Basic Structures: Sets, Functions,

Sequences, Sums, and Matrices

Chapter 2
 Chapter Summary
Sets
• The Language of Sets
• Set Operations
• Set Identities
Functions
• Types of Functions
• Operations on Functions
• Computability
Sequences and Summations
• Types of Sequences
• Summation Formulae
Set Cardinality (later)
• Countable Sets
Matrices
• Matrix Arithmetic

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 Sets
Section 2.1

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 Section Summary 1

Definition of sets
Describing Sets
• Roster Method
• Set-Builder Notation
Some Important Sets in Mathematics
Empty Set and Universal Set
Subsets and Set Equality
Cardinality of Sets
Tuples
Cartesian Product

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 Introduction
Sets are one of the basic building blocks for the types of
objects considered in discrete mathematics.
• Important for counting.
• Programming languages have set operations.
Set theory is an important branch of mathematics.
• Many different systems of axioms have been used to develop
set theory.
• Here we are not concerned with a formal set of axioms for set
theory. Instead, we will use what is called naïve set theory.

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 Sets
A set is an unordered collection of objects.
• the students in this class
• the chairs in this room
The objects in a set are called the elements, or
members of the set. A set is said to contain its
elements.
The notation a ∈ A denotes that a is an element
of the set A.
If a is not a member of A, write a ∉ A
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 Describing a Set: Roster Method
S = {a,b,c,d}
Order not important
S = {a,b,c,d} = {b,c,a,d}
Each distinct object is either a member or not; listing
more than once does not change the set.
S = {a,b,c,d} = {a,b,c,b,c,d}
Elipses (…) may be used to describe a set without listing
all of the members when the pattern is clear.
S = {a,b,c,d, ……,z }
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 Roster Method
Set of all vowels in the English alphabet:
V = {a,e,i,o,u}
Set of all odd positive integers less than 10:
O = {1,3,5,7,9}
Set of all positive integers less than 100:
S = {1,2,3,……..,99}
Set of all integers less than 0:
S = {…., -3,-2,-1}

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 Some Important Sets
N = natural numbers = {0,1,2,3….}
Z = integers = {…,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,…}
Z⁺ = positive integers = {1,2,3,…..}
R = set of real numbers
R+ = set of positive real numbers
C = set of complex numbers.
Q = set of rational numbers

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 Set-Builder Notation
Specify the property or properties that all members must
satisfy:
S = {x | x is a positive integer less than 100}
O = {x | x is an odd positive integer less than 10}
O = {x ∈ Z⁺ | x is odd and x < 10}
A predicate may be used:
S = {x | P(x)}
Example: S = {x | Prime(x)}
Positive rational numbers:
Q+ = {x ∈ R | x = p/q, for some positive integers p,q}
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 Universal Set and Empty Set
The universal set U is the set containing everything currently
under consideration.
• Sometimes implicit Venn Diagram
• Sometimes explicitly stated.
• Contents depend on the context.
The empty set is the set with no
elements. Symbolized ∅, but {} also used.

John Venn (1834-1923)

Cambridge, UK
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 Some things to remember
Sets can be elements of sets.
{{1,2,3},a, {b,c}}
{N,Z,Q,R}
The empty set is different from a set containing
the empty set.
∅ ≠{∅}

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 Set Equality
Definition: Two sets are equal if and only if they
have the same elements.
• Therefore if A and B are sets, then A and B are equal
if and only if ∀x (x ∈ A ↔ x ∈ B )
• We write A = B if A and B are equal sets.
{1,3,5} = {3, 5, 1}
{1,5,5,5,3,3,1} = {1,3,5}

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 Subsets
Definition: The set A is a subset of B, if and only
if every element of A is also an element of B.
• The notation A ⊆ B is used to indicate that A is a
subset of the set B.
• A ⊆ B holds if and only if ∀x (x ∈ A → x ∈ B ) is true.
1. Because a ∈ ∅ is always false, ∅ ⊆ S ,for every set S.
2. Because a ∈ S → a ∈ S, S ⊆ S, for every set S.

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Showing a Set is or is not a Subset of Another Set

Showing that A is a Subset of B: To show that A ⊆ B,

show that if x belongs to A, then x also belongs to B.
Showing that A is not a Subset of B: To show that A is not
a subset of B, A ⊈ B, find an element x ∈ A with x ∉ B.
(Such an x is a counterexample to the claim that x ∈ A
implies x ∈ B.)
Examples:
1. The set of all computer science majors at your school is a
subset of all students at your school.
2. The set of integers with squares less than 100 is not a subset
of the set of nonnegative integers.
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 Another look at Equality of Sets
Recall that two sets A and B are equal, denoted by
A = B, iff
∀x (x ∈ A ↔ x ∈ B )
Using logical equivalences we have that A = B iff

∀x ⎡⎣(x ∈ A → x ∈ B ) ∧ (x ∈ B → x ∈ A )⎤⎦

This is equivalent to
A ⊆ Band B ⊆ A
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 Proper Subsets
Definition: If A ⊆ B, but A ≠B, then we say A is a
proper subset of B, denoted by A ⊂ B. If A ⊂ B, then

∀x (x ∈ A → x ∈ B) ∧ ∃x (x ∈ B ∧ x ∉ A))
is true.

Venn Diagram

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 Set Cardinality
Definition: If there are exactly n distinct elements in S
where n is a nonnegative integer, we say that S is finite.
Otherwise it is infinite.
Definition: The cardinality of a finite set A, denoted by |
A|, is the number of (distinct) elements of A.
Examples:
1. |ø| = 0
2. Let S be the letters of the English alphabet. Then |S| = 26
3. |{1,2,3}| = 3
4. |{ø}| = 1
5. The set of integers is infinite.
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 Power Sets
Definition: The set of all subsets of a set A,
denoted P(A), is called the power set of A.
Example: If A = {a,b} then
P(A) = {ø, {a},{b},{a,b}}
If a set has n elements, then the cardinality of the
power set is 2ⁿ. (In Chapters 5 and 6, we will
discuss different ways to show this.)

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 Tuples
The ordered n-tuple (a1,a2,…..,an) is the ordered
collection that has a1 as its first element and a2 as
its second element and so on until an as its last
element.
Two n-tuples are equal if and only if their
corresponding elements are equal.
2-tuples are called ordered pairs.
The ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal if and
only if a = c and b = d.
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 Cartesian Product 1
René Descartes
(1596-1650)
Definition: The Cartesian Product of two
sets A and B, denoted by A × B is the set of
ordered pairs (a,b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B .
A × B = {(a, b ) | a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B}
Example:
A = {a,b} B = {1,2,3}
A × B = {(a,1),(a,2),(a,3), (b,1),(b,2),(b,3)}
Definition: A subset R of the Cartesian product A × B is
called a relation from the set A to the set B. (Relations
will be covered in depth in Chapter 9.)
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 Cartesian Product 2

Definition: The cartesian products of the sets A1,A2,……,An,

denoted by A1 × A2 × …… × An , is the set of ordered n-
tuples (a1,a2,……,an) where ai belongs to Ai for i = 1, … n.

A1 × A2 ×! × An =
{(a , a ! , a ) | a ∈ A for i = 1, 2,… n}
1 2 n i i

Example: What is A × B × C where A = {0,1}, B = {1,2}

and C = {0,1,2}
Solution: A × B × C = {(0,1,0), (0,1,1), (0,1,2),(0,2,0),
(0,2,1), (0,2,2),(1,1,0), (1,1,1), (1,1,2), (1,2,0), (1,2,1),
(1,2,2)}
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 Truth Sets of Quantifiers
Given a predicate P and a domain D, we define the
truth set of P to be the set of elements in D for
which P(x) is true. The truth set of P(x) is denoted
by

{x ∈ D | P (x )}
Example: The truth set of P(x) where the domain
is the integers and P(x) is “|x| = 1” is the set {-1,1}

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 Russell’s Paradox
Let S be the set of all sets which are not members of
themselves. A paradox results from trying to answer the
question “Is S a member of itself?”
Related Paradox:
• Henry is a barber who shaves all people who do not shave
themselves. A paradox results from trying to answer the
question “Does Henry shave himself?”

Bertrand Russell (1872-1970)

Cambridge, UK
Nobel Prize Winner

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