DIGITAL SYSTEMS

Digital means electronic technology that generates, stores, and processes data in terms of two
states(bi-state characteristic): positive and non-positive, high and low, open and closed,. One
state is expressed or represented by the number 1 and the other statee by the number 0.

A „digital system‟is a data technology that uses discrete (discontinuous) values represented by
high and low states known as bits. By contrast, non-digital (or analog) systems use a continuous
range of values to represent information. Although digital representations are discrete, the
information represented can be either discrete, such as numbers, letters or icons, or continuous,
such as sounds, images, and other measurements of continuous systems.

BINARY

Binary describes a numbering scheme in which there are only two possible values for each digit:
0 and 1. The term also refers to any digital encoding/decoding system in which there are exactly
two possible states. In digital data memory, storage, processing, and communications, the 0 and
1 values are sometimes called "low" and "high," respectively.

Binary Numbers

Since digital circuits deal with binary values, we will begin with a quick introduction to
binary numbers. A bit, having either the value of 0 or 1, can represent only two things or two
pieces of information. It is, therefore, necessary to group many bits together to represent more

pieces of information. A string of n bits can represent 2n different pieces of information. For
example, a string of two bits results in the four combinations: 00, 01, 10, and 11. By using
different encoding techniques, a group of bits can be used to represent different information,
such as a number, a letter of the alphabet, a character symbol, or a command for the
microprocessor to execute.

The use of decimal numbers is quite familiar to us. However, since the binary digit is used to
represent information within the computer, we also need to be familiar with binary numbers.
Note that the use of binary numbers is just a form of representation for a string of bits. We can
just as well use octal, decimal, or hexadecimal numbers to represent the string of bits. In fact,
you will find that hexadecimal numbers are often used as a shorthand notation for binary
numbers.

The decimal number system is a positional system. In other words, the value of the digit is
dependent on the position of the digit within the number. For example, in the decimal number
48, the decimal digit 4 has a greater value than the decimal digit 8 because it is in the tenth
position, whereas the digit 8 is in the unit position. The value of the number is calculated as (4 ×

101) + (8 × 100).

Like the decimal number system, the binary number system is also a positional system. The
only difference between the two is that the binary system is a base-2 system, and so, it uses only
two digits, 0 and 1, instead of ten. The binary numbers from 0 to 15 (decimal) are shown in

Figure 2.1. The range from 0 to 15 has 16 different combinations. Since 2 4 = 16, therefore, we
need a 4-bit binary number (i.e., a string of four bits) to represent this range.

When we count in decimal, we count from 0 to 9. After 9, we go back to 0, and have a carry
of a 1 to the next digit. When we count in binary numbers, we do the same thing, except that we
only count from 0 to 1. After 1, we go back to 0 and have a carry of a 1 to the next bit.
The decimal value of a binary number can be found just like that for a decimal number,
except that we raise the base number 2 to a power rather than the base number 10 to a power. For
example, the value for the decimal number 658 is

65810 = (6 × 102) + (5 × 101) + (8 × 100) = 600 + 50 + 8 = 65810

Similaly, the decimal value for the binary number 10110112 is

10110112 = (1 × 26) + (0 × 25) + (1 × 24) + (1 × 23) + (0 × 22) + (1 × 21) + (1 × 20)

= 64 + 16 + 8 + 2 + 1 = 9110

To get the decimal value, the least significant bit (in this case, the rightmost 1) is multiplied

with 20. The next bit to the left is multiplied with 2 1, and so on. Finally, they are all added
together to give the value 9110.

Notice the subscript 10 in the decimal number 65810, and the 2 in the binary number
10110112. This subscript is used to denote the base of the number whenever there might be
confusion as to what base the number is in.

Decim Binar Oct Hexadeci

al y al mal
0 0000 0 0
1 0001 1 1
2 0010 2 2
3 0011 3 3
4 0100 4 4
5 0101 5 5
6 0110 6 6
7 0111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F

Figure 2.1 Numbers from 0 to 15 in binary, octal, and hexadecimal number systems.

Converting a decimal number to its binary equivalent can be done by successively dividing
the decimal number by 2 and keeping track of the remainder at each step. Combining the
remainders together (starting with the last one) forms the equivalent binary number. For
example, using the decimal number 91, we divide it by 2 to get 45 with a remainder of 1. Then
we divide 45 by 2 to get 22 with a remainder of 1. We continue in this fashion until the end as
shown here.
 2 91 1

Least significant bit 245 1 222 0 211 1

= 1011011 2 51 2 20
1 Most significant bit

Concatenating the remainders together, starting with the last one (most significant bit) results
in the binary number 10110112.
Binary numbers usually consist of a long string of bits. A shorthand notation for writing out
this lengthy string of bits is to use either octal or hexadecimal numbers. Since the octal system is
base-8 and the hexadecimal system is base-16 (both of which are a power of 2), a binary number
can be converted easily to an octal or hexadecimal number, or vice versa.

Octal numbers only use the digits from 0 to 7 for the eight different combinations. When
counting in octals, the number after 7 is 10 as shown in Figure 2.1. To convert a binary number
to octal, we simply group the bits into groups of threes, starting from the right (least significant

bit). The reason for this is because 8 = 2 3. For each group of three bits, we write the equivalent
octal digit for it. For example, the conversion of the binary number 11100112 to the octal
number 1638 is shown here.

001 110 011

1 6 3

Since the original binary number has seven bits, we need to extend it with two leading 0’s to
get three bits for the leftmost group. Note that when we are dealing with negative numbers, we
may require extending the number with leading 1’s instead of 0’s.

Converting an octal number to its binary equivalent is just as easy. For each octal number, we
write down the equivalent three bits. These groups of three bits are concatenated together to form
the final binary number. For example, the conversion of the octal number 57248 to the binary
number 1011110101002 is shown here.

5 7 2 4101 111 010 100

The decimal value of an octal number can be found just like that for a binary or decimal
number, except that we raise the base number 8 to a power instead of the base number 2 or 10 to
a power. For example, the octal number 57248 has the value:

57248 = (5 × 83) + (7 × 82) + (2 × 81) + (4 × 80) = 2560 + 448 + 16 + 4 = 302810

Hexadecimal numbers are treated basically the same way as octal numbers except with the
appropriate changes to the base. Hexadecimal (or hex for short) numbers use base-16, and thus
require 16 different digit symbols, as shown in Figure 2.1. Converting binary numbers to

hexadecimal numbers involves grouping the bits into groups of fours since 16 = 2 4. For example,
the conversion of the binary number 110110110112 to the hexadecimal number 6DB16 is shown
below. Again, we need to extend it with a leading 0 to get four bits for the leftmost group.

0110 1101 1011

6 D B

To convert a hex number to a binary number, we write down the equivalent four bits for each
hex digit, and then concatenate them together to form the final binary number. For example, the
conversion of the hexadecimal number 5C4A16 to the binary number 01011100010010102 is
shown here.

5 C 4 A0101 1100 0100 1010

The following example shows how the decimal value of the hexadecimal number C4A16 is
evaluated.

C4A16 = (C × 162) + (4 × 161) +

(A × 160)
 = (12 × 162) + (4 × 161) +

(10 × 160)

= 3072 + 64 + 10 = 314610

Binary Switch

Besides the fact that we are working only with binary values, digital circuits are easy to
understand because they are based on one simple idea of turning a switch on or off to obtain
either one of the two binary values. Since the switch can be in either one of two states (on or off),
we call it a binary switch, or just a switch for short. The switch has three connections: an input,
an output, and a control for turning the switch on or off, as shown in Figure
2.2. When the switch is opened, as in Figure 2.2(a), it is turned off, and nothing gets through
from the input to the output. When the switch is closed, as in Figure 2.2(b), it is turned on, and
whatever is presented at the input is allowed to pass through to the output.

Control
 Hence, two switches connected in series give rise to the logical AND operator. In a Boolean
function (which we will explain in more detail in Section 2.5), the AND operator is denoted
either with a dot ( • ) or no symbol at all. Thus, we can rewrite the above expression as

F = x •y
or simply F = xy

If we connect two switches in parallel, as in Figure 2.4(b), then only one switch needs to be
on in order for the output F to be 1. In other words, F = 1 if either x = 1, or y = 1, or both x and y
are 1’s. This means that F = 0 only if both x and y are 0’s. Translating this into a logic
expression, we get

F = x OR y

and this gives rise to the logical OR operator. In a Boolean function, the OR operator is denoted
with a “plus” symbol ( + ). Thus, we can rewrite the above expression as

F=x+y

In addition to the AND and OR operators, there is another basic logic operator—the NOT
operator, also known as the INVERTER. Whereas, the AND and OR operators have multiple
inputs; the NOT operator has only one input and one output. The NOT operator simply inverts its
input, so a 0 input will produce a 1 output, and a 1 becomes a 0. In a Boolean function, the NOT
operator is denoted either with an “apostrophe” symbol ( ' ) or a “bar” on top ( ) as in

F =
x' or
F =
x

When several operators are used in the same expression, the precedence given to the
operators are (from highest to lowest) NOT, AND, and OR. The order of evaluation can be
changed by means of using parenthesis. For example, the expression

F = xy +
z' means (x AND y) OR (NOT z), and the expression

F = x(y +
z)' means x AND (NOT (y OR z)).

Truth Tables
 The operation of the AND, OR, and NOT logic operators can be described formally by using
a truth table, as shown in Figure 2.5. A truth table is a two-dimensional array where there is one
column for each input and one column for each output (a circuit may have more than one
output). Since we are dealing with binary values, each input can be either a 0 or a 1. We simply
enumerate all possible combinations of 0’s and 1’s for all the inputs. Usually, we want to write

these input values in the normal binary counting order. With two inputs, there are 2 2
combinations giving us the four rows in the table. The values in the output column are
determined from applying the corresponding input values to the functional operator. For the
AND truth table in Figure 2.5(a), F = 1 only when x and y are both 1, otherwise, F = 0. For the
OR truth table in Figure 2.5(b), F = 1 when either x or y or both is a 1, otherwise F = 0. For the
NOT truth table, the output F is just the inverted value of the input x.
x y F
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

x y F
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

x F
0 1
1 0

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.5 Truth tables for the three basic logical operators: (a) AND; (b) OR; (c) NOT.
 Using a truth table is one method to formally describe the operation of a circuit or function.
The truth table for any given logic expression (no matter how complex it is) can always be
derived. Examples on the use of truth tables to describe digital circuits are given in the following
sections. Another method to formally describe the operation of a circuit is by using Boolean
expressions or Boolean functions.

Introduction to Digital circuit design

In the modern world of electronics, the term Digital is generally associated with a computer
because the term Digital is derived from the way computers perform operation, by counting
digits. For many years, the application of digital electronics was only in the computer system.
But now-a-days, digital electronics is used in many other applications. Following are some of
the examples in which Digital electronics is heavily used.

 Industrial process control

 Military system

 Television

 Communication system

 Medical equipment

 Radar

 Navigation

Signal
Signal can be defined as a physical quantity, which contains some information. It is a function
of one or more than one independent variables. Signals are of two types.

 Analog Signal

 Digital Signal

Analog Signal
An analog signal is defined as the signal having continuous values. Analog signal can have
infinite number of different values. In real world scenario, most of the things observed in nature
are analog. Examples of the analog signals are following.

 Temperature

 Pressure

 Distance

 Sound

 Voltage

 Current

 Power

Graphical representation of Analog Signal (Temperature)

The circuits that process the analog signals are called as analog circuits or system. Examples of
the analog system are following.

 Filter

 Amplifiers

 Television receiver

 Motor speed controller

Disadvantage of Analog Systems

  Less accuracy

 Less versatility

 More noise effect

 More distortion

 More effect of weather

Digital Signal
A digital signal is defined as the signal which has only a finite number of distinct values. Digital
signals are not continuous signals. In the digital electronic calculator, the input is given with the
help of switches. This input is converted into electrical signal which have two discrete values or
levels. One of these may be called low level and another is called high level. The signal will
always be one of the two levels. This type of signal is called digital signal. Examples of the
digital signal are following.

 Binary Signal

 Octal Signal

 Hexadecimal Signal

Graphical representation of the Digital Signal (Binary)

The circuits that process the digital signals are called digital systems or digital circuits.
Examples of the digital systems are following.

 Registers
  Flip-flop

 Counters

 Microprocessors

Advantage of Digital Systems

 More accuracy

 More versatility

 Less distortion

 Easy communicate

 Possible storage of information

Comparison of Analog and Digital Signal

S.N. Analog Signal Digital Signal

1 Analog signal has infinite values. Digital signal has a finite number
of values.

2 Analog signal has a continuous nature. Digital signal has a discrete

nature.

3 Analog signal is generated by transducers and Digital signal is generated by A to

signal generators. D converter.

4 Example of analog signal − sine wave, Example of digital signal − binary

triangular waves. signal.