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W27320

TO KILL A TWEETING BIRD: THE SUSPENSION OF TWITTER

OPERATIONS IN NIGERIA1

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Harvinder Singh wrote this case solely to provide material for class discussion. The authors do not intend to illustrate either effective
or ineffective handling of a managerial situation. The authors may have disguised certain names and other identifying information to
protect confidentiality.

This publication may not be transmitted, photocopied, digitized, or otherwise reproduced in any form or by any means without the
permission of the copyright holder. Reproduction of this material is not covered under authorization by any reproduction rights
organization. To order copies or request permission to reproduce materials, contact Ivey Publishing, Ivey Business School, Western

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University, London, Ontario, Canada, N6G 0N1; (t) 519.661.3208; (e) [email protected]; www.iveypublishing.ca. Our goal is to publish
materials of the highest quality; submit any errata to [email protected]. i1v2e5y5pubs

Copyright © 2022, Ivey Business School Foundation Version: 2022-05-10

On October 1, 2021, the Independence Day address by Mohammadu Buhari, President of Nigeria, caused
a stir. He announced that the government could revoke the suspension of Twitter Inc. (Twitter) operations
in Nigeria if the company met the government’s conditions. The announcement came after more than 100
op
days of suspended operations of Twitter’s social media platform in Nigeria. The government enforced the
suspension on June 4, 2021, when a Twitter post (or tweet) by President Buhari about Biafran separatists
was removed by the platform. Twitter alleged that the tweet violated its internal policy rules.2

The government’s action against Twitter invited criticism from Nigeria’s citizens and from the global
community.3 The suspension also affected the economy of Nigeria.4 Between June 5 and October 1,
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multiple discussions were held between Twitter’s management team and the Government of Nigeria to
break the impasse. President Buhari’s announcement in October 2021 suggested that there was a way out,
but at what cost?5 Twitter was fast becoming a popular social media platform to voice dissent against the
alleged atrocities by the Government of Nigeria.6 According to Lai Mohamed, Nigeria’s Minister for
Information and Culture, Twitter would be required to follow some conditions mandated by the
government. These included opening an office in Nigeria, registering with appropriate regularity
authorities, appointing a senior representative in the country, and agreeing to a charter of online conduct.7
No

Agreeing to some of the conditions could compromise the platform’s neutrality and independence. Refusal
to do so could mean leaving Africa’s largest market wide open to competitors, who were eager and ready
to replace the social media giant. Should Twitter agree to the government’s conditions?

NIGERIA

The Federal Republic of Nigeria, also known as the “Giant of Africa,” was a country on the western coast
of Africa. It was bordered by Chad and Cameroon in the east, Niger in the north, Benin in the west, and the
Do

Atlantic Ocean in the south (see Exhibit 1). It was the most populous country and the largest economy in
Africa.8 With an area of 923,768 square kilometres, it ranked 14th in Africa in terms of size but
accommodated a population of more than 200 million. This population was expected to reach 400 million
by 2027, to make Nigeria the world’s third-most populous country after China and India.9 Over 41 per cent
of Nigeria’s population was under age 14 and over 50 per cent was aged 15–54.10 The country figured
among the better performing African nations in terms of economy, per capita gross domestic product, access
to the Internet, and proliferation of smart phones (see Exhibit 2).

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Nigeria was fast becoming Africa’s technology leader. In 2019, the country attracted US$94.9 million11 in

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technology investment with 55 active technology hubs, compared to South Africa’s $60 million with 59
hubs.12 Nigeria was the largest technology market in Africa. The country had 122 million people working
online and 23 per cent of all Internet users in Africa. It also had the largest telecommunications subscriber
base in Africa. Nigeria’s information and communications technology sector contributed almost 10 per cent
of Nigeria’s gross domestic product.13 Relatively high Internet access and smart phone use resulted in

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widespread access to social media platforms such as Twitter, making it an effective channel for advertising
(see Exhibits 3 and 4). In 2020, Nigeria recorded $19 million in total advertising spending on social media
channels, which was expected to increase to $29 million by 2026 (see Exhibit 5).

The country’s population was made up of nearly 250 ethnic groups, although three of them were most
significant: Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo. The Hausa-Fulani ethnic group consisted of predominantly
Muslim residents who lived in the northern part of the country. The Yoruba people inhabited the
southwestern part of Nigeria and practised both Islam and Christianity. Nigeria’s Igbo people were

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concentrated in the southeastern part of the country and followed the Christian religion (see Exhibit 6).
Overall, Nigeria’s population was almost equally divided between Christianity and Islam.14

Nigeria came under British control in the 19th century and became independent in 1960. Soon after
achieving independence, the country faced multiple military coups and civil wars. The most prominent civil
war started in 1967 in the southeastern region, where Igbo rebels declared an independent republic of Biafra.
The government crushed the resistance by force in 1970, but the residual resistance and peaceful movement
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for the Biafran republic survived.15 Between 1960 and 1999, the country saw successive rounds of military
dictatorships and democratic regimes. Democracy was stabilized in Nigeria in 1999.16 The country’s current
president—Buhari—was elected in 2015. Before entering politics, Buhari was an officer in the Nigerian
army who had actively contributed in the government’s suppression of the Biafra separatist movement
during the period of 1967–1970. Later, he was instrumental in the military coup of 1983 and remained the
military’s Head of the State for Nigeria between 1983 and 1985.17
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Biafran Separatist Movement

The Republic of Biafra existed briefly (1967–1970) as a separate nation in southeastern Nigeria. The
leading ethnic group inhabiting the region was Igbo, which comprised over 15 per cent of the Nigerian
population. The mainly Christina Igbo people resented the political dominance of primarily Muslim Hausa-
Fulani ethnic groups in the north. Ethnic tensions led to military coups and counter-coups in 1966, after
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which the Igbo secessionists declared the formation of the independent Republic of Biafra in 1967. The
Nigerian army responded with brute force and overpowered the rebellion, which resulted in the death of
two million Biafran civilians.18

After a period of low-level activity, the secessionist movement again emerged in 1999 as the non-violent
nationalist group Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra. Accusing the Nigerian
government of marginalizing the Igbo people, the group formed the Biafra Shadow Government and the
Biafra Government in Exile. Various accusations were reported about Nigerian police and army officers
attacking and killing peaceful protesters among Biafran activists.19
Do

TWITTER

The microblogging social media platform Twitter was founded by Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass, Biz Stone, and
Evan Williams in 2006. The service was owned by the US corporation Twitter Inc., based out of San

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[email protected] or 617.783.7860
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Francisco, California. Initially, Twitter permitted its users to share text messages up to 140 characters,

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which was later revised to 280 characters for some languages. It also allowed its users to transmit audio and
video clips under 140 seconds long.20 By the fourth quarter of 2020, Twitter had 192 million daily active
users. With more than 35 offices across the globe, the company employed more than 5,500 employees and
earned revenues of $3.716 billion in 2020.21 That year, advertising revenues constituted 86 per cent of its
total revenue.22 In Africa, the largest number of Twitter users were located in South Africa, closely followed

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by Nigeria (see Exhibit 3). In April 2021, Twitter announced the opening of its African regional
headquarters in Ghana. This choice surprised many observers, noting that the country had a relatively small
population and less than a million Twitter users (see Exhibit 3). Twitter stated that it chose Ghana because
the country’s values of free speech, online freedom, and the open Internet were aligned with Twitter.23

Twitter in Nigeria

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By May 2021, Twitter had 4.13 million users in Nigeria, which was expected to increase to 8.72 million by
202524 (see Exhibit 4). From the beginning, Twitter was a constant source of irritation for the Nigerian
government. It was a popular platform used by protesters as early as 2012, when the group Occupy Nigeria
protested against the fuel price increase imposed by the government of President Goodluck Jonathan.25

Twitter was again at the forefront of protests in 2017, when the Special Anti-Robbery Squad unit of
Nigerian police was accused of severe human rights violations. The protest intensified in 2020 with the
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social media hashtag #EndSARS, which was widely shared on the social media platforms Facebook and
Instagram, in addition to Twitter. The protests turned violent when the government forces allegedly opened
fire on protesters.26 Social networks Facebook, WhatsApp, and Instagram labelled some posts by the
protesters as inaccurate or misleading information, but Twitter allowed the posts to continue trending, even
verifying some protestor accounts. Dorsey, Twitter’s chief executive officer, endorsed the movement and
appealed to the global community to donate to the protestors.27 The Nigerian government dismantled the
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Special Anti-Robbery Squad unit in October 2020.

In October 2019, Dorsey announced that Twitter would ban political advertising. The next month, he toured
Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa with a message that he believed Africa would define the future.
Dorsey committed to spending three to six months in Africa the following year.28

In November 2019, tens of thousands of Nigerians protested against a proposed social media bill. The new law
No

could permit the government to take down the Internet and block access to social media platforms, if the content
was considered prejudicial to the national security or diminishing to public confidence in the government. In
response, the hashtag #SayNoToSocialMediaBill topped the Twitter trending charts in Nigeria.29

The Presidential Tweet

When President Buhari was an officer in the Nigerian army in 1967, the government crushed the Biafran
separatists,30 but the movement persisted indefinitely in various forms. Between 1967 and 1999, Biafran
Do

separatists were driven primarily by the Igbo diaspora abroad. Activists resurfaced after the return of
civilian democracy in Nigeria in 1999. The Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra
was formed that year and adopted peaceful protests to further its cause. In 2012, a more combative
organization known as the Indigenous People of Biafra came into existence.31 The two organizations
launched several demonstrations in eastern Nigeria over the next few years, becoming increasingly active
on the Internet and through various social media networks.32

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In 2017, the Nigerian army launched an operation to address reports of kidnapping in eastern Nigeria. The

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government declared the Indigenous People of Biafra a terrorist organization. According to many Biafran
activists, the government operation suppressed the Biafran movement. In 2020, the Indigenous People of
Biafra formed an armed wing of their organization named the Eastern Security Network, which attracted
an immediate offensive stand from Nigerian security forces.33

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On June 2, 2021, President Buhari posted a message on Twitter warning that Biafra secessionists would be
punished for their attacks on government buildings. The tweeted read: “Many of those misbehaving today
are too young to be aware of the destruction and loss of lives that occurred during the Nigerian Civil War.
Those of us in the fields for 30 months, who went through the war, will treat them in the language they
understand.”34 The tweet elicited waves of anger across social media from users who felt that the president’s
tone was much harsher than the tone of tweets condemning crimes and actions of the Islamist terrorist group
Boko Haram.35 Twitter labelled Buhari’s tweet as abusive and in violation of its rules, and then proceeded
to delete it. In response, the Nigerian government was furious at the social media platform. Layiwola

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Mohammed, Nigeria’s Minister of Information and Culture, condemned Twitter’s action and stated that the
president had the right to express his displeasure at the violent acts of a banned terrorist organization.36 The
government alleged that Twitter was being used to undermine “Nigeria’s corporate existence” by permitting
“the spread of religious, sexist, xenophobic, and false messages” that could break the nation.37

THE CRACKDOWN
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On the evening of June 4, 2021, the Federal Ministry of Information and Culture in Nigeria posted a
statement on the official Twitter handle of the ministry. It announced that the federal government of Nigeria
was indefinitely suspending Twitter’s operations in Nigeria, reiterating that Twitter was allowing its
platform to be used for activities that were capable of undermining the country’s corporate existence.38 The
next day, the government clarified its actions, stating that Twitter’s removal of President Buhari’s tweet
was “disappointing,” but that it was not the only provocation for suspending Twitter’s operations in the
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country. It added that “misinformation and false messages spread through it have had real world violent
consequences” in Nigeria.39

After announcing the suspension of Twitter, the government instructed the National Broadcasting
Commission, the country’s federal broadcasting regulator, to license all Internet streaming and social media
services in Nigeria. It added that anyone found defying this ban would be prosecuted under the law. It also
instructed the Association of Licensed Telecom Operators of Nigeria to stop all user access to Twitter. The
association confirmed that its members complied with the government’s instruction, following the “national
No

interest provisions” included in their licensing contract as per Nigerian telecom laws. However, the
association added that it backed the people’s right to communicate both offline and online.40

The Reaction

Twitter called the suspension of its services in Nigeria “deeply concerning.”41 The European Union, United
States, Canada, Ireland, and Britain issued a joint statement condemning the suspension of Twitter’s
operations. International human rights groups also condemned the Nigerian government’s decision. Amnesty
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International termed the suspension unlawful and demanded that the Nigerian government immediate reverse
it. The Human Rights Watch saw it as an attempt to censor dissent and stifle the civic space.42

The ban angered people, especially the youth in Nigeria, who saw it as a threat to their civil liberties. A
group of human rights organizations filed a lawsuit in the Economic Community of the West African States
(ECOWAS) Court of Justice in Abuja, Nigeria to challenge the government action against Twitter. Many

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journalists from international news agencies, such as the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC),

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continued reporting from Nigeria via their international Twitter accounts. In Nigeria, a large number of
Twitter users shifted to using a free downloaded virtual private network connection (VPN) to bypass the
ban without being identified.43 Internet searches for instructions on setting up a VPN connection surged
across the country within hours of the announcement of Twitter’s suspension by the government.44

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The ban on Twitter opened doors of opportunity for other microblogging platforms. Koo, the Indian
microblogging network suggested that it was prepared to expand into Nigeria, when its co-founder
Aprameya Radhakrishnan tweeted on June 5, “@kooindia is available in Nigeria. We’re thinking of
enabling the local languages there too. What say.”45 On June 10, 2021, a new user on Koo identified itself
as the official account for the Government of Nigeria. Radhakrishnan promptly welcomed the new account
on Koo by posting a tweet on Twitter.46

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On June 22, 2021, the ECOWAS Court of Justice passed an instruction restraining the Nigerian government
from taking any action against the Nigerian citizens for using Twitter until the court had time to deliver a final
verdict on the matter.47 On June 23, 2021, President Buhari formed a reconciliation team to negotiate with
Twitter, after the microblogging network expressed its intention to negotiate with the Nigerian government.48

Impact on Business
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Although Twitter users comprised only a minority of the Nigerian population, the ban on Twitter seemed
to have a serious impact on business prospects in Nigeria. The Nigerian government had been encouraging
the use of digital media, especially for public health and safety emergencies. Digital media was increasingly
playing a pivotal role in government services, dissemination of information, business communication,
customer service, and remote work. However, the proliferation of personal VPN connections threatened to
slow down the Internet. Slow service and repeated shutdowns could adversely affect public services that
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relied on the Internet. They could also impact the economic growth of the country.49 Many small businesses
in Nigeria that had been using Twitter to advertise and promote their products were forced to use other
social media platforms, such as Facebook and Instagram, which were considerably higher priced. Overall,
businesses saw a slowdown in sales and a dip in revenues.50 According to some estimates, the Twitter
shutdown could cost the Nigerian economy $6 million per day.

Many Nigerian businesses had opted to continue using their preferred and lower cost Twitter accounts via
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their own VPN connection. However, VPN access was considered unsafe, rendering Nigerian businesses
that opted for this alternative vulnerable to hacking and data theft. Nigeria was at the forefront of African
countries for attracting technology start-ups and investors, but this incident could adversely affect the
country’s ability to attract further investment in the country. Investors preferred countries with a low
possibility of sudden and abrupt disruption, as Twitter had demonstrated by selecting Ghana as the location
for its African headquarters.51

TWITTER AT A CROSSROADS
Do

On September 13, 2021, a Twitter spokesperson issued a statement disclosing that it was holding talks with
the Government of Nigeria, and that discussions had been respectful and productive thus far. The company
expressed hope that it would soon be able to resume its services.52 The Nigerian government and Twitter
set up respective committees to resolve the issue.

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According to Mohammed, Nigeria’s Minister for Information and Culture, Twitter was required to fulfil the

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following conditions before the suspension could be revoked: open an office in Nigeria under The Companies
and Allied Matter Act of Nigeria; register with the Corporate Affairs Commission of Nigeria; appoint a senior
company representative in Nigeria; register with the relevant regulatory authorities in the National Information
Technology Development Agency, the Nigerian Communications Commission, and the National
Broadcasting Commission; retain designated local agents to engage with the government; work with the

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Federal Inland Revenue Service; and manage online content by agreeing on a charter of online conduct.53

The government hoped to resolve the issue soon.54 On October 1, 2021, in his Independence Day speech,
President Buhari stated that the conditions further included respecting national security and unity, Twitter’s
registration in Nigeria, office and representatives in Nigeria, fair taxation, mechanism for dispute resolution,
and local content on Twitter.55 Some of these conditions could seriously compromise the values of free
speech, online freedom, and open Internet that Twitter strongly supported. The compromise could also
adversely affect Twitter’s image with the rest of the world. However, Nigeria was Africa’s largest market.

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Upholding Twitter’s principles could mean losing this giant market to other social media platforms and
various emerging microblogging networks, such as India’s Koo. Twitter’s decision would be an important
next step for the global corporation.
op
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No
Do

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EXHIBIT 1: POLITICAL MAP OF NIGERIA

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Source: “Political Map of Nigeria,” United Nations Online, accessed March 24, 2022,
https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/map/nigeria-political-map.htm.
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EXHIBIT 2: COMPARISON OF NIGERIA WITH SOME LARGE AFRICAN COUNTRIES

Population GDP GDP per Capita Internet Smart Phone

(in Million) (in US$ Billion) (in US$) Access Availability
Nigeria 206.140 514.05 2,494 73.0% 49%
Ethiopia 114.964 93.97 817 17.9% 19%
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Egypt 102.334 394.28 3,853 52.5% 45%

DR Congo 89.561 55.09 615 17.7% —
Tanzania 59.734 65.92 1,103 37.6% 26%
South Africa 59.309 329.53 5,556 57.5% 60%
Kenya 53.771 106.04 1,972 85.2% 35%
Uganda 45.741 41.27 902 39.3% 24%
Algeria 43.851 151.46 3,454 57.0% 53%
Sudan 43.849 35.83 817 29.2% 32%
Ghana 31.073 74.26 2,390 46.5% 46%
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Note: GDP = gross domestic product.

Source: “African Countries with Largest Population as of 2020,” Statista, accessed November 30, 2021,
https://www.statista.com/forecasts/1169289/smartphone-penetration-in-africa-by-country; “African Countries with the Highest
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2021,” Statista, accessed November 30, 2021,
https://www.statista.com/statistics/1120999/gdp-of-african-countries-by-country/; “Share of Internet Users in Africa as of
December 2020, by Country,” Statista, accessed November 30, 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1124283/internet-
penetration-in-africa-by-country/; “Ranking of the Smartphone Penetration in Africa by Country 2020,” Statista, accessed
November 30, 2021, https://www.statista.com/forecasts/1169289/smartphone-penetration-in-africa-by-country.

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EXHIBIT 3: TOP 10 AFRICAN COUNTRIES BY NUMBER OF TWITTER USERS, 2020 (IN MILLION)

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COUNTRY TWITTER USERS
South Africa 3.53
Nigeria 3.35
Kenya 1.78

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Ghana 0.94
Tanzania 0.48
Zimbabwe 0.33
Uganda 0.29
Ivory Coast 0.26
Ethiopia 0.22
Senegal 0.21

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Source: “Rankings of the Number of Twitter Users in Africa by Country,” Statista, https://ezproxy.imt.edu:2062/forecasts/1169230/twitter-
users-in-africa-by-country.

EXHIBIT 4: NUMBER OF TWITTER USERS IN NIGERIA, 2017–2025 (IN MILLION)

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F O R E C AS T O F T H E N U M B E R O F T W I T T E R U S E R S I N N I G E R I A
Number Of Users (in million)

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8.72

7.35
No

6.12
5.05
4.13
3.35
2.25
1.55 1.72

2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025

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Year

Source: “Forecast of the Number of Twitter Users in Nigeria, 2017–2025,” Statista,

https://ezproxy.imt.edu:2062/forecasts/1147316/twitter-users-in-nigeria.

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EXHIBIT 5: ADVERTISING SPENDING BY THE TOP FIVE AFRICAN ECONOMIES (IN US$ MILLION)

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Country Advertising Spending (in US$ Million)
2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026
Nigeria 19 20 22 24 25 27 29

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Egypt 135 152 170 187 205 222 239
South Africa 100 119 137 150 166 179 205
Algeria 45 48 51 53 55 56 59
Kenya 8 8 9 9 10 10 11

Source: “Social Media Advertising/Nigeria-Egypt/Ad Spending,” Statista, accessed November 30, 2021,
https://www.statista.com/outlook/dmo/digital-advertising/social-media-advertising/nigeria?comparison[]=egypt#ad-spending; “Social
Media Advertising/South Africa-Algeria/Ad Spending,” Statista, accessed November 30, 2021,

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https://www.statista.com/outlook/dmo/digital-advertising/social-media-advertising/south-africa?comparison[]=algeria#ad-spending;
“Social Media Advertising/South Africa-Kenya/Ad spending,” Statista, accessed November 30, 2021,
https://www.statista.com/outlook/dmo/digital-advertising/social-media-advertising/south-africa?comparison[]=kenya#ad-spending.

EXHIBIT 6: MAJOR ETHNIC GROUPS IN NIGERIA

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No
Do

Source: Created by the author based on UN Geospatial, “Nigeria,” United Nations, August 1, 2014,
https://www.un.org/geospatial/content/nigeria, accessed March 17, 2022.

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ENDNOTES

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1
This case has been written on the basis of published sources only. Consequently, the interpretation and perspectives
presented in this case are not necessarily those of Twitter Inc., the government of Nigeria, or any of their employees.
2
Chinedu Asadu, “Nigeria’s president directs conditional end to Twitter ban,” ABC News, October 1, 2021,
https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/nigerias-president-directs-conditional-end-twitter-ban-80344819.
3
Michael Oduor, “U.S. condemns ongoing Nigeria’s Twitter ban,” Africa News, June 11, 2021,
https://www.africanews.com/2021/06/11/u-s-condemns-ongoing-nigeria-s-twitter-ban//.

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4
Alexis Akwagyiram and Libby George, “Nigeria’s Twitter ban leaves some businesses in the lurch,” Reuters, June 14, 2021,
https://www.reuters.com/technology/nigerias-twitter-ban-leaves-some-businesses-lurch-2021-06-14/.
5
TheCable, “Twitter Has Agreed to Set up Office in Nigeria—FG Says Ban to Be Lifted Soon,” TheCable, August 11, 2021,
https://www.thecable.ng/breaking-twitter-has-agreed-to-set-up-an-office-in-nigeria-says-fg.
6
Asadu, “Nigeria’s president directs conditional end to Twitter ban.”
7
TheCable, “Twitter Has Agreed to Set up Office in Nigeria—FG Says Ban to Be Lifted Soon.”
8
Anthony Hamilton Millard Kirk-Greene, “Nigeria,” Encyclopedia Britannica, accessed November 4, 2021,
https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria.
9
Bureau of African Affairs, “US Relations with Nigeria: Bilateral Relations Fact Sheet,” U.S. Department of State, April 29,

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2021, https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-nigeria.
10
“Nigeria Age Structure,” IndexMundi, accessed November 30, 2021,
https://www.indexmundi.com/nigeria/age_structure.html.
11
All currency amounts are in US$ unless otherwise specified.
12
Vijaya Ramachandran, Jennifer Obado-Joel, Junaid Sadiq Masood, and Blessing Omakwu, “The New Economy of Africa:
Opportunities for Nigeria’s Emerging Technology Sector,” Centre for Global Development, November 12, 2019,
https://www.cgdev.org/sites/default/files/new-economy-africa-opportunities-nigerias-emerging-technology-sector.pdf.
13
Vijaya, et al., “The New Economy of Africa.”
14
Central Investigation Agency, “Explore All Countries: Nigeria,” The World Factbook, December 14, 2021,
op
https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nigeria/#introduction.
15
Anthony Kirk-Greene, Hamilton Millard, and Toyin O. Falola, “Independent Nigeria,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, accessed
November 12, 2021, https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria/Independent-Nigeria.
16
Toyin O. Falola, “The Second Republic,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, accessed November 12, 2021,
https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria/Independent-Nigeria#ref214177.
17
Amy McKenna, “Muhammadu Buhari,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, accessed November 13, 2021,
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammadu-Buhari.
18
Amy Mckenna, “Biafra: Secessionist State, Nigeria,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, accessed November 13, 2021,
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https://www.britannica.com/place/Biafra.
19
Samuel Fury Childs Daly, “Unfinished Business: Biafran Activism in Nigeria Today,” Georgetown Journal of International
Affairs, April 7, 2021, https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2021/04/07/unfinished-business-biafran-activism-in-nigeria-today.
20
Jack Meyer, “History of Twitter: Jack Dorsey and the Social Media Giant,” The Street, January 2, 2020,
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This document is authorized for educator review use only by Pr Mohamed Benabid, Other (University not listed) until Jun 2024. Copying or posting is an infringement of copyright.
[email protected] or 617.783.7860