strategic partnership, including security, energy and
technology.
➢ The US India’s largest trading partner in goods and services.
➢ In 2019-20 the bilateral trade between the USA and India stood at USD 88.75 billion.
➢ Cooperation with counter- terrorism with intelligence sharing, information exchange. Operational
cooperation and sharing of counter –Terrorism technology and equipment.
➢ The US absorbs about 65% of India total export in the software sector.
➢ 35% of the technical staff of boing is estimated to be of Indian origin.
➢ 300,000 Indians work in Silicon Valley.
➢ 15% of all high-tech start-ups are by Indian-American.
➢ The US did not accept India's foreign policy of Non-Alignment.
➢ The US viewed India's better relations with the Soviet Union with suspicion.
➢ There are lot of difference of opinion between India and the United States in the negotiations on the
World Trade Organization (WTO), visa policy and climate change.
➢ The United States is not happy about India's Non-signing of the NPT-Nuclear Non-Proliferation and
CTBT-Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty.
➢ The USA and India signed an agreement on Nuclear energy.
➢ India and USA consult each other on a number of subjects including strategic cooperation, science
and technology, health, education, energy and climate change.
➢ The US administration projected India as a key partner in the “Indo-Pacific Region”.

India's Nuclear Policy

➢ Nehru had always up this faith in science and technology for rapidly building a modern India.
➢ A significant component of his industrialization plans was the nuclear program initiated in the late
1940 under the guidance of Homi Jehangir Bhabha.
➢ Nehru was not only deeply committed to the complete elimination of all nuclear weapons but also
opposed to the manufacture and possession by any state including India.
➢ He was opposed to nuclear weapons on moral, political and strategic ground scaling their
possession a “crime against humanity”.
➢ He integrated this opposition in to India's foreign policy giving it an activist edge.
➢ He was the first world leader to call for an end to all nuclear testing following US bomb test in the
Pacific in 1954.
➢ However, India’s civilian nuclear energy programme under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)
also had a dual use capacity major figures such as Homi J.Bhabha were not aware of this Bhabha
himself was not as categorically opposed to a possible future bomb as was Nehru.

➢ India's nuclear policy has always been peace-oriented, whose clear impression is reflected in the
policy of No First Use. But in view of contemporary regional security challenges,
➢ The present government led by Prime Minister Narendra Modi has made it clear that the policy of
no first use can be reviewed and changed in consonance with India's regional and national security.
➢ In addition, India is committed to ensuring its membership in the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)
and opposing partisan and unjust nuclear treaties like CTBT and NPT.

CH-4 CHALLENGES TO AND RESTORATION OF THE CONGRESS SYSTEM

Challenges of Political Succession.
India’s first Prime Minister J.L. Nehru passed away in May 1964
There were two challenges of political succession.
(i). Whether India’s democratic system will survive after Nehru.
(ii) Whether question of political succession will be solved peacefully and democratically.
 Because many newly independent countries of Asia and Africa and Latin America could not solve
their political succession after the death of popular leader and couldn’t be maintained democratic
system. Example- Pakistan after Mohammad Ali Jinnah and Indonesia after Sukarno.
But India solved both questions peacefully and democratically and proved the critics wrong.
Lal Bahadur Shastri became the second prime minister of India.
1960s were labeled as the dangerous decade. Because there were many unresolved problems like poverty.
Inequality communal and regional division etc. could lead to a failure of the democratic system or even
disintegration of the country.
From Nehru to Shastri
Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964 to 1966)
There were three major challenges of Shastri.
(i). Economic problems due to the war with China in 1962.
(ii) Serious food crisis due to failure of monsoon and draught in large part of the country.
(iii) War with Pakistan in 1964.
To overcome these challenges Shastri gave the slogan ‘Jay Jawan Jay Kisan’
10th January1966 Shastriji was suddenly expired in Tashkent. Then in USSR and currently the
capital of Uzbekistan. He was there to discuss and sign an agreement with Muhammad Ayub
Khan, the then President of Pakistan, to end the war

From Shastri to Indira Gandhi

The Congress faced the challenge of political succession for second time in two years.
This time there was intense competition between Morarji Desai and Indira Gandhi.
Indira Gandhi was also cabinet minister in Shastri’s Cabinet.
Most of the congress leader supported Indira Gandhi.
Indira Gandhi won the contest and became the next Prime minister of India.
Fourth General Election 1967.
Fourth general election was held in 1967.
The year 1967 is considered a landmark year in India’s political and electoral history.

(i). Congress won with over 40% vote share, but seats were reduced from 361/494
283/520.
to
(ii) First Elections Congress fought under leadership of Indira Gandhi.
(iii) Parliamentary constituencies went up from 494
520to
(iv) Swantantrata Part
y, Formed by anti
-Congress sentiments won 44 seat.

Context of elections
:

The first-time congress was going to contest the election without Pandit Nehru.
There was serious economic crisis in the country.
A large part of the country faced draught due to continues failure of monsoon.
There was a shortage of food grains, Agriculture production was being decreased.
The Industrial production and exports were also decreased.
India had to raise its expenditure on military.
Indian rupee was devaluated in comparison of US dollar.
Non –Congressism
Most of the opposition’s parties realized that the division of their votes kept the congress in power. Thus,
parties that’s were entirely different and disparate in their programs and ideology got together to from anti-
congress fronts in some states.
The socialist leader Ram Manohar Lohiya gave this strategy the name of Non-Congressism. He also
produced a theoretical argument in its defense and said congress rule was undemocratic and opposed to
the interest of ordinary poor people. Therefore, the coming together of the non-Congress parties was
necessary for reclaiming democracy for the people.
Electoral verdict –
➢ The fourth general elections to the Lok Sabha and state Assemblies were held in February 1967.
➢ The result jolted the congress at both the national and state level.
➢ Many contemporary political observers described the election as ‘political earthquake’.
➢ The congress did manage to get a majority in the Lok Sabha but with its lowest tally of seats and
share of votes since 1952.
➢ Half the ministers in Indira Gandhi’s cabinet were defeated. Coalitions –
➢ The election of 1967 brought into picture the phenomenon of coalition.
➢ Since no single party had got majority, various non-congress parties came together to form joint
legislative parties (called Samyukta Vidhayak Dal in Hindi) that supported non-congress
governments.
➢ That is why these government came to be described as SVD governments.
➢ The SVD in Bihar included the two socialist parties SSP and PSP along with CPI on the left and
Jana Sangha on the right. In Punjab it was called popular united front and comprised the two rival
Akali parties at that time – Sant group and the Master group.
Defection –
➢ Defection means an elected representative leaves the party on whose symbol he/she was elected
and joins another party.
➢ In 1967 elections defection played an important role in the making and unmaking of governments in
the states.
➢ After the 1967 general election the breakaway congress legislators played a major role in installing
non-congress governments in three states – Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
➢ The constant realignments and shifting political loyalties in this period gave rise to the expression
‘Aya Ram’ – ‘Gaya Ram’ split in the congress.
➢ After the 1967 elections, the congress retained power at the center but with a reduced majority and
lost power in many states.
➢ The results proved that the congress could be defeated at the elections.
Indira Gandhi vs the syndicate –
➢ The real challenge to Indira Gandhi within her own party, she had to deal with syndicate.
➢ The syndicate, a group of powerful and influential leaders from within the congress.
➢ Gradually Indira Gandhi attempted to assert her position within the government and the party.
➢ She chose her trusted group of advisers from outside the party and carefully sidelined the syndicate.
➢ Indira Gandhi faced two challenges to build her independence and to work towards regaining the
ground that the congress had lost in the 1967 elections.
➢ She adopted a very bold strategy and launched a series of initiatives and got the congress working
committee to adopt ‘Ten-point programme’ in 1967.
➢ This programme included social control of Banks, nationalization of general insurance, ceiling on
urban property and income, public distribution of food grains, land reforms, provision of house sites
to the rural poor.
Presidential election, 1969

• President-------------------------- Zakir Hussain

• Vice-President –----------------- V.V.Giri

• Prime Minister –----------------- Indira Gandhi

• Deputy Prime Minister – --------Morarji Desai

• Speaker –-------------------------- Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy
 ➢
The factional rivalry between the Syndicate and Indira Gandhi came in the open in 1969.
➢
President Zakir Hussain’s death, the post of President of the India fell vacant.
➢
Speaker of the Lok Sabha, N. Sanjeeva Reddy, as the official Congress candidate for the
ensuing Presidential elections.
➢
Indira Gandhi retaliated by encouraging the then Vice-President, V.V. Giri, to file his
nomination as an independent candidate.
➢
Indira Gandhi also announced several big and popular policy measures like the
nationalization of fourteen leading private banks and the abolition of the ‘privy purse’ or the
special privileges
given to former princes.
➢
Morarji Desai was the Deputy Prime Minister and Finance
Minister.
➢
The then Congress President S. Nijalingappa issued a ‘whip’ asking all the Congress
MPs and MLAs to vote in favor of Sanjeeva Reddy.
➢
Supporters of Indira Gandhi requisitioned a special meeting of the AICC (that is why this faction
came to be known as ‘requisitionists’) but this was refused.
➢
After silently supporting V.V. Giri, the Prime Minister openly called for a ‘conscience
vote’ which meant that the MPs and MLAs from the Congress should be free to vote the way they
want.

The election ultimately resulted in the victory of V.V. Giri, the independent candidate, and the
defeat of Sanjeeva Reddy, the official Congress candidate. The defeat of the official Congress
candidate formalized the split in the party.
➢
The Congress President expelled the Prime Minister from the party. Indira Gandhi claimed
that her group was the real Congress.
➢
The Congress group led by the ‘syndicate’ came to be referred to as the Congress
(Organization) and the group led by Indira Gandhi came to be called the Congress
(Requisitionists) in November 1969.

➢
Congress (O) described as Old Congress and Congress (R) were also New Congress.

➢
Indira Gandhi projected the split as an ideological divide between socialists and

conservatives, between the pro-poor and the pro-rich.

Abolition of Privy Purse

➢
The rulers’ families would be allowed to retain certain private property, and given a grant
in heredity or government allowance, measured on the basis of the extent, revenue and potential of
the merging state. This grant was called the Privy Purse.
➢
Hereditary privileges were not consonant with the principles of equality and social and
economic justice laid down in the Constitution of India.
➢
Following the 1967 elections, Indira Gandhi supported the demand that the government
should abolish privy purses. Morarji Desai called the move morally wrong and amounting to a
‘breach
of faith with the princes’.
➢
The government tried to bring a Constitutional amendment in 1970 but it was not passed
in
Rajya Sabha.
➢
It then issued an ordinance which was struck down by the Supreme Court. Indira Gandhi
made this into a major election issue in 1971 and got a lot of public support.
➢
The Constitution was amended to remove legal obstacles for abolition of ‘privy purse’.
The 1971 Election and Restoration of Congress

➢
The split in the Congress reduced Indira Gandhi Government to a minority.

➢
Indira’s government continued in office with the issue-based support of a few other parties
including the Communist Party of India (CPI) and the DMK.
➢
The government made conscious attempts to project its socialist credentials. This was also a
phase when Indira Gandhi vigorously campaigned for implementing the existing land reform laws and
undertook further land ceiling legislation. ➢ Indira Gandhi’s government recommended the
dissolution of the Lok Sabha in December 1970.

➢
The fifth general election to Lok Sabha were held in February 1971.

The contest

➢
The electoral contest appeared to be loaded against Congress (R). After all, the new
Congress was just one faction of an already weak party.

➢
Everyone believed that the real Organizational strength of the Congress party was under
the command of Congress (O).
➢
To make matters worse for Indira Gandhi, all the major non-communist, non- Congress
opposition parties formed an electoral alliance known as the Grand Alliance.
➢
The SSP, PSP, Bhartiya Jana Sangh, Swatantra Party and the Bhartiya Kranti Dal came
together under this umbrella.
The ruling party had an alliance with the CPI.
➢
The new Congress had something that its big opponents lacked it had an issue, an
agenda and a positive slogan.
➢
Grand Alliance did not have a coherent political programme.

➢
Indira Gandhi said that the opposition alliance had only one common programme- Indira
Hatao (Remove Indira).
➢
Indira Gandhi put forward a positive programme captured in the famous slogan: Garibi
Hatao
(Remove Poverty).
➢
Indira Gandhi focused on the growth of the public sector, imposition of ceiling on rural
land holdings and urban property, removal of disparities in income and opportunity, and abolition
of princely privileges.
➢
Through garibi hatao Indira Gandhi tried to generate a support base among the disadvantaged,
especially among the landless labourers, Dalits and Adivasis, minorities, women and the
unemployed youth.
➢
The slogan of garibi hatao and the programmes that followed it were part of Indira
Gandhi’s
political strategy of building an independent nationwide political support base.

The outcome and after

➢
The results of the Lok Sabha elections of 1971, were as dramatic as was the decision to
hold these elections.
➢
The Congress(R)-CPI alliance won more seats and votes than the Congress had ever won
in the first four general elections. ➢ The combine won 375 seats in Lok Sabha and secured 48.4 per
cent votes.
 ➢
Indira Gandhi’s Congress(R) won 352 seats with about 44 per cent of the popular votes
on its own.
➢
Contrast this with the performance of the Congress (O): the party with so many stalwarts
could get less than one-fourth of the votes secured by Indira Gandhi’s party and win merely 16
seats.
➢
The Congress party led by Indira Gandhi established its claim to being the ‘real’
Congress and restored to it the dominant position in Indian politics. ➢ The Grand Alliance of the
opposition proved a grand failure.

➢
After the 1971 Lok Sabha elections, a major political and military crisis broke out in East
Pakistan (now Bangladesh).

➢
The crisis in East Pakistan and the Indo- Pak war leading to the establishment of
Bangladesh.
These events added to the popularity of Indira Gandhi.
➢
Indira Gandhi was seen not only as the protector of the poor and the underprivileged, but
also a strong nationalist leader.
➢
With two successive election victories, one at the centre and other at the State level, the
dominance of the Congress was restored.
➢
The Congress was now in power in almost all the States. It was also popular across
different
social sections.

Restoration

➢
In many ways she had re-invented the party. The party occupied a similar position in
terms of its popularity as in the past. But it was a different kind of a party.
It relied entirely on the popularity of the supreme leader.
➢ It had a somewhat weak Organizational structure.

➢
This Congress party now did not have many factions; thus it could not accommodate all
kinds of opinions and interests.
➢
While it won elections, it depended more on some social groups: the poor, the women,
Dalits, Adivasis and the minorities.
➢ This was a new Congress that had emerged.

➢
Indira Gandhi restored the Congress system by changing the nature of the Congress
system itself.
➢
The new Congress did not have the kind of capacity to absorb all tensions and conflicts
that the Congress system was known for.
➢
The Congress consolidated its position and Indira Gandhi assumed a position of
unprecedented political authority, the spaces for democratic expression of people’s aspirations
actually shrank.

➢
The popular unrest and mobilization around issues of development and economic deprivation
continued to grow.
 CH-5 DEMOCRATIC RESURGENCE
Introduction:
The events that took place between 1973 and 1975 posed new challenges to the balance between India’s
democratic politics and the institutional balance by constitution.
These developments led to the imposition of ‘emergency’ in June 1975.
Background of Emergency

➢ Indira Gandhi had emerged as a towering leader with tremendous popularity.

➢ Party competition during this period become bitter and polarized.
➢ The relationship between the government and the judiciary were tensed.
➢ The supreme court found many initiatives of the government to be violative of the constitution.
➢ The congress termed this stand of the court as against the principles of democracy and
parliamentary supremacy.
➢ The opposition left that politics was personalized and that governmental authority was converted in
to personal authority.
Economy context:

➢ In the 1971 elections, the congress gave the slogan of ‘Garibi Hatao’ but there was no significant
improvement in the socio-economic condition of the country.
➢ The Bangladesh crisis had put a heavy strain on India’s economy. It was followed by war with
Pakistan.
➢ The U.S. government stopped all aid to India.
➢ In the international market, oil prices increased manifold during this period.
➢ Industrial growth was low and unemployment was very high, particularly in the rural areas.
➢ The government reduce expenditure and froze the salaries of its employees.
➢ Monsoons was failed in 1972-73. This resulted in a sharp decline in agricultural productivity.
➢ There was an atmosphere of dissatisfaction in the whole country regarding the prevailing economic
condition.
➢ In such a context opposition parties were able to organize popular protests effectively.
➢ Students unrest in this period.
➢ The Marxist group also launched arms struggle to overthrow the capitalist order and established
political system.
Gujrat and Bihar movements:
Protest in Gujrat:

➢ In January 1974 students in Gujrat started an agitation against rising prices of essential
commodities and corruption.
➢ Major opposition parties joined the students protest and became widespread leading to the
imposition of president’s rule in the state.
➢ The opposition parties demands fresh elections.
➢ Morarji Desai, a prominent leader of congress (o), who was the main rival of Indira Gandhi. He was
announcement to go on an indefinite fast if fresh elections were not held in the state.
➢ Under intense pressure from student and opposition parties, assembly elections were held in Gujrat
in June 1975 and congress was defeated in this election.
Protest in Bihar:

➢ In march 1974 students in Bihar to protest against rising prices, food scarcity, unemployment and
corruption.
➢ Students invited Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) to lead their movement.
 ➢ JP was accepted it on the condition that the movement will remain non-violent and will not limit itself
to Bihar.
➢ The student’s movement assumed a political character and had nation appeal.
➢ JP demanded the dismissal of congress government in Bihar.
➢ He called ‘Total Revolution’ in the social, economic and political spheres for establishing true
democracy.
➢ A series of bandhs, gheraos and strikes were organized in protest against the Bihar government.
➢ Jayprakash wanted to spread the Bihar movement to other parts of the country.
➢ Alongside the agitation led by Jayprakash Narayan, a nationwide strike by all employees’ the
railways was led by the George Fernandes.
➢ In 1975, JP led a people march to the parliament. This was one of the largest political rallies ever
held the capital.
➢ The Gujrat and Bihar agitations were seen as anti-congress.

The Naxalite movement:

➢ In 1967 a peasant uprising took place in the Naxalbari police station area of Darjeeling hills district
in west Bengal. Under the leadership of the local cadres of the communist party of India [Marxist].
➢ Beginning from the Naxalbari police station, the peasant movement spread to several states of India
and came to be referred broadly as the Naxalite movement.
➢ In 1969, Naxalist broke off from the CPI(M) and a new party, communist party [Marxist-Leninist]
(CPI-ML) was formed under the leadership of Charu Majumdar.
➢ Naxalites argued that democracy in India was a sham mand decided to adopt a strategy of
protracted guerrilla warfare in order to lead to a revolution.
➢ The Naxalite movement has used force to snatch land from rich landowners and give it to the poor
and the landless.
➢ Its supporter advocated the use of violet means to achieve their political goals.
➢ The Naxalite movement split into various parties and organization.
➢ Many districts in nine states are affected by Naxalite violence.
➢ Most of these are very backward areas inhabited by Adivasis.
➢ In these areas the sharecroppers, under tenants and small cultivators were denied their basic right
with regard to security of tenure of their share in produce payment of fair wages.
➢ Forced labor, expropriation of resources by outsiders and exploitation by moneylenders are
common in these areas.
➢ These conditions lead to the growth of the Naxalite movement.
➢ Government have taken stern measures in dealing with the Naxalite movement.
Conflict with judiciary:
Three constitutional issues had emerged in this period –

i. The parliament to abridge fundamental right.

ii. Parliament can abridge the right to property making an amendment.
iii. The parliament abridge fundamental right to give effect to the directive principles.
➢ All these issues were struck down by the supreme court.
➢ This led to a crisis as far as the relations between the government and the judiciary were
concerned.
➢ This crisis culminated in the Kesavananda Bharti case.
➢ In this case the court gave a decision that there are some basic features of the constitution and the
parliament cannot amend these features.
➢ Two developments further added to the tension between the judiciary and the executive.
 ➢ In India, it was a practice to make the senior most judge of the supreme court the chief justice, but in
1973 the government set aside the seniority of three judges and appointed justice Ajit Nath Ray as
the chief justice of India.
➢ A state’s high court declared Indira Gandhi’s election invalid.
Declaration of Emergency :

➢ On 12th June 1975, the Allahabad high court declared Indira Gandhi’s election invalid.
➢ This petition was filed by Raj Narain, a socialist challenging. Indira Gandhi’s election as invalid as
she has used government machinery for election campaign.
➢ The high court declared her election as invalid so legally she was, no more an MP and therefore,
she could not remain the prime minister unless once again elected as an MP within six months.
➢ On June 24, the supreme court a partial stay on the high court order.
Crisis and response:

➢ The opposition political parties led Jayaprakash Narayan organized a massive demonstration in
Ram Leela grounds on 25th June, 1975 for resignation of Indira Gandhi.
➢ JP announced a nationwide satyagraha for her resignation and asked the army, the police and
government employees not to obey ‘illegal immoral order’
➢ Indira Gandhi’s government respond to this crisis by declaring a state of emergency.
➢ On 25th June, 1975 the government declared that there was threat of internal disturbances and
therefore, she imposed emergency under article 352 of the constitution [During the emergency,
Indian constitution provided its special powers to union government.]
➢ Once on emergency is proclaimed, the federal distribution of power remains practically suspended
and all the powers get concentrated in union government.
➢ Government also gets power to restrict all or any of the fundamental right during the emergency.
➢ Emergency is seen as an extraordinary condition in which normal democratic politics cannot
function.
➢ On the night of 25th June 1975, the prime minister recommended the imposition of emergency to
president Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed.
➢ He issued the proclamation immediately.
➢ The electricity was disconnected for all major newspaper offices.
➢ A large number of leaders and worker of the opposition parties were arrested.
Consequences:

➢ With imposition of emergency, agitation and strikes were banned.

➢ Many opposition leaders were put in Jail and political atmosphere become quiet but little tense as
well.
➢ The government suspended the freedom of the press.
➢ ‘Newspapers were asked to get prior approval for all material to be published, this known as press
censorship.
➢ Apprehending social and communal disharmony, the government banned Rastriya Swayamsevak
sangh (RSS) and Jamait-e-Islam.
➢ Protest, trikes and public agitation’s were also disallowed.
➢ Under the provisions of emergency, the various fundamental rights of citizens stood suspended
including the right of citizens to move the court for restoring.
➢ The government made extensive use of preventive detention, under this provision people are
arrested and detained not because they have committed any offence, but on the apprehension that
they may commit an offence.
➢ Using this acts government arrested political workers, they could not challenge their arrest through
habeas carpus petitions.
 ➢ Many cases were brought by and on behalf of arrested individuals in the high courts and supreme
court, but the government contended that it was not even necessary to tell the arrested individuals
of the reason and grounds for their arrest.
➢ Several high courts have ruled that a writ of habeas corpus field by a person challenging his or her
detention can be heard even after the proclamation of emergency.
➢ The constitution bench of the supreme court over ruled the high courts in April 1976 and approved
the government’s plea.
➢ It meant that the government may take away a citizen’s right to life and liberty during the
emergency.
➢ This judgement closed the doors of judiciary for the citizens and is regarded as one of the most
controversial judgements of the supreme court.
➢ Many journalists were arrested for writing against the emergency.
➢ Kannada writer Shiva Rama karanth, awarded with Padma Bhushan, Hindi writer Fanishwar Nath
Renu awarded with Padma Shri, returned their awards in protest against the suspension of
democracy.
➢ In the background of the ruling of the Allahabad high court the parliament brought in many changes
to the constitution.
➢ An amendment was made declaring that election of prime minster, president and vice-present could
not be challenged in the court.
➢ The 42nd amendment was passed during the emergency, in this amendment consisted of a series of
changes in many parts of the constitution.
➢ By this amendment that the duration of the legislature in the country was extended from five to six
years.
➢ This change was not only for emergency period but was intended to be of a permanent nature.
➢ During emergency election can be postpended by one year.

Consequences of Emergency
Many opposition leaders were arrested and sent to jail.
Protest, Strikes and public agitations were also banned.
The political situation in the country became very quiet though tense.
Government imposed censorship on press. Newspaper was asked to get prior approval for all material to
be published.
The Government banned R.S.S. and Jamait -e-Islami .
The various Fundamental right of citizen were also suspended.
The Government made extensive use of preventive detention.
During emergency government passed 42nd Constitution amendment was made declaring that election of
Prime-minister, President and vice president could not be challenged in the court.
Controversies regarding Emergency
Emergency is one of the most controversial episodes in Indian politics. The Government declared
emergency on ground of “Internal disturbance”
Was the Emergency necessary ?

The Constitution simply mentioned ‘internal disturbances’ as the reason for declaring Emergency.
Government’s Arguments ( favor of Emergency)
The government argued that in a democracy the opposition must allow the elected ruling party to govern
according to its policies. Frequent agitation, protests and collective action are not good democracy.
Continuous agitations, demonstrations and strikes lead to instability and distract day today administration
and development.
CPI supported emergency and said that there was an international conspiracy against the unity of India.
Supporter of Indira Gandhi said the opposition cannot continuously have extra-parliamentary politics
targeting the government.
Arguments against the government
In a democracy people have right to criticize and protest against the government.
People those were arrested were never tried for any anti-national activities.
The threat was not to the unity and integrity of the country but to the ruling parties and to the prime minister
herself. There was no need to suspend democratic functioning and use draconian measures like the
Emergency.

Shah Commission

In May 1977, the Janata Party government appointed a commission of inquiry headed by Justice J.C.
Shah, retired Chief justice of Supreme Court of India, to enquiry “into several aspects of allegations of
abuse of authority , excesses and malpractices committed and action taken in the wake of the Emergency
proclaimed on the 25th June 1975.

What happened during Emergency?

The government said that it wanted to use the emergency.
To bring law and order
To restore efficiency
To implement the proper welfare programmes.
For this purpose, Indira Gandhi Government announced a twenty-point programme.
Land reform
Land redistribution
Review of agricultural wages
Workers participation in management
Eradication of bonded labors.
Nearly one lakh eleven thousand people were arrested under preventive detention laws. Restrictions under
preventive detention laws.
Death and torture in custody.
A large number of poor people were displaced.
Compulsory sterilization for population control.
Several restriction on press.
Serious allegation regarding the exercise of government power by people who held no official position.
Lesson of the Emergency
It is extremely difficult to do away with democracy in India.
It brought out some ambiguities regarding the emergency provision in the constitution. Now Internal
Emergency can be proclaimed only on the ground of armed rebellion and it is necessary that the advice to
the president to proclaim emergency must be given in writing by the Council of ministers.
The Emergency made everyone more aware of the value of civil liberties.

Politics after Emergency

After the eighteen month of emergency election were held in 1977.
The opposition parties fought the election on the slogan of “Save Democracy”
Opposition parties contest the election collectively
They came together and formed a new party named “Janata Party”
Janata Party – Jay Prakash Narayan was the leader of Janata Party
Some leaders came out from congress and formed a separate party under the
leadership of Jagjiven Ram, named congress for democracy. Later it was merged with Janata Party
Result of Election
For the first time since independence, the congress party was defeated in Lok Sabha.
Congress could win only 154 seats in the Lok Sabha.
Its share of votes fells to less than 35 percent.
Janata party and its allies won 330 out of the 542 seats in the Lok Sabha.
Congress party could not win even one seat in Bihar, UP, Delhi, Haryana, and the Punjab and could only
one seat win in Rajasthan and MP.
Indira Gandhi and her son Sanjay Gandhi were defeated.
Janata Government
The Janata party government came to power after 1977 elections.
There was competition among three leaders for the post of Prime Minister Morarji Desai, Charan singh, and
Jagjivan Ram.
Morarji Desai became Prime Minister.
Janata party lacked direction, leadership and a common programme.
It could not bring fundamental change in policies.
The Janta party split and lost its majority in less than 18 months.
Charan Singh formed government but it also lost majority within 4 months.
In 1980 election took place again, congress party led by Indira Gandhi won the election
Legacy
The legacy of emergency was felt in every sphere of people’s life and politics
Between the election of 1977 and 1980, Congress identified itself with particular ideology, claiming to be
only socialist and pro-poor party.
The issue of welfare of backward classes began to dominate politics i.e northern states elected non –
congress leader of backward class since 1977.
This period of emergency saw the period of constitutional crisis to lose its origin in constitutional battle over
jurisdiction of parliament and judiciary.
This period created political crisis also as the party in power enjoyed absolute majority, still decided to
suspend the democratic process.
The emergency tensed between institutions-based democracy and democracy based on spontaneous
popular participation for which party system was to be blamed.

CH-6 REGIONAL ASPIRATIONS

Regional Aspirations-
➢ The rising regional aspirations for autonomy often outside the framework of the Indian Union.
➢ These movements frequently involved armed assertions and main aims of these movements
was collapse of the political and electoral processes.
➢ All movements were settled with dialogue between central government and groups leading for
autonomy. Indian Approach
➢ India adopted a democratic approach in nation building is to balance the principles of unity and
diversity.
➢ The nation would not mean the negation of the region.
➢ The one basic principle of the Indian approach to diversity is, the Indian Nation shall not deny
the rights of different regions and linguistic groups to retain their own culture.
➢ Democratic politics also means that regional issues and problems will receive adequate
attention and accommodation in the policy making process.
➢ India adopted a democratic approach to the question of diversity. Democracy allows the political
expressions of regional aspirations and does not look upon them as anti-national.
➢ After India got Independence many part of India faced mass agitations in Jammu and Kashmir
and some parts of North-East for separation from India.
➢ The mass movement followed the same in many parts for the formation of linguistic states, such
as Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat.
➢ The official language of the country that is Hindi was protested in some parts of Southern India.
➢ Later the state Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Uttarakhand were created and with the passage of
time the challenge of diversity was met by redrawing the internal boundaries of the country.
➢ The success and failure on these cases are instructive not merely for a study of our past, but
also for an understanding of India’s future.

Jammu and Kashmir Issue:-Root of the problem

➢ The ‘Kashmir issue’ is always seen as a major issue between India and Pakistan but the political
situation in the state has many dimensions.
➢ Jammu and Kashmir comprises three social and political regions. Jammu-a mix of foothills and
plains, Kashmir- heart of Kashmir region; Ladakh -mountainous region with very little population
which is equally divided between Buddhists and Muslims.
➢ Before 1947, Jammu and Kashmir was a Princely State. The state was having majority
population of Muslims but Hari Singh was a Hindu ruler of the state.
➢ In October 1947, Pakistan sent tribal infiltrators from its side to capture Kashmir. This forced
Hari Singh to ask for Indian military help. Before the same he didn’t want to merge with India
and Pakistan and negotiate with both for independence status for his state.
➢ Indian Army successfully drove out infiltrators from Kashmir valley and Hari Singh signed an
Instrument of Accession with the Government of India.
 ➢ Instrument of Accession: An accord signed between Maharaja of Kashmir and government of
India on the accession of state.
➢ It was agreed that once the situation will be normalized, the views of the people of Jammu and
Kashmir will be ascertained about their future and India agreed to maintain the autonomy of
Jammu and Kashmir.
➢ The popular movement was led by Jawahar Lal Nehru’s friend Sheikh Abdullah of the National
Conference(a secular Organization) get rid of Maharaja Hari Singh but against joining Pakistan.
➢ Friend Sheikh Abdullah was become the prime minister of J & K and this state maintain the
autonomy after India’s agreed.

External and Internal Disputes

➢ Externally, Pakistan has always claimed that Kashmir valley should be part of Pakistan.
Pakistan sponsored a tribal invasion of The State of 1947 and consequence of it, a part of the
state came under Pakistani control.
➢ India claims this area under illegal occupation whereas Pakistan describes this area as ‘Azad
Kashmir.’ Internally, there is a dispute about the status of Kashmir within the Indian Union.
Kashmir was given special status by article 370 in our constitution. Article 370 gives greater
autonomy to J&K compared to other state of India. State has its own constitution.
The special attention provokes two opposite reactions.

➢ A section of people outside J&K believes that the special status of the state conferred by Article
370 does not allow full integration of the state with India but mostly Kashmiris, believe that
autonomy conferred by Article 370 is not enough.
➢ A section of people outside J&K feels that Article 370 should therefore be revoked and J&K
should be like any other state in India.
➢ Another section, Politics Since 1948 Between 1953 and 1974, the Congress Party exercised a
lot of influence on the politics of the state.
➢ National Conference remained in power with the active support of Congress for some time but
later it merged with the Congress. Thus, Congress gained direct control over the government of
the state.
➢ In 1974, Indira Gandhi reached an agreement with Sheikh Abdullah and he became the Chief
Minister of the State. Farooq Abdullah succeeded after death of his father as Chief Minister in
1982.Farooq Abdullah was soon dismissed by the Governor, his dismissal due to the
intervention of the centre generated a feeling of resentment in Kashmir. Ups and down in state
politics continued till 1986 when National Conference agreed to have an Electoral alliance with
the Congress.

Insurgency and Effect

Insurgency: An affair to be directed against one’s own constitutional government within national
boundary with the support of local people.
➢ In 1987 assembly election the National Conference-Congress alliance gained a massive victory
and Farooq Abdullah returned as Chief Minister.

Road to Peace:-Punjab Issue: Demand of Khalistan

➢ In 1984, the new Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi initiated a dialogue with moderate Akali leaders
and in July 1985 a peace agreement was signed between Rajiv Gandhi and Har Chand Singh
Longeval (the President of Akali Dal).
➢ The agreement known as Rajiv Gandhi- Longeval Accord or the Punjab Accord.
➢ Khalistan: A separate state of Sikh community to maintain the autonomous Sikh identity in
Punjab region.
➢ Operation Blue Star: A code name for army action in Golden Temple in June 1984 by
Government of India when Sikh militants made their headquarters inside Golden Temple. Indian
 army forcefully went inside the Golden temple with tank and killed Khalistani or Bhindrawale’s
Supporters.
➢ On 31 Oct 1984 Indira Gandhi was assassinated by her Sikh security gourds.
➢ After this incident riots spread in North India against Sikhs.
➢ The cycle of violence continued nearly for a decade and peace returned to Punjab by the middle
of 1990s. The alliance of Akali Dal (Badal) and the BJP scored a major victory in 1997, in the
first normal elections in the state in the post militancy era.
The North-East Issue
➢ The North-East region of the country now consists of seven states, also referred to as the
‘seven sister’ including Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Tripura, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunachal
Pradesh.
➢ The region witnessed a lot of change in 1947. The Entire region of North-East has undergone
considerable political re-organization.
➢ The vast international border and weak communication between the North-East and the rest of
India have added to the delicate nature of politics there.
➢ Three issues dominate the politics of Northeast: demands for autonomy, movements for
secession and opposition to ‘outsiders,’ Demands for Autonomy
➢ At the time of independence, the entire region except Manipur and Tripura comprised the State
of Assam.
➢ There were opposition and protest riots throughout the state on various issues.
➢ At different points of time the Central Government had to create Meghalaya, Mizoram and
Arunachal Pradesh out of Assam. The reorganization of the North-East was completed by 1972.

Secessionist Movements
➢ For autonomy there were secessionist movements in North-East region like Mizoram and
Nagaland etc.
➢ After independence, the Mizo hills area was made an autonomous district within Assam.
➢ Mizo National Front (MNF): It was formed in 1959 by the groups of Mizo under the leadership of
Lal denga for autonomous States of Mizo’s
➢ Movement for secession gained popular support after the Assam Government ‘failed to respond
adequately to great famine of 1959 in Mizo hills.’ Mizo’s anger led to formation of Mizo National
Front (MNF) under the leadership of Lal denga. MNF fought guerilla war, got support from
Pakistani Government and secured shelter in East Pakistan.
➢ In 1986 a peace agreement was signed between Rajiv Gandhi and Lal denga. This accord
granted Mizoram as full-fledged statehood with special powers, and MNF agreed to give up
secessionist struggle. Thus, the accord turn Mizoram as one of the most peaceful places in the
region.
➢ The story of Nagaland is similar to Mizoram except that started much earlier and had not yet
such a happy ending.
➢ After a section of violent insurgency, a section of the Nagas signed an agreement with the
Government of India but it was not acceptable to other rebels.

Movements against Outsiders

➢ The large-scale migration into the North-East gave rise to a special kind of problem that pitted
the ‘local’ communities against people who were seen as ‘outsiders’ or migrants.
➢ The Issue has taken political and sometimes violent form in many states of North- East. The
Assam movement from 1979 to 1985 is the best example of such movements against
‘outsiders’. In 1979, the All-Assam Students’ Union (AASU), a students’ group not affiliated to
any party, led an anti-foreigner
Movement.
Movement demanded, outsiders who had entered the state after 1951 should be sent back.
➢ With the successful completion of the movement, the AASU and the Asom Gana Sangram
Parishad organized themselves as a regional political party called Asom Gana Parishad (AGP),
 which came to power in 1985 with the promise of resolving the foreign national problem as well
as to build a ‘Golden Assam.’

Sikkim’s Merger
➢ At the time of independence Sikkim was a ‘protectorate (A state that is controlled and protected
by other) of India. Chogyal was its monarch. In 1975, Sikkim was merged with India and it
became the 22nd State of the Indian Union.

Accommodation and National Integration

➢ Regional aspirations are very much a part of democratic politics. Expression of regional issues
is not an aberration or an abnormal phenomenon. The best way to respond to regional
aspirations is through democratic negotiations rather than through suppression. Regional
imbalance in economic development contributes to the feeling of regional discrimination.

Goa’s Liberation
➢ Goa was under the Portuguese along with Daman and Diu, which expected freedom in 1947 but
Portuguese refused. Goa wanted to be merged with motherland and suppressed from religious
conversions and civil rights known as ‘Goa Problem’. In 1961, Government of India sent army
under ‘Operation Vijay’ and liberated Goa from Portugal rule. Goa, Daman and Diu was
declared a Union Territories and in 1987, Goa attained the status of ‘State Position’.

FACTS THAT MATTER

➢ 1. 1980s may be seen as a period of rising regional aspirations creating various regional
movements which conclude in a negotiated settlement or accords between the government’s
groups. Indian approach maintained a balance in the principles of unity and diversity even by
redrawing the internal boundaries of country in response to preserve the culture of different
regions and linguistic groups.
➢ 2. Immediately after independence, India had to cope up with the issues of partition,
displacement, integration of princely states and reorganization of states i.e. Jammu and Kashmir
issues political aspiration, North-East had no consensus to be a part of India and Dravidian
movement briefly toyed with the idea of separate country.
➢ 3. Jammu and Kashmir comprised of three social and political regions namely Kashmir, Jammu
and Ladakh region. On the issue of regional autonomy, Accession was promised on reference
of people. Special federal status guaranteed by Article 370, to protect regional autonomy.
➢ 4. During most of the period between 1953 to 1974, Congress exercised a lot of influence on the
politics of Jammu and Kashmir. Finally, in 1974, Sheikh became Chief Minister of the state.
Except it, from 1989, separatist politics was also surfaced in Kashmir with the stronger demand
for intrastate autonomy rather than state autonomy. In present scenario, most of separatist in
dialogue are trying to renegotiate a relationship of the state with India.
➢ 5. In Punjab, Anandpur Sahib Resolution was passed at the conference of Akali Dal at
Anandpur Sahib in 1973 to ascertain regional autonomy and to redefine centre-state
relationship. It had a limited appeal and Akali government was dismissed in 1980. Afterwards,
the movement launched by Akali Dal took the form of armed insurgency and resolution became
controversial.
➢ 6. In 1985, Punjab accord was signed between Rajiv Gandhi and Har Chand Singh Longeval,
President of Akali Dal to transfer Chandigarh, appointment of a commission to resolve border
dispute and agreement for compensation to better treatment. But peace did not come easily,
violence led many excesses and fragmentation of Akali Dal. Hence, it led to president’s rule in
the state. In 1997, first normal elections in Punjab were held in post militancy era and alliance of
Akali Dal and BJP scored a major victory.
➢ 7. The North-East region consisted of seven states referred to as ‘Seven Sisters’. The
reorganization of North-East was complete by 1972 but did not end the autonomy demands i.e.
Bodo’s, Karbis, Dimasas demanded separate state in Assam and issues were resolved with the
 grant of some autonomy to these issues. Even ‘Assam Accord’ was signed over the issue of’
Outsiders’ in Assam in 1985.
➢ 8. The Assam movement was combination of cultural pride and economic backwardness as it
was against outsiders to maintain cultural integration and poverty, unemployment also existed
despite natural resources like oil, tea and coal.
➢ 9. Regional aspirations range from demands of statehood and economic development to
autonomy and separation were coming up which taught many lessons to us i.e. expression of
regional issues is not abnormal phenomenon, to respond through democratic negotiations,
power sharing among groups and parties, economic development of region and flexible federal
system.

CH-7 INDIAN POLITICS – TRANDS AND DEVELOPMENT

CONTEXT OF 1990’S
The trends and development in Indian politics are complex at different stages.
After the assassination of Indira Gandhi in 1984 Rajiv Gandhi become the prime minister through a massive
victory in the 1984 Lok Sabha election the decade of the 1980’s the country witnessed five developments
that were to make a long-lasting impact on our politics.

1. End of congress system:

• In this period the congress party was defeated in the election held 1989.
• The party that had won 415 seats in the Lok Sabha in 1984 was reduced to only 197 in this election.
• The election of 1989 marked the end of the ‘Congress system’. The congress remains an important
party and ruled the country more than any other party but it last the kind of centrality it earlier
enjoyed in the party system.

2. Mandal Issue
• The new ‘National Front’ government in 1990 implemented the recommendation of the Mandal
commission.
• It held that jobs in central government should be reserved for the other backward classes (OBC).
• This led to violent ‘Anti-Mandal’ protests in different parts of the country.
• This dispute between the supporters and opponents of OBC reservations was known as the ‘Mandal
Issue’.
• The Mandal issue helped in shaping Indian politics since 1989.

3. New Economic reforms:

• This is known as the initiation of the structural adjustment programme or the new economic reforms.
• It was initiated by Rajiv Gandhi in 1991 which changed the direction of the Indian economy that was
pursued since independence.
• These policies have been widely criticized by carious movements and organizations.

4. Ayodhya Dispute:
• In December 1992, the demolition of the disputed structure at Ayodhya known as Babri Masjid.
• It symbolized and triggered various changes in the politics of the country.
• It has intensified debates about the nature of Indian Nationalism and Secularism.
• These developments the rise of BJP and politics of ‘Hindutva’.

5. Change in congress leadership:

• In May 1991 the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi led to a change in leadership of the congress party.
 • He was assassinated by LTTE.
• In the election of 1991, congress emerged as the single largest party.
• After the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi, the party choose Narsimha Rao as the prime minister.

II Era of coalitions

• In 1989, the congress defeated election, but did not result in majority for any other party.
• The National Front [An Alliance of Janata Dal and some other regional parties] support from two
opposite political groups: The BJP and the Left Front.
• The National Front formed a coalition government but the BJP and Left Front did not join in this
government.
• The congress was the largest party in the Lok Sabha but it did not have clear majority therefore, it
decided to sit in the opposition. Decline of congress

• The defeat of the congress party marked end of congress dominance over the India party system.
The Ero of 1990’s witnessed another challenge to the predominant position of congress as no single
party could replace congress.
• Now, began an era of multi-party system.
• In 1989 several numbers of political parties were emerged but since 1989 till 2014 no sing party
secured a clear majority of seats in any Lok Sabha elections.
• This development initiated an era of coalition government at the center.
• The regional parties played an important role in forming ruling alliances.
Alliance politics

• The 90’s witnessed the emergence of powerful parties and movements that represented the Dalit
and other backward class (OBS’s)
• These parties played an important role in the formation of united front government in 1996.
• The united front was similar to the national front of 1989, included Janata dal and several regional
parties.
• This time the BJP did not support the government, but congress party supported the united front.
• In 1989, both the left and the BJP supported the national front government because the wanted to
keep the congress out of power.
• In 1996 the left continued to support the non-congress government but this time the congress,
supported it because the (congress and left) wanted to keep the BJP out of power.
• They did not succeed for long.
• BJP made a strong party from 1991 to 1996 and emerged as the largest party in the 1996 election
and was invited to from the government.
• But other parties were opposed to its policies, therefore, the BJP government could not secure a
majority in the Lok Sabha.
• It finally came to power by leading a coalition government from may 1998 to June 1999 and was
reelected in oct 1999 Atal Bihari Vajpayee was the prime minister during both this NDA (National
Democratic Alliance) government.
• Since 1989, there have been II government at the center, all have been coalition governments.
o National Front - 1989
o United Front - 1996 to 1997 o NDA - 1998 to 2004
o UPA (United Progressive Alliance) - 2004 and 2009
• However, this trend of coalition government changed in 2014.
III political rise of other backward classes

• One long term development of this period was the rise of other backward classes as a political
force. • These are communities other than SC and ST who suffer from educational and social
backwardness.
• These are referred to as ‘backward castes.
• The support for the congress among many sections of the backward castes had declined.
• This created a space for non-congress parties that got support from these communities.
• The Bhartiya Kranti dal and the Samyukta socialist party got more support from these castes.
Manal implemented
In the 1980’s the Janata dal brought together a similar combination of political groups with strong
support among the OBCs.
• The decision of the national front government to implement the recommendations of the Mandal
commission.
• It helped in shaping the politics of OBCs.
• This intense was to give reservation in jobs.
• This period witnessed the emergence many parties that gave better opportunities for OBCs in
education and employment.
The Mandal commission:

• Southern states have had reservation for the OBCs since the 1960, but this policy did not apply to
the states of North India.
• During the tenure of Janata party govt. in 1977-79 that the demand for reservations for backward
casted in north India.
• Kapoori Thakur, the chief minister of Bihar was introduced a new policy of reservations for OBCs in
Bihar.
• Following this, the central government appointed a commission in 1978 to investigate and
recommended methods to improve the conditions of the poor.
• This commission is known as ‘Mandal commission’, after the name of its chair person, Bindeshwari
prasad Mandal.
• The commission gave its recommendation in 1980.
• It recommended reserving 27 percent of seats in the educational institution and government jobs
and also made many other recommendations like land reforms to improve the conditions of OBCs.
• In august 1990 the national front government decided to implement one of the recommendations of
Mandal commission.
• It was related to reservations for OBCs in jobs at the central government level and its undertaking. •
The decision was challenged in the supreme court and came to be known as ‘Indira Sawhney case’
• In Nov 1992 the supreme court gave its decision in the favor of the government.
Political fallouts

• In 1978, the backward and minority communities’ employee’s federation (BAMCEF) was formed.
• BAMCEF was a trade union of government employees.
• It took a strong position in favor of political power to the ‘Bahujan – the SC, ST OBC and minorities.
• It was out of this that the subsequent ‘Dalit Shoshit Samaj Sangharsh samiti and later the Bahujan
samaj party (BSP) emerged under the leadership of Kanshi Ram.
• BSP supported largely by Dalit voters in Punjab, Haryana and up.
• But in 1989 and 1991 elections, it achieved a victory in up.
• Than the BSP has emerged as a major political party and made a government more than once.
• It has expanded its support now to various other social groups.
Communalism, secularism, democracy
 • During this period 1990 the politics based on religious identity, debate about secularism and
democracy.
After emergency, the Bhartiya Jana Sangh had merged in to the Janata party.
• After the tall of Janata party and its break up Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP) in 1980.
• It adopted ‘Gandhi a socialism’ as its ideology.
• After 1986 the party began to emphasize the Hindu nationalist elements in its ideology.
• The BJP started the politics of ‘Hindutva’ and adopted strategy of mobilizing the Hindus.
• Two development around 1986 become central to the politics of BJP as ‘Hindutva Party’

1. The Shah Bano case 1985

• Shah Bano was a 62 years old divorced Muslim woman, had filed a case for maintenance from her
former husband.
• Supreme court ruled in her favor. The orthodox Muslims saw the supreme court order as an
interference in ‘Muslim personal law’
• On the demand of some Muslim leaders, the government passed the Muslim women (protection of
rights on divorce) act 1986 the nullified the supreme court’s judgment.
• This action of the government was opposed by many women’s organizations Muslim groups
• The BJP criticized this action of the government as an unnecessary concession and appeasement
of the minority community.
2. Ayodhya dispute 1986
• The Faizabad district court ordered that the Babri masjid premises be unlocked so that Hindus could
offer prayers at the site which they considered as a temple.
• The Babri masjid was built by Mir Baqi Mughal emperor Babar’s general.
• Some Hindu believe that it was built after demolishing a temple for Lord Rama in what is believed to
be his birthplace.
• The BJP made this issue its major electoral and political plank, along with RSS and the Vishva
Hindu Parishad.
• The BJP, in order to generate public support, took out a massive march called the Rath yatra from
Somnath in Gujrat to Ayodhya in up.
Demolition and after:

• In Dec 1992, the organizations supporting the constructions of the temple had organized a karseva,
for building the ram temple.
• The situation had become tense all over the country and especially at Ajodhya.
• The supreme court had ordered the state government ot take care that the disputed site will note be
endangered.
• On 6th December 1992, thousands of people gathered from all over the country at Ajodhya and
demolished the mosque.
• This news led to clashed between the Hindus and Muslims in many parts of the country.

• The state government, with the BJP as the ruling party was dismissed by the center and other
states where the BJP was in power, were but under president’s rule.

• A case of contempt of court was filed against the chief minister of Uttar Pradesh.
The central government appointed a commission to investigate into the circumstances leading to the
demolition of the mosque.
• Most political parties condemned this demolition and declared It against the principles of secularism.
Anti-Muslimism riots in Gujarat

• In February-march 2002, large scale violence against Muslims occurred in Gujrat.

• This violence was an incident that occurred at a station called Godhra.
 • A bogey of a train that was returning from Ajodhya, was full of karsevaks was set on fire and 57
people died in that fire.
• Suspecting the hand of the Muslims in setting to the bogey. Large scale violence against Muslims
began in many parts of Gujrat.
• This violence continued for almost a whole month.
• The National Human Right commission criticized the Gujrat government role in failing to control
violence.
• The election commission of India ordered the assembly elections to be postponed.
V Emergence of a new consensus

• The period after 1989 as the period of decline of congress and rise of BJP.
• In this period both parties were engaged in a tough competition.
• The votes polled by the two parties congress and BJP do not add upto more than 50 percent.
• The political competition during the 90’s is divided between the coalition led by BJP and congress.
Lok Sabha Election 2004

• In the election of 2004, the congress party entered into coalition with UPA (United Progressive
Alliance) came to power and NDA (National Democratic Alliance) was defeated.
• UPA government received support from the left front parties.
• Congress increase its seats for the first time since 1991.
• In the 2004 elections, there was a negligible difference between the BJP and congress.
• After the 1990’s the emergence of broadly four groups of parties – congress, BJP, left front and
other parties who are not part of these three.
Growing consensus

• After 1990’s a consensus appears to have emerged among most parties which consists of following
element –
1. Agreement of new economic policies: while many groups are opposed to the new economic
policy most parties believe that these policies would lead the country to prosperity.
2. Acceptance of the political and social claims of the backward castes. All political parties now
support reservation of seats for the backward castes in education and employment.
3. Acceptance of the role of state level parties in governance of the country. State level parties are
sharing power at the national level and have played a central role in the country’s politics.
4. Emphasis on work rather than ideological position and political alliance without ideological
agreement.

5. UNITED PROGRESSIVE ALLIANCE

UPA I AND II
UPA I

• In the general election of 2009, Dr. Manmohan Singh formed another UPA coalition cabinet and was
sworn in for second term becoming the prime minister.
• The government made employment generation and social equity as the important features of its
agenda.
• Under UPA II, women began occupying senior positions in state and union territory governments
notably in highly populated Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and west Bengal.
• It also works upon the issues of revitalizing the agrarian economy.
• Stepping up investment in agriculture.
• Providing access to credit and improving the quality of rural infrastructure.
National democratic alliance
 NDA III and IV

• The Bhartiya Janata party led by Prime Minister Narendra Modi got majority in the Lok Sabha
elections held in May 2014.
• After near 30 years in Indian politics, a strong government with an absolute majority was established
at the center.
• The NDA III coalition was no only steed by a national party i.e. BJP it was also dominated by BJP
with an absolute majority of its won in Lok Sabha.
• It was also called a ‘surplus majority coalition.
• In that since a major transformation could be seen in the nature of coalition politics which could be
seen from one party led coalition to one party dominated coalition.
NDA IV

• The 2019 Lok Sabha elections, once again brought back BJP led NDA to the center of power by
winning more than 350 seats out of 543.
• The BJP on its own won 303 seats in Lok Sabha.
• It is the biggest number for any single party since 1984.
Issues of development and governance

• A major change in Indian politics after 2014 is shift from caste and religion-based politics to
development and governance-oriented politics.
• With its predefined goal ‘sabka Sath, sabka Vikas’ the NDA III government started several socio –
economic schemes to make development and governance accessible to the masses such as o
Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala yojana o Kisan fasal Bima yojana
• o Swachh Bharat Abhiyan or Jana Dhan yojana
• o Beti padhao, desh bachao
• All these schemes proposed to take administration to the doorstep of the common man. Try caning
the rural households. Particularity women, real beneficiaries of the central government schemes. ‘
• The success of these schemes could be seen from the result of 2019 Lok sabha elections.
• Where the voters across states – castes, classes, communities, gender and regions brought back
the issues of development and governance to the center stage under the BJP led NDA government
characterizing the current change with ‘sabka Sath, sabka Vikas and sabka vishwas’.