PART 6: Reinforced Concrete Construction

Reinforced concrete or Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) is a mixture of traditional

cement concrete (w/ aggregates) with reinforcements (steel bar). This combination is made to
utilize the compressive strength of concrete and tensile strength of steel simultaneously.
In reinforced concrete, the components work together to resist many types of loading. Concrete
resists compression and steel reinforcement resists tension forces.
 Concrete has a very high compressive strength, but it is low in tensile strength.
Thus, when only the compressive loads are acting on the concrete surface, then there is
no need of using reinforcement in it.
 Where tensile forces are also involved, as in, beams and slabs, there is a very high risk
of its failure when plain concrete is used.
 Steel, however, as we know, has a very high tensile strength.
 Hence, when these two (concrete and steel) are combined together, a material of
construction is obtained that is capable of withstanding all the three types of forces
likely to act upon a structure, i.e., compressive loads, tensile stresses, and shear
forces.

Nature of Reinforced Cement Concrete:

The main principle in the preparation of the reinforced cement concrete is to make a structural material
in which:
1. Steel serves the purpose of bearing the main tensile stresses;
2. concrete bears the main compressive forces, both acting in complete unison;

Concrete and steel are compatible in following aspects:

 Concrete is basically alkaline in nature, (the principal component being Calcium hydroxide) and
this prevents rusting of the steel reinforcement used within it;
 The bond or ‘grip’ between the steel and concrete is established easily;
 The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is almost identical with that of steel. This
prevents the risk of cracking due to expansion at different rates.

Water Cement Ratio on Concrete

 The water-cement ratio is the amount of water used per bag of cement. It is the most
important aspect in concrete mixture.
 The strength of a workable concrete mix depends upon the water-cement ratio.
 This usually varies from five (5) to seven (7) gallons, with 6.5 gallons as average for ordinary
job conditions. The less water used in mixing, the better the quality of concrete.
  The ideal mix is one that is plastic and workable. It should not be too dry that it becomes too
difficult to place in the forms, nor too wet that separation of the ingredients result.

WATER – CEMENT RATIO

Assumed 28-day Maximum water-cement ratio Pounds of water per
Compressive strength U.S. gallons of water per sack 100 lbs. of cement
(lbs. per sq. inch) Cement of 94 lbs.
2,000 7.00 62.0
2,500 6.50 57.5
3,000 5.75 51.0
3,750 5.00 44.5

A. Slump Test – used for measuring the consistency of a concrete mix. Consistency may be
defined as the “state of fluidity of the mix”, and it includes the entire range of fluidity from the
wettest to the driest possible mixtures. In this test the tendency of a mix to “slump”, or
reduce its height due to gravity action, is measured. The apparatus consist of metal cone,
the bottom opening being 200mm (8”) in diameter, the top opening being 100mm (4”),
and the height exactly 300mm (12”).

Figure 99. Slump Test Inference

A harsh mix is efficient for slabs, pavements, or mass concrete where the lowest possible
water-cement ratio is desirable. The following table gives the permissible slump for various types of
concrete in relation to their uses:

Structure / Building Element CONSISTENCY (SLUMP)

Maximum Minimum
Reinforced foundation walls and footings 125mm (5”) 50mm (2”)
Plain footings, caissons, and substructure walls 100mm (4”) 25mm (1”)
Slabs, beams, thin reinforced walls & building columns 150mm (6”) 75mm (3”)
Pavements and floor laid on ground 75mm (3”) 25mm (1”)
Heavy mass construction 75mm (3”) 25mm (1”)

Proportioning of Concrete
Briefly stated, the principles of proper proportioning are as follows:
1. Use good quality materials: Portland cement, water, and aggregate.
2. Determine the strength of the concrete using the water-cement ratio. (The strength increases
as the water-cement ratio decreases).
3. Determine the consistency of the mix using the slump test using as dry a mix as practicable.
4. Add correct proportions of aggregates to the cement and water as will give a mix of the desired
consistency.
5. Make a mix that is workable, not harsh.

The economy of the mix depends upon the proper proportioning of the fine and coarse aggregates.

There are several methods of proportioning concrete:

A. Proportioning by arbitrary proportions
Proportioning concrete by the arbitrary selection of the proportions is the oldest, the most commonly
used, the most convenient and the least scientific method. In this method, the aggregates are
measured by loose volume, that is, its volume as it is thrown into a measuring box.
One sack of cement is taken as 1 cu. ft. Enough water is used to give the desired
consistency.

Figure 100. Proportioning by arbitrary proportions

Common mixes expressed in proportions by volumes of cement to fine aggregate to coarse
aggregate are as follows:
 The proportion is to be read:
Class A : 1 part cement is to 2 parts sand is to 4 parts gravel.
Each ‘part’ is equivalent to one cubic foot, which is the measure of the box constructed to be 1
foot (12 inches) on each of the three sides.
Each bag of cement is equivalent to approximately one cubic foot.

B. Proportioning by the water-ratio and slump test

There are two steps to be observed:
1. Select the amount of water to be added to the cement to give the desired strength
2. Add just enough mixed aggregate to the water and cement to give a concrete mix the
desired consistency.
It is customary to specify
a. the cement in sacks
b. the water in gallons per sack of cement and
c. the mixed aggregate in cu. ft. per sack of cement.
Proportions of cement to fine aggregate to coarse aggregate may be given if desired.
C. Proportioning by water-ratio, slump and fineness modulus
This method is the same as the second except that the proportions of the fine and coarse
aggregate are determined by the fineness modulus method.
For economy, proportion the fine coarse aggregates so that the largest quantity of mixed
aggregate may be used with a given amount of cement and water to produce a mix of the
desired consistency of slump.
Comparatively, the coarse aggregate has a lesser total surface to be covered with
cement paste and, therefore, is more economical.
However, there must be enough fine aggregate present to fill the voids in the coarse
aggregate, or extra cement paste will be needed for this purpose. A well-graded aggregate
 contains all sizes of fine and coarse particles in such proportions that the voids in the combined
aggregate will be a minimum.

Figure 101. Proportioning by the water-ratio and slump test

Concrete Curing
Concrete must be allowed to “cure” or harden after it is placed. Hardening is a rather slow
process in which the cement and water unite to form compounds that give strength and
durability to the concrete. It continues as long as the temperatures are favorable and moisture is
present.
Concrete Curing – defined by the National Ready Mixed Concrete Association as the
maintaining of an adequate moisture content and temperature in concrete at early ages so that
it can develop properties the mixture was designed to achieve. Curing begins immediately after
placement and finishing so that the concrete may develop the desired strength and durability.
Figure 102. Concrete Curing
Three (3) main factors that affect hardening are:
1. age or time
2. temperature, and
3. moisture
Curing consists primarily in keeping the concrete from drying out too rapidly. This may be done by:
1. Covering the concrete. Floors shall be covered with paper sacking wetted down at the edges
or with burlap, sand or earth that is kept moist, after the concrete is hard enough to walk on.
2. Removal of forms at prescribed time. Forms shall not be removed until after the time
specified.
3. Sprinkling with water. Beams, columns and walls are sprinkled or sprayed with water as soon
as the forms are removed.
4. Using curing compounds or Admixtures

In order that the hardening may proceed favorably, the fresh concrete, for about seven (7) days
after placing, should be protected from excessive vibration, loads, extreme heat or cold, too
rapid drying, and contact with impurities, which may interfere with the chemical action. The
strength of the concrete increases with age when the curing conditions remain favorable.
Concrete never stops curing, with its strength only growing through time.
D. It becomes safe to walk on the concrete, two (2) – three (3) days after pouring but should not
be considered “set” until it has set for at least a week or seven (7) days.
E. After one week, concrete is typically cured enough to handle continued construction
including heavy machinery.
F. After initial placement, concrete increases in strength very quickly for three (3) – seven (7)
days, then gradually for the next three (3) weeks.
G. Curing time of concrete is typically 24-48 hours, at which point it is safe for normal foot
traffic.
The increase in strength is rapid during the early ages and continues more slowly as time goes on.
The compressive strength reaches about 60% of its own maximum value at an age of 28 days
and about 80% at an age of three (3) months.
Concrete Covers:
The concrete covering varies from 25 mm to 75 mm depending on the environment in which
the RC member has been placed. It is also important that the reinforcement must be clear of rust,
dust, and grease at the time of placement. The covering is essential to protect the reinforcement
from deterioration under attack from weathering agencies and from casual fires.
Figure 103. Minimum Concrete Cover based on the National Structural Code of the Philippines

Figure 104. Concrete Cover

Placement of Reinforcement:
Steel placement requires very complex and careful design considerations for each member of
reinforcement concrete. Thus, the size, shape, spacing, and location of reinforcement will be
entirely different in a slab or beam or a column.
In beams, for example, steel bars may be required more in the lower sections and in fixed
beams, in the end, sections as well where the tensile stresses are most effective. The top section
of the beam may need no reinforcement.
This will ensure a better bond between concrete and reinforcement.
 Figure 105. Reinforcing Steel Bars (Philippine National Standard)
Reinforced Concrete Foundation System
Concrete foundations consists of footings, foundation wall, concrete slab on grade, weeper tile
and damproofing system. Foundation design involves a soil study to establish the most appropriate
type of foundation and a structural design to determine footing dimensions and required amount of
reinforcement. Because compressive strength of the soil is generally much weaker than that of the
concrete, the contact area between the soil and the footing is much larger than that of the columns and
walls.
 Figure 106. Concrete Foundation System

 Footings – these structural elements are responsible of transmitting column or wall loads to
the underlying soil below the structure. Footings are designed to transmit these loads to the
soil without exceeding its safe bearing capacity, to prevent excessive settlement of the
structure to a tolerable limit, to minimize differential settlement, and to prevent sliding and
overturning.
o The settlement depends upon the intensity of the load, type of soil, and foundation level.
Where possibility of differential settlement occurs, the different footings should be
designed in such a way to settle independently of each other.
The type of footing chosen for a particular structure is affected by the following:
 The bearing capacity of the underlying soil;
 the magnitude of the column loads;
 the position of the water table and;
 the depth of foundations of adjacent buildings.
Footings may be classified as deep or shallow. If depth of the footing is equal to or greater than
its width, it is called deep footing; otherwise, it is called shallow footing.
I. Shallow Foundations:
1. Isolated Column Footing – An isolated footing is used to support the load on a
single column. It is usually either square or rectangular in plan. It represents the
simplest, most economical type and most widely used footing. Whenever possible,
square footings are provided to reduce the bending moments and shearing forces at
their critical sections. For a bungalow, the minimum depth of a column footing is
800 mm from the natural grade line.
 Figure 107. Isolated Column Footing Details

Isolated footings are used in case of light column loads, when columns are not closely
spaced, and in case of good homogeneous soil. Under the effect of upward soil pressure, the footing
bends in a dish shaped form. An isolated footing can be provided by two (2) sets of reinforcement
bars placed on top of the other near the bottom of the footing. In case of property line restrictions,
footings may be designed for eccentric loading or combined footing is used as an alternative to isolated
footing.

Figure 108. Isolated Column Footing Reinforcements

Isolated Spread Footing is economical when:
 The load of the structure is relatively low.
 Columns are not closely placed.
 Bearing capacity of the soil is high at a shallow depth.
 2. Wall or Strip Footing – This type of footing is used to distribute loads of structural load-bearing
walls to the ground. Wall foundation runs along the direction of the wall. The width of the wall
foundation is generally two (2) to three (3) times of the width of the wall.
The wall footing is a continuous slab strip along the length of the wall. Stone, brick,
reinforced concrete etc. is used for the construction of wall foundations. For a bungalow, the
minimum depth of a wall footing is 600 mm from the natural grade line.
Wall footing is economical when:
 Loads to be transmitted are of small magnitude.
 The footing is placed on dense sand and gravels.

Figure 109. Wall / Strip Footings (See CHB Construction for Details)

3. Combined Footing – The combined footing is very similar to the isolated footing. When the
columns of the structure are closely placed, or the bearing capacity of the soil is low and
their footing overlaps each other, combined footing is provided.
Figure 110. Combined Footings
The foundations, which are made common to more than one column, are called
combined footings. They may be rectangular, tee-shaped or trapezoidal in shape. The main
objective is the uniform distribution of loads under the entire area of footing. For this is
necessary to coincide the center of gravity of the footing area with the center of gravity of the
total loads.

4. Cantilever or Strap Footing – Strap footings are similar to combined footings and reasons
for considering or choosing strap footing is similar to the combined footing.
In strap footing, the footings under the columns are built individually and
connected by strap beam. Generally, when the edge of the footing cannot be extended
beyond the property line the exterior footing is connected by strap beam with interior footing.

Figure 111. Cantilever or Strap Footing

  Footing Tie Beam (FTB) or Strap beam – Placement of tie beam depends on the function of
the beam.
o If the tie beam is being used to connect two (2) footings (to distribute eccentric loading
of one footing to the other) then it has to be placed at the footing level.
o However, if tie beam is being used to reduce the unsupported length of the columns,
or as a grade beam to act as a support for wall/partition between the two columns, then
it is placed near the surface.
Grade Beam – or grade beam footing is a component of a building's foundation. It consists of a
reinforced concrete beam that transmits the load from a bearing wall into spaced foundations such as
pile caps or caissons (for deep foundations).

Figure 112. Footing Tie beam variant (Placed near the surface)

5. Raft or Mat Foundation – this is used where other shallow foundation or pile foundation is not
suitable. It is also recommended in situations where the bearing capacity of the soil is
poor, the load of the structure is to be distributed over a large area or structure is
constantly subjected to shocks or jerks.
Raft foundation consists of a reinforced concrete slab or T-beam slab placed over
the entire area of the structure. In this type of foundation, the entire basement floor slab acts
as the foundation. The total load of the structure is spread evenly over the entire area of the
structure. This is called Raft because in this case, the building seems like a vessel, which
floats on a sea of soil.
Figure 113. Mat or Raft Foundation
II. Deep Foundations:
Note: Deep Foundations are to be discussed in detail on higher Building Technology Courses
since this topic is not yet applicable on the course description and objectives.
1. Pile foundation – is a common type of deep foundation. They are used to reduce cost and
when as per soil condition considerations, it is desirable to transmit loads to soil strata,
which are beyond the reach of shallow foundations.
Pile is a slender member with a small cross-sectional area compared to its length.
It is used to transmit foundation loads to a deeper soil or rock strata when the bearing
capacity of soil near the surface is relatively low. Pile transmits load by either skin friction or
bearing. Piles are also used to allow structures a resist on possible uplifting and provide
structures stability against lateral and overturning forces.
Pile foundations are economic using pile foundation when:
 Soil with great bearing capacity is at a greater depth.
 When there are chances of construction of irrigation canals in the nearby area.
 When it is very expensive to provide raft or grillage foundations
 When the foundation is subjected to a heavy concentrated load
 In marshy places
 When the topsoil layer is compressible in nature
Figure 114. Pile Foundation

2. Pier – is an underground structure that transmits heavier load, which cannot be transmitted by
shallow foundations. It is usually shallower than pile foundations.

Figure 115. Pier Foundation

3. Caisson foundation – is a watertight retaining structure used as a bridge pier, construction of
dam etc. It is generally used in structures, which requires foundation beneath a river or similar
water bodies. Reason for choosing caisson foundation is that it can be floated to the desired
location and then sunk into place.
 Figure 116. Caisson
Note: Deep Foundations are to be discussed in detail on higher Building Technology Courses
since this topic is not yet applicable on the course description and objectives.

Reinforced Concrete Column

RC Columns are classified into two (2) main categories:
1. Short Column – it is when the unsupported height of the column is less than ten (10) times
the shortest lateral dimension of the cross section.
Unsupported Height (H) < 10 x b
2. Long Column – it is when the unsupported height of the column is greater than ten (10)
times the shortest lateral dimension of the cross section.
Unsupported Height (H) > 10 x b
Example: Determine whether a 200 mm x 400 mm x 3.00 m column (unsupported height) is
short or long
Shortest lateral dimension = 200 mm / 0.20 m
10 x 0.20 m = 2.00 m
3.00 m > 2.00 m, therefore, it is classified as a long column

RC Columns can also be classified according to Five (5) types:

I. Tied Column – has a reinforcement consisting of vertical or longitudinal bars held in position by
lateral reinforcement called Lateral ties. The longitudinal bars consist of at least four (4) with a
minimum diameter of 16 mm or number five (5) steel bars (those directly attached to column
footing).
Based from the (ACI) American Concrete Institute Code:
 10 mm diameter bars shall be used for lateral ties if the longitudinal bars are 32
mm in diameter or smaller
 12 mm diameter bars shall be used for lateral ties if the longitudinal bars are 36
mm, 43 mm and 57 mm in diameter
 The spacing of the lateral ties should not be more than 16 times the diameter of
the main reinforcing steel bar.
o Example: 16 mm main rebars; 16 x 16 mm = 256 mm – maximum distances
of the ties
 The spacing of the lateral ties should not be more than 48 times the diameter of
the lateral ties
o Example: 10 mm lateral ties; 48 x 10 mm = 480 mm – maximum distances
of the ties
 The spacing of the lateral ties should not be more than the shortest dimension
of the cross section of the column
o Example: Column Dimension is 200 mm x 300 mm, therefore the max
spacing of ties is 200 mm
 Select the most stringent value (256 mm, 480 mm and 200 mm); the most
stringent is 200 mm spacing of lateral ties.
Figure 117. Tied columns

The ACI Code further states that the vertical reinforcement shall not be less than 0.01 nor
more than 0.09 times the gross area of the column section.

Determining the Minimum and Maximum Number of Longitudinal bars in a section:

Column Dimension = 250 mm x 300 mm
1. To determine the minimum no. of bars, we determine first the cross sectional area of the
column:
o 250 x 300 = 75,000 sq.mm
2. Find the minimum area of the vertical reinforcements (ACI Code)
o X = 0.01 x 75,000
o X = 750 sq.mm
3. Convert this area to the size and number of steel bars. Using 16 mm diameter,
o Area of Bars = π r ²
o A = 3.1416 x (8 x 8)
o A = 201 sq.mm
4. Divide the Area of the bars from the Minimum Area of the Vertical Reinforcements
o Pmin = 750 / 201
o Pmin = 3.73 or 4 pieces (minimum no. of bars)
 5. For the Maximum reinforcement, simply multiply the cross sectional area of the column
by 0.09
o Y = 0.09 x 75,000
o Y = 6,750 sq.mm
6. Using 16 mm bars:
o Pmax = 6,750 / 201
o Pmax = 33.6 or 34 pieces (max no. of bars)

 Bundled Bars – Bundling of bars becomes necessary when large number of bars is required
to be accommodated in a structural member. Concrete codes dictate minimum criteria for
spacing of the reinforcing bars to ensure that during construction fresh concrete can be placed
easily in between and around the bars. Therefore, when there is large number of bars required
to be provided based on design, it may not be possible to place the bars separately with
necessary clearance. In such cases, there are two options:
o Increase the size of the member (columns, beams).
o Bundle the bars in groups of two, three or four bars.

Figure 118. Bundled Bars

o Bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups or ties.
o Bars may be arranged singly, or in pairs in contact, or in groups of three or four bars
bundled in contact.
o Bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups or ties.
o Bundled bars shall be tied together to ensure the bars remaining together.
o Bars larger than 32 mm diameter shall not be bundled, except in columns.
o Individual bars within a bundle terminated within the span of flexural members shall
terminate at different points with at least 40db stagger.
 o Where spacing limitations and minimum concrete cover are based on bar diameter db, a
unit of bundled bars shall be treated as a single bar of a diameter derived from the
equivalent total area.

Figure 119. Bundled Bar Configurations

II. Spiral Column – Spiral columns are symmetric about any centroidal axis. On the other hand,
square columns have only four (4) axes of symmetry. Spiral Column comprises of reinforcements
in the form of a continuous spiral that circle up and down the column. Spiral columns are less
prone to buckling and may require slightly more reinforcement to carry the same load as a
square column. Assuming all things are equal and assuming everything is uniform then a
circular shape is the most optimum in terms of unidirectional buckling/moment.
Minimum number of bars required in a square column is four (4) while a minimum of six (6) for
spiral columns.
 Figure 120. Spiral Column
 Provide evenly spaced continuous spiral held firmly in place;
 At least use two (2) spacers for spirals less than fifty (50) centimeters, three (3) spacers for
spirals fifty (50) centimeters to seventy-five (75) centimeters in diameter and four (4) spacers
for more than seventy-five (75) centimeters in diameter;
 When bigger size of steel bar is used for spiral such as sixteen (16) millimeters or larger, three
(3) spacers shall be used for a spiral having sixty (60) centimeters or less in diameter and four
(4) spacers to a spiral having more than sixty (60) centimeters;
 The spiral shall be protected from distortion due to handling and placing from the designated
dimensions.

III. Composite Column – this is constructed using various combinations of structural steel and
concrete in an attempt to employ the beneficial properties of each material. The interactive and
integral behavior of concrete and the structural steel elements makes the composite column a
very stiff, more ductile, cost effective and consequently a structurally efficient member in
building and bridge constructions.

Figure 121. Composite Column

IV. Combined Column – a column with a structural steel encased in a concrete of at least seven (7)
centimeters thick reinforced with wire mesh surrounding the column at a distance of three (3)
centimeters inside the outer surface of the concrete covering.
 Figure 122. Combined Column
V. Lally Column – a round thin walled structural steel column oriented vertically to provide support to
beams or timbers stretching over long spans. A Lally column is filled with concrete to prevent
buckling. Lally columns are generally not as strong or durable as conventional structural steel
columns. The term “lally column” is sometimes incorrectly used in reference to other types of
prefabricated steel columns

Figure 123. Lally Column

Reinforced Concrete Floor System
The floor system of a building refers to the beam, girder and floor slab. The floor slab carries
both live and dead load. Live load refers to the human occupants and other movable and moving
objects on the floor. Dead load refers to all fixed objects and weight of the slab itself. The weight of
the slab is transmitted to the beam then to the column.

Beams and Girders

 Beam – Reinforced concrete beams are structural elements that designed to carry transverse
external loads. The loads cause bending moment, shear forces and in some cases torsion
across their length.
 Girder – A girder is a support beam used in construction. It is the main horizontal support of a
structure, which supports smaller beams.
Figure 124. Beam and Girders

Figure 125. RC Beam and RC Slab Section

Figure 126. Beam Construction
Steel reinforcements in Beams and Girders
1. Stirrups / Shear Reinforcements – The horizontal reinforcements are often tied up
with square stirrups at suitable intervals. These stirrups also provide additional strength
to the Reinforced Cement Concrete against shearing stresses. The reinforcement requires
the minimum prescribed covering of concrete. Stirrup’s hook angle is 135°.
Stirrups help to hold in place the primary reinforcement bars. The use of stirrups is
needed to prevent the columns and beams form buckling. The spacing of the stirrup along
the beam should ideally be specified by a structural engineer. This will help the stirrups to be
manufactured accordingly. Stirrups are usually placed in places where there are high
 chances of shearing such as beneath large load and bearing points i.e. connection
points of RC structural members.

Figure 127. Stirrups versus Lateral Ties (left) and Actual Stirrups (right)

Figure 128. Types of Stirrups

2. Continuous Longitudinal Bars – these are steel reinforcing bars used in longitudinal
reinforcement placed on top and bottom section of the beam. End hook angle of
longitudinal bars of column and beam is 90°.
Figure 129. Longitudinal Bars
Reinforcing steel bars are generally provided along the bottom fiber of a simple
beam to respond to the positive typically mid-span moment in accordance with the magnitude of
the moment and beam configuration and idealization.
The minimum horizontal distance between two parallel main reinforcing bars shall
not be less than the diameter of the bar (in case of unequal diameter bars, the diameter of
the larger bar is considered) or five (5) millimeter more than the nominal maximum size of
coarse aggregate used in the concrete, whichever is more.

3. Bend up Bars (Method 1 / Option 1) – reinforcing bars that are bent up on or near the
inflection points extended to the top of the beam across the support towards the adjacent
span. Inflection point refers to the portion of the beam where bending moment changes
from positive to negative. This is usually located at a distance about 1/5 to ¼ length of
the beam from the face of the support.

Figure 130. Bend up Bars

4. Cut bars (Method 2 / Option 2) – additional reinforcement placed in replacement of the

bend up bars. The distance of these bars should at least be 1/3 of the length of the beam
span from the face of the column.
Figure 131. Cut Bars

5. Web bars or Side Face reinforcements – The intent of providing side face reinforcement is
to control the crack width in tensile zone of concrete.

Beam can be classified into three (3) types:

 Simply Supported Beam – also referred to as the simple beam. It refers to a single span
beam supported at its end without restraint at the support. Restraint means a rigid connection
or anchorage at the support.

Figure 132. Simply supported beam

 Continuous Beam - a beam resting on more than two (2) supports

Figure 133. Continuous beam

  Semi continuous Beam – beam with two (2) span with or without restraining at the two (2)
extreme ends

Figure 134. Semi-Continuous beam

Based on Configuration:
 Cantilever Beam – beam is fixed to a support usually a vertical structure or wall and the beam's
other end is free

Figure 135. Cantilever beam

 T-Beam – when beam and slabs are poured with concrete simultaneously to produce a
monolithic structure where the portion of the slab at both sides of the beam serves as flanges of
the T-Beam.

Figure 136. T-Beams

 Figure 137. Concrete Pouring of Beam and Slab

Splicing, Standard Hooks and Bends

Splicing – it is the method used to join the reinforcement bars, so that the force is transferred
effectively from one bar to the other. Most of the reinforced concrete structures will not be provided with
full-length reinforced bars. The manufacture and transportation of long bars are difficult, which limit the
use of full-length reinforced bars. The integrity of the concrete structure is dependent on proper
splicing of the reinforcement bars.

Normally, lapping position is at where near the minimum shear force is acting. Normally lap length is
50d meaning 50 times the bar diameter if both bars are of same diameter. When lapping two bars
of different diameters, the lap length is considered as 50 times the smaller diameter.

Example: What would be the lap length when lapping two (2) 16 mm bars?
Formula: Lap length (L) = 50 x d
L = 50 x 16 mm
L = 800 mm
What would be the lap length when lapping a 16 mm and 12 mm bar?
Note: Use the smaller diameter
L = 50 x 12 mm
L = 600 mm
 Figure 138. Splicing / Lapping

Guidelines in Splicing / Lapping:

1. Lapping shall not be done for bars larger than 35 mm steel bars.
2. Lapping splice of bundled bars shall be based on the lap splice length required for individual
bars of the same size and such individual splicing within the bundle shall not overlap each
other.

Hooks and Bend – accomplished through a semi-circular plus an extension of at least:

a. Four (4) bar diameter but not less than 6.5 cm at the free end of the bar or;
b. Ninety (90) degree turn plus an extension of at least twelve (12) bar diameters at the
free end of the bar
c. The maximum bend diameter (other than stirrups and hook) shall not be less than four
(4) centimeters for 10 mm; five (5) centimeters for 13 mm and 6.5 for 16 mm
d. 135 degree = 6d; 180 degree = 4d; 90 degree = 12d
 Figure 139. Standard Hooks and Bend

Reinforced Concrete Slab

Depending on how this is reinforced, it may be classified into four (4) types. These types
include:
1. One way slab
2. Two way slab
3. Ribbed floor
4. Flat slab or girderless floor
A. One way Slab – it is a slab, which is supported by beams on the two opposite sides to carry the
load along one direction. The ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is equal or greater than 2,
considered as One way slab because this slab will bend in one direction i.e in the direction along its
shorter span

Figure 140. One way slab

Notes:
 Adopted when the supporting beams are almost rectangular in floor plan;
 Designed by making an imaginary strip of twelve (12) inches or thirty (30) centimeters wide
perpendicular with the beam that supports the floor. This imaginary strip is considered as a
 beam, hence the design steps and method for rectangular beam is applied where the width is
equal to 0.30 m and the depth is the thickness of the slab.
Placement of Reinforcements:
1. There should be the same quantity of steel reinforcement at the center and both end support
of the slab;
2. To have equal amount of steel bars that will resist both the positive and negative bending of
the slab, steel reinforcements are bent up alternately at the inflection point equal to
1/5 of the span.
3. Remaining straight bars are placed at the bottom of the slab extended towards the
beam to have at least fifteen (15) centimeters anchorage on the slab support or continued
for several spans.
4. Aside from the main reinforcement running in one direction, additional perpendicular bar
with the main reinforcement is provided to serve as Temperature bars. Temperature or
Shrinkage bars is used to counteract the effect of shrinkage caused by the changes in
temperature. It serves to not only hold the reinforcements to their designed position but
also distribute possible concentration of loads over a large area.

Figure 141. One way slab reinforcement

B. Two way Slab – Two way slab is a slab supported by beams on all the four sides and the loads are
carried by the supports along both directions. In two way slab, the ratio of longer span (l) to shorter
span (b) is less than 2. Slab thickness shall not be less than 100 mm nor less than the
perimeter of the area divided by 180.
Example: Determine the minimum slab thickness of a second (2nd) floor slab with dimensions of 6.00 m
x 6.00 m.
Perimeter = 6.00 m x 4 | P = 24 m
Slab Thickness = 24 / 180 | P = 0.133 m

Figure 142. Two way slab versus One way slab

One Way Slab Two Way Slab
Slabs are supported by the beams on the two
Slabs are supported by beams on all the four sides.
opposite sides
 One Way Slab Two Way Slab
Main reinforcement is provided on shorter Main reinforcement is provided in both sides due to
span due to bending bending occurs on both sides
Main Reinforcement is provided in only Main Reinforcement is provided along both the
direction for one way slabs directions in two way slabs.
Loads are carried along one direction in one Loads are carried along both the directions in two way
way slab. slabs.

Figure 143. Slab reinforcements

Placement of Reinforcements:
1. Where no bend bars are used in slab reinforcement, straight bars are used for bot the top
and bottom reinforcement.
2. The bottom bars are extended at least fifteen (15) centimeters into the supporting beams
or walls.
3. Top bars are extended up to ¼ span of the adjacent panels.
 Figure 144. Two way Slab framing plan

C. Ribbed Floor or Waffle Slab – Ribbed floors consisting of equally spaced ribs, usually
supported directly by columns. They are either one-way spanning systems known as ribbed slab
or a two-way ribbed system known as a waffle slab. This form of construction is not very common
because of the formwork costs and the low fire rating. A 120-mm-thick slab with a minimum rib
thickness of 125 mm for continuous ribs is required to achieve a 2-hour fire rating. A rib
thickness of greater than 125 mm is usually required to accommodate tensile and shear
reinforcement. Ribbed slabs are suitable for medium to heavy loads, can span reasonable
distances, and are very stiff and particularly suitable where the soffit is exposed.

Figure 145. Waffle slab (left) | Flat slab / Girderless Slab (right)
D. Flat Slab – Flat slab is a reinforced concrete slab supported directly by concrete columns
without the use of beams. Flat slab is defined as one sided or two-sided support system with
sheer load of the slab being concentrated on the supporting columns and a square slab called
‘drop panels’.

Figure 146. Slab on Grade details

E. Slab on Grade – Slabs that are directly laid on the earth, to support walls and other structural
elements are called as Slab on grade or Grade Slabs. Usually, a 10 mm or #3 rebars is used.
Spacing of rebars may range from 400 mm to 600 mm depending on the anticipated load.

Joints in Construction

Joints source are connecting two (2) elements into one (1) element. However, in
construction, the joints are using to produce stability for concrete, masonry, plastering. Most of the
construction element has formed by different material and due to the weather condition that may
shrink or expand. In reinforced concrete construction, they are placed in concrete slabs and
pavements at regular intervals to prevent development of cracks in concrete.
While we may not perceive it visually, buildings are in constant motion. Wind causes
buildings to sway, temperature changes cause expansion and contraction in building surfaces and
moisture causes expansion of materials. Additionally, seismic events can cause differential
movement in both the structure and finishes of a building.
Designing for building movement is an important part of detailing a building. This can be
achieved by the use of joints to relieve or take up the movement. A building joint is essentially
a separation of building elements that allows for independent movement, protects the structure, and
finishes from damage.
Two (2) Categories of Joints
 While there are many types of specialized joints, from a functional standpoint there are really
only two (2) main types.
1. Non-movement joint – these include most joints that are used to connect materials in a
building. Examples of non-movement joints include the nailed connections in a wooden
frame of a home or mortar joints between masonry units. In steel construction, it might
include the welding or bolting of a steel frame.
2. Movement joint – these are joints that are placed to allow anticipated movement without
causing damage to the underlying material. Examples are construction joints and expansion
joints.

Types of Joints
1. Construction Joint – The simplest movement joints are working construction joints. They are
used throughout the construction of buildings to allow materials to move without creating
distress.

In Reinforced Concrete Construction, these are placed in a concrete slab to define

the extent of the individual placements, generally in conformity with a predetermined joint
layout. Construction joints must be designed in order to allow displacements between both
sides of the slab but at the same time, they have to transfer flexural stresses produced in
the slab by external loads. Construction joints must allow horizontal displacement right-
angled to the joint surface that is normally caused by thermal and shrinkage movement. At
the same time, they must not allow vertical or rotational displacements.

Figure 147. Construction Joints

Figure 148. Diagrams of Construction Joints

Figure 149. Construction Joints on Roads

For example, when placing concrete columns, you generally will have a footing. The
construction joint will be between the footing and the column. This is because they usually
tie the bar for the footings, and a portion of the column, before placing the concrete for the
footing, or foundation. The forms for the columns do not go on until after the footing has
been placed and the remaining rebar has been tied. Construction joints are also placed
where there is a natural time difference between placements.

Figure 150. Construction Joints on Footings

2. Contraction Joint – A contraction joint is a sawed, formed, or tooled groove in a concrete
slab that creates a weakened vertical plane. It is sometimes called a Weak joint or a Control
joint. It regulates the location of the cracking caused by dimensional changes in the slab.
Unregulated cracks can grow and result in an unacceptably rough surface as well as water
 infiltration into the base, sub base and subgrade, which can enable other types of pavement
distress.

Figure 151. Contraction joint

Contraction joints are the most common type of joint in concrete pavements, thus
the generic term “joint” generally refers to a contraction joint. Contraction joints in concrete
are provided at regular interval to from a weak plane, so that cracks are formed at the joints
but not in undesired places. Concrete tends to shrink or reduce in size when it starts hardening.
This shrinkage of concrete creates tensile stresses in the concrete, which develops the minute
cracks at the weak plane.
The main aim of providing a weak joint is to create a weak plane in the concrete at
regular intervals where the possibility of cracking is more. These joints are placed to
produce panels that are as square as possible and never exceed a length to width ratio of 1 ½
to 1. Joints are commonly spaced at distances equal to 24 to 30 times the slab thickness. The
contraction joint is known as control joint.
The width of the groove should not be less than five (5) mm. They are generally
between 1/4 – 1/3 the depth of the slab and typically spaced every 3.1 – 15.00 m.

Figure 152. Actual Contraction joints / Control Joints / Weak Joints

3. Cold Joint – A cold joint is a plane of weakness in concrete caused by an interruption or

delay in the concreting operations. It occurs when the first batch of concrete has begun to
set before the next batch is added, so that the two (2) batches do not intermix.
 Figure 153. Cold joints
 To prevent cold joints in walls, beams and other structural components it is necessary to
place concrete in layers about 18 inches deep and intermix each layer with the previous
one by using a vibrator.
 Placement of concrete should begin in the corners and work toward the center.
 When slabs are placed, the concrete should be placed against the preceding batch and not
dumped in an individual pile.
 On sloping grades, the work should proceed uphill.
 In hot weather, a retarding admixture may be needed to slow the setting time.
Cold joint is different from a honeycomb. Honeycombs are hollow spaces and cavities left
in concrete mass on the surface or inside the mass where concrete could not reach. These look like
honey bees nest. Improper vibration and workability of concrete are main causes of honeycombs in
concrete.

Figure 154. Honeycomb

4. Expansion Joint – The concrete is subjected to volume change due to many reasons.
Therefore, this has to be catered for this by way of joint to relieve the stress. Expansion is a
function of length. Joints are formed by providing a gap between the building parts. Placing of
expansion joint is influenced by the length of the building and placed at an interval.
 An expansion joint is an assembly designed to safely absorb the heat-induced
expansion and contraction of construction materials, to absorb vibration, to hold parts together,
or to allow movement due to ground settlement or earthquakes.

Control joints, or contraction joints, are sometimes confused with expansion

joints, but have a different purpose and function. Concrete and asphalt have relatively weak
tensile strength, and typically form random cracks as they age, shrink, and are exposed to
environmental stresses (including stresses of thermal expansion and contraction).
Control joints attempt to attenuate cracking by designating lines for stress relief.

Expansion joints are cut depending on the temperature around the concrete. In hot
weather, expansion joints are usually cut with grooving tools while the concrete is still wet. In
cooler weather, expansion joints can be cut with saws after the concrete has hardened a little.
Expansion joints cut through the entire width of the slab and are then filled with some sort of
filler.

Figure 155. Expansion joints

 Isolation Joint – These joints isolate the slab from a wall, column or drainpipe.
Isolation joints have one very simple purpose—they completely isolate the slab from
something else. Isolation joints are form of expansion joints. That something else
can be a wall, a column, or a drainpipe. Here are a few things to consider with isolation
joints:
 i. Walls and columns, which are on their own footings that are deeper than the slab
subgrade, are not going to move the same way a slab does as it shrinks or
expands from drying or temperature changes or as the subgrade compresses a
little.
ii. If slabs are connected to walls or columns or pipes, as they contract or settle
there will be restraint, which usually cracks the slab—although it could also
damage pipes (standpipes or floor drains).
iii. Even wooden columns should be isolated from the slab.
iv. Isolation joints are formed by placing preformed joint material next to the
column or wall or standpipe prior to pouring the slab. Isolation joint
material is typically asphalt-impregnated fiberboard, although plastic, cork,
rubber, and neoprene are also available.

Figure 156. Isolation joints

5. Seismic Joints – Seismic joints are frequently required between adjacent buildings and are
often introduced to separate two or more parts of the same building.
Seismic joints occur naturally when one building is built adjacent to another, whether or
not the buildings are linked functionally. Seismic joints are also frequently introduced to
separate wings, or other parts of a single building.
Seismic joints are similar to expansion joints, but at the same time very different.
Expansion joints are introduced to accommodate building movements caused by
shrinkage, creep, or temperature changes. They are often one-way joints, that is, they are
 primarily intended to accommodate movements in the direction perpendicular to the joint.
Expansion joints are also commonly placed at some regular interval of length based on
the expected rate of shrinkage or temperature movement expected to occur over the
building length. Seismic joints, on the other hand, must accommodate movement in both
orthogonal directions simultaneously and their spacing is not typically affected by
building length or size.

Figure 157. Seismic joints

6. Settlement Joints – settlement joints are created to avoid stress from different rates of
foundation settlement. This settlement usually occurs between different portions of a building or
between portions of a building that bear on different soils.

Figure 158. Settlement joint

7. Separation Joints – Oftentimes, buildings will be comprised of separate geometries of varying
size and scale. Building separation joints provide movement relief for structures with complex
geometries. In essence, they separate a single building into smaller structures that can move
independently of one another. Separation joints are created by constructing independent
structures on each side of the joint, often times with completely separate foundations