1 Lecture 1: Importance and scope of fruit crops

Fruit growing is one of the important and age old practices, practiced in India since ancient
times. Cultivation of fruit crops plays an important role in overall status of the mankind and the
nation. The standard of living of the people of a country is depending upon the production and
per capita consumption of fruits. Fruit growing have more economic advantages.
I. Economic importance
 High productivity: High yield per unit area: From a unit area of land more yield is
realized from fruit crops than any of the agronomic crops. The average yields of Papaya,
Banana and Grapes are 10 to 15 times than that of agronomic crops.
 High net profit: Through, the initial cost of establishment of an orchard is high, it is
compensated by higher net profit due to higher productivity or high value of produce.
Eg-Wheat/GN/Ragi- 3.0 -4.0 tonnes/ha -25-35,000-00, Grapes/ Mango/ Banana-20-40t/ha-
1.5-2.5 lakh/ha.
 Source of raw material for agro based industries: Fruit farming provides raw materials
for various agro based industries- canning and preservation (fresh fruits), coir industries
(coconut husk), pharmaceutical industry (Aonla, Papaya, Jamun) Transporting and
packaging industries etc.
 Efficient utilization of resources: Growing of fruits being perennial in nature, enables
grower to remain engaged throughout the year in farm operations and to utilize fully the
resources & assets like machinery, labour, land water for production purpose throughout
the year compared to agronomic crops.
 Utilization of waste and barren lands for production: Although, most of the fruits crops
require perennial irrigation and good soil for production, there are many fruit crops of
hardy in nature, Mango, Ber, Cashew, Custard apple, Aonla, Phalsa, Jamun etc. which
are grown on poor shallow, undulated soils considered unsuitable for growing grain/
agronomical crops.
 Foreign exchange: Many fresh fruits, processed products and spices are exported to
several countries earning good amount of foreign exchange.
One Time Capital Investment:
 Most of the fruit crops are perennial in nature and hence, there is no recurring
expenditure o planting and layout of a fruit orchard.
II. Nutritional importance
 Importance of fruits in human diet is well recognized. Man cannot live on cereals
alone.
 Fruits and vegetables are essential for balanced diet and good health.
 Nutritionist advocates 60-85g of fruits and 360 gm.
 Vegetables per capita per day in addition to cereals, pulses, egg etc.
 Fruits and vegetables are good sources of vitamins and minerals without which human
body cannot maintain proper health and develop resistance to disease they also contain
pectin, cellulose, fats, proteins etc.
Fruits- as sources of vitamins
 Vitamin-A- Mango, Papaya, Jack, Banana, Dates.
 Vitamin-B- Cashew nut, Almond, Banana, Apple, Bale, Litchi, Papaya and
Pomegranate.
 Vitamin-C- Aonla, Citrus fruits, Pineapple, Ber, Guava, Strawberry, Tamarind etc.
 Fruits as a source of minerals such as Ca, Fe, P- the fruits are- Almond, Cashew,
Guava, Jamun, Fig, Karonda, and Mango.
 Digestive enzymes- Papaya- papaine-9, proteolitic enzyme.
As Source of Energy:
 Carbohydrate and fats provide energy, while proteins besides providing energy are also
responsible for building body tissues. Most of the fruits are good source of CHO.
Sources: Banana (36 %), grapes (20%), custard apple (25%),
Fruits have medicinal value
The fruits like aonla pomegranate, Kokum, Jamun, Bael, Ber. etc, have great medicinal value,
 Papaya reduces night blindness,
 Citrus juice reduce acute diorrhea.
 Aonla triphala (chawan prash)- digestion.
 Jack fruit (Jackoline)- prevents Aids.
Other importance
Fruit growing in kitchen gardens helps to reduce family budget on purchase of fruits.
 Planting of fruits trees, maintains ecological balance and to increase precipitation of
the locality.
 Fruit tree farming also reduces soil erosion, silting and air pollution.
 Generate employment being highly intensive & skillful enterprise generates
employment even for trained persons.
Scope of Fruit Production
1. Need to Increase Production to Meet Dietary Requirements:
 The per capita consumption of fruits in India is very low e.g. USA 202kg/capita / year,
Pakistan 100 kg/ capital/ year and India 10 kg / capita year. The low consumption of
fruits is only due to very small fraction of the total cropped area under fruits. India needs
to step up the production of fruits till the country becomes self sufficient and process of
fruit fall to the level at which both rich and poor can afford to buy. The prices of fruits are
so high, as to keep fresh fruits out of reach of large population with more efficient
production and marketing, the price could be reduced as to increase consumption of fruits
and still provide good profits to the grower.
2. Increasing Irrigation Facilities:
 Most of the commercial fruit tress requires perennial irrigation. The area receiving
perennial irrigation which was 6% in 1960 reached a level of 12.5 to 13% today. By
exploiting all the resources the maximum area that can be brought under irrigation would
be 25% of the total cropped area. Thus, there is still scope to increasing irrigated area in
near future as government is giving priorities to such to works. This would be definitely
help to increase area under fruit crops.
3. Scope for Increasing Area Under Dry Land Fruits:
 It is not entirely true that all the fruits enquire perennial irrigation. There are many fruit
trees like ber,, custard apple , cashew nut, anola etc. which are hardly in nature and can
be grown purely under rain fed condition. In India 86 million ha land is available for
development of sound technology of rained horticulture; there is good scope to put these
lands under dry land fruit crops. This would also be necessary to arrest shrinkage of land
available for cultivation on per capita basis due to population pressure.
4. Increasing Urbanization and Change in Food Habits:
 Increasing urbanization due to industrial growth has increased demands for fruits. Change
in food habits is also being noticed due to education and assured income which has also
helped in increasing demands for fruits.
5. Increased Transport Facilities:
 Most of the fruits are highly perishable, having less storage life and need quick disposal
after harvest. Lack of good transportation system was one of the major constraints in are
expansion of fruits. However, now a days quick transport facilities by road rail and air
are available enabling growers to transport fruits, to long distance markers in good
condition in a short period of time. Increasing in transport facilities in transport facilities
provide scope for fruit farming.
6. Increasing in Cold Storage Facilities and Pre- Colling Center:
 Fruits have highly perishable and have less shelf- life. During the peak harvest periods,
the market gluts reduce prices of fruits. Cold storage facilities help to regulate market
supply and stabilises the rates. Similarly, to extend shelf life, pre cooling after harvest is
necessary. Govt of Telanagana and also other agencies providing funds for developing
these facilities in production centers. This would help to increase more area under fruit in
the year to come.
7. Scope for Agro- Based Industries:
 Even after o much of industrial progress, country depends on agricultural sectors for
employment is gong to come from agricultural sectors. Development of agro- based
industries to generate employment is a must to keep our economy on sound footing.
Besides rice, fruit farming is the only area where is a potential to develop agro-based
industries like canning and preservation and hence, the scope in near future
8. Development of New Techniques:
 Use of growth regulators, insitu grafting, drip irrigation for water economy, tissue culture
special horticultural practices like ringing, girdling, notching, Bahar treatment, high
density planting etc. have helped to increase productivity and also o bring more lands
under cultivation.
9. Evaluation of New High Yielding Varieties and Introduction of New Crops:
 Development of high yielding of fruit like pomegranate, ganash, P-23, P-26, G-137 ,
mango – ratna, Amravati, malika, sindhur, grapes- Thompson seedless , guava- sardar,
(L-49, cashew nut- vengurla No. 1,2,3,4 and 5 have to bring more area under fruits.
Similarly, introduction of commercial cultivation of some of the new crops like ber anola
etc. would also indicate scope for area expansion.
10. Availability of Loan Facilities:
 Fruit crops being capital intensive, lack of capital was one of the major hurdles in the
expansion. Now a days there are several cooperative and commercial banks providing
finance for fruit farming which has increased the scope for it.
11. Government Incentive:
 Realizing the need for area expansion of fruit crops, the governments of Telangana have
started a very ambitious programme of fruit development under which it gives 100%
subsidy to marginal farmers and farmers from backward communities and 70% subsidy
for others on establishment and Maintences of fruit orchard for a period of 3 years. This
would increase the area under fruits. It is expected that due to this pregame, the area
under fruits in Maharashtra by 94-95 would be 558000 hectares.
12. Scope for Export of Fruits:
 Market surveys in Europe and other markets have revealed that is a good scope or export
of grapes, mango, banana, pomegranate, citrus, ber, cashew to gulf and European
markers. The availability of these markets would be increase area under these fruits.
 Availability of cheap labour.
 Very high production of fruits.
 Suitability of climate for fruits are some of the other factors indicating scope for fruits.
Lecture 2: Production technology of Mango , origin-importance – climate- soil- varieties –
propagation – planting – plant preparation – spacing – digging of pits – filling of pits – seasons
of planting – Irrigation – manuring – method and time of application – intercultivation and
intercropping – training and pruning – flowering –pollination-fruit set – cropping – harvesting –
maturity indices – yield- problems in mango cultivation – alternate or biennial bearing and
irregular bearing, mango malformation, spongy tissue and fruit drop – causes and remedies

Mangifera indica,

Anacardiaceae;
2n=40
Origin: Indo Burma region
Mango is the most important among the tropical fruits of India and it is very popular and
considered to be the choicest of all fruits grown in India. It is known as the, “king of fruits”,
owing to delicious quality of fruit, richness in vitamins and minerals and liking to Indian palate.
It is also one of the best fruits of the world. Mango occupies the pride place in India as apple in
temperate and grapes in sub-tropical regions of the world. Mango thus deserves to be ―the
national fruit of India‖. It is also one of the most ancient fruits of the country being cultivated
for the past 4000- 6000 years. It is a sacred tree for Hindus (because of its blossoms used in the
worship of gods and its leaves made in to festoons for hanging over doorways on so many
occasions). No other country can surpass India in the number of varieties and richness of their
flavour. Ripe mango is exceedingly refreshing to eat and is an excellent source of Vitamin-A and
C. The immature and green fruit is used in various ways in curries, pickles and chutneys. Ripe
mango slices and pulp can be preserved and canned for use when the fresh fruit is out of season.
Mango was found throughout South- East Asia and the Malayan - archipelago in early days. The
Portuguese, who opened the sea routes, were responsible for the worldwide distribution of
mango from indo-Burma and indo-china regions. Out of 63 mango-producing countries all over
the world, India grows it to the maximum, contributing about 11 million tonnes, roughly 58% of
the world production of 19 million tonnes. In India it is cultivated in an area of 12.3 lakh hectares
occupying 22% of the total area under fruits in India and with a production of about 11 million
tonnes constituting about 23% of total production of fruits. The area in AP is about 2.8 lakh
hectares with a production of about 31 lakh tones and productivity of 12 tonnes per ha. The
important mango growing districts in AP are Krishna, W.Godavari, Vishakapatnam, E.Godavari,
Vigayanagaram, Srikakulam, Chittoor, Kadapa and Khammam districts. In AP maximum area is
in East Godavari followed by Khammam and chittoor districts.
Mango varieties: There are nearly 1000 mango varieties in India. Of these, however only about
20 varieties are grown on a commercial scale. The commercial varieties of mango in India are
specific to different regions of the country.
The important commercial varieties of mangoes
Andhra Pradesh: Banganapalli, Suvarnarekha, Neelum and Totapuri Bihar Bombay Green,
Chausa, Dashehari, Fazli, Gulabkhas, Kishen Bhog, Himsagar, Zardalu and Langra
Gujarat: Kesar, Alphonso, Rajapuri, Jamadar, Totapuri, Neelum, Dashehari and Langra
Haryana: Chausa, Dashehari, Langra and Fazli
Himachal Pradesh: Chausa, Dashehari and Langra
Karnataka: Alphonso, Totapuri, Banganapalli, Pairi, Neelum and Mulgoa
Madhya Pradesh: Alphonso, Bombay Green, Dashehari, Fazli, Langra and Neelum
Maharashtra: Alphonso, Kesar and Pairi
Punjab: Chausa, Dashehari and Malda
Rajasthan: Bombay Green, Chausa, Dashehari and Langra
Tamil Nadu :Alphonso, Totapuri, Banganapalli and Neelum
Uttar Pradesh: Bombay Green, Chausa, Dashehari and Langra
West Bengal Fazli, Gulabkhas, Himsagar, Kishenbhog, Langra and Bombay Green
Varieties grown and recommended for different tracts of Andhra Pradesh:
Coastal districts: Suvarnarekha, Baneshan, Juicy varieties and Rajpuri.
Rayalaseema area: Neelum, Bangalora, Baneshan, Rumani, Cherukurasam, and
Panchadarakalasa.
Telangana Region: Alphonso, Pairi (Peter), Mahamooda, Dashehari, safeda and Goa bunder.
The important mango varieties grown on a commercial scale in AP are-
Baneshan, Neelum, Bangalora, Rumani, Khader, Mulgoa, Panchadarakalasa, china suvarnarekha,
cherukurasam, Janardhanpasand.
Hybrid varieties: Attempets are being made to obtain varieties with maximum desirable
characters. For this purpose some hybrids were developed in different research stations, Salient
characteristics of the important mango hybrids are3
Mango Hybrids and their characters
Hybrid Parents Distinguishing characters
Fruit Research Satation,Anantharajupet-Kadapa District
Neeleshan Neelum X Baneshan. Late maturing and Good quality.
Neelgoa Neelum X Yerra Mulgoa
Regular bearing,high yielding‘ good keeping quality and late maturing
Swarna Jahangir Chinna suvarnarekha X Jahangir.
Medium yielder, fruits are attractive in colour,good transporting quality and late maturing
AU Rumani:
Mulgoa X Rumani.
Heavy and regular bearer with good keeping quality & late season
KMH-1(Kodur mango hybrid -1) Cheruku rasam X Khader
Semi-dwarf type having regular bearing habit& good keeping quality
Fruit Research Satation,Sangareddy,Medak District
Manjeera Rumani X Neelum Precocious, regular bearer& heavy yielder
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore
Arka Aruna Banganapalli X Alphonso Dwarf, regular, prolific & medium bearer. Free from fibre
and spongy tissue.
Arka Puneet Alphonso X Banganapalli Regular and prolific bearer. Free from spongy tissue with
good Keeping quality.Suitable for table &processing.
Arka Anmol Alphonso X Janardhanpasand
Regular & prolific bearer. Fibreless , free from spongy tissue &keeping quality
Arka Neelkiran Alphonso X Neelum Ideal for high density planting. Regular bearer with very
good Keeping and late season.
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi
Amrapali Dashehari X Neelum Regular& late bearing. Very dwarf suitable for high density
planting Mallika Neelum X Dashehari Regular bearer, midseason variety &resistant to fruit drop.
Depending on utility:
Table varieties: Baneshan, Neelum, Bangalora, Rumani,Alphonso,Mahamooda and Goa bunder.
Juicy varieties: Chinna rasam, Pedda rasam, Cheruku rasam, Kothapalli kobbari, Panchadara
kalasa. Panakalu, Phirangi laddu.
Table and juicy varieties: Chinna suvarnarekha , Peter.
Off-season Varieties: Neelum, Bangalora, Baramasi, Rumani,Royal special.
Pickle varieties: Achar pasand, Tellagulabi of Nuzivid, Alipasand, Guddemar (Hamlet)
Regional Fruit Research Station, Vengurla
Ratna
(Neelphonso)
Neelum X Alphonso Semi-dwarf, regular in bearing, good keeping quality. Fruits are free from
spongy tissue.
Sindhu Back cross progeny of Ratna (RatnaX Alphonso) Stone is extremely thin ( seedless
mango), regular in bearing, free from spongy tissue & fibreless
Agricultural Research Institute, Sabour, UP.
Prabhasankar Bombay X Kalaepad Semi dwarf, regular in bearer, fruit is of good keeping
quality. Strong tendency to bear fruits in adverse weather conditions. Mahamudbahar Bombay X
kalaepad. Tree is semi dwarf and regular in bearing. Jawahar Gulabkhas x Mahamooda Bahar
Semi dwarf, highly regular in bearing &precocious
Horticultural college and Research Institute, Periyakulam.
PKM-1 Chinna suvarnarekha X Neelum
Bears fruits in clusters. Regular bearer, suitable for long distance transport
PKM-2 Neelum X Alphonso Bears fruits in clusters. Regular bearer with good quality& keeping
quality
Varieties for preservation: Baneshan and Bangalora.
Mango varieties can be divided into different groups-
Depending on utility:
Table varieties: Baneshan, Neelum, Bangalora, Rumani,Alphonso,Mahamooda and Goa bunder.
Juicy varieties: Chinna rasam, Pedda rasam, Cheruku rasam, Kothapalli kobbari, Panchadara
kalasa. Panakalu, Phirangi laddu.
Table and juicy varieties: Chinna suvarnarekha , Peter.
Pickle varieties: Achar pasand, Tellagulabi of Nuzivid, Alipasand,Hamnlet
Varieties for preservation: Baneshan and Bangalora.
Depending on time of availability:
Early Varieties: Olour, Rajpuri, Ronnet Alphonso,Suvarnarekha, Panakalu.
Mid-season varieties: Baneshan, Panchadarakalasa, Mallika, Chinna rasam, Kothapalli kobbari,
Peddarasam etc.
Late varieties: Mulgoa, Jalalsaheb, Amrapali, Janardhanpasand ,Neelum and Bangalora etc.
Off-Season Varieties: Rumani, Neelum, Baramasi, Sadabahar, Bangalora, Royal special. etc.
Poly embryonic varieties: When seed of polyembryonic mango variety is sown several
seedlings will arise. Only one of those is sexual and the others are nucellar seedlings, which
develops from the cells of nucellus. The nucellar seedlings behave exactly like the female parent
and are comparable to vegetatively propagated plants. The polyembryonic varieties of India are
unfortunately poor in quality. Their only use is as rootstock for other superior varieties. The
uniformity of such rootstocks would help in standardizing the performance of scion trees and
eliminate the variability inherent in monoembryonic rootstocks of unknown origin.
Polyembryonic varieties impart great vigour to the scion and influence the yield also. The yield
of Baneshan and Neelum was found to be better on pahutan and Goa than on any other
polyembryonic stocks in A.P.
Polyembryonic varieties of India: Bappakai, Chandrakaran, Bellary, Goa, Kurukkan, Nileswar
dwarf. Olour, Pahutan, Salem, Mazagoaon, Mylepalium and vellaikolumban. —These are
common in west coast i.e., Malabar region in west coast.
Polyembryonic varieties introduced from other countries in to India:Apricot, Simmonds,
Higgins, Pico, Sabre, Saigon, Strawberry, Cambodiana, Turpentine and Carabao.
Climate: Although, it is a tropical fruit, the mango equally grows well under semitropical
conditions. Mango can grow from sea level to an altitude of about 1500 meters provided; there is
no high humidity, rain or frost during the flowering period. However it cannot be grown on a
commercial scale in areas above 600 m. It thrives equally well from kanyakumari in south India
to sub-mountainous region in N.India. Temperature, rainfall and wind velocity are the main
climatic factors, which influence its growth and fruiting. It cannot stand severe frost, especially
when the tree is young. Mango requires a frost-free dry period at the time of flowering and
sufficient heat during the ripening of the fruit. It can grow in temperature range of 0°C to 45°C
but the minimum for growth lies above 10OC, the optimum near 25OC and the maximum at
42OC. The prevailing temperature also effects the sex expression. The percentage of perfect
flowers in some of the south Indian varieties has been observed to be much less under N. Indian
conditions. This has been attributed to low, minimum and maximum temperatures obtained
during the period of panicle development as compared to those of south India. Most of the
mango varieties thrive in places with good rainfall (75-375 cm per annum) and dry summer. The
distribution of rainfall is more important than its amount. However, rain during flowering is
detrimental to the crop as it interferes with pollination but also encourages greater incidence of
pests and diseases. Dry period before blossoming is conducive to profuse flowering. Strong
winds and cyclones during fruiting season can play havoc and blow away the crop completely.
The time of flowering is effected by the climate. In N. India flowering occurs late in February
while in S. India flowering occurs early October to December. Hence the crop is ready by March
April in A.P, Tamil Nadu and Maharastra, June-July in eastern UP; July-August in western UP
and Rajastan. Kanyakumari, receiving rainfall all through the year; resulting in multiple and
short periods of water showers and having virtually the same temperature throughout the year,
mango fruits are obtained practically all-round the year.
Soils: Mango can be grown on a wide variety of soils, ranging from alluvial to lateritic, provided
it is deep (2.0-2.5m) and well drained. Suitable pH for mango is 5.5-7.0 .A soil with good
drainage ,permeability, a fair water holding capacity and ground water at a depth 0f 3-4m are
features of an ideal soil for mango. Very poor, shallow, alkaline, rocky and calcareous soil
should be avoided.
Propagation: Mango is a highly heterozygous and cross pollinated crop. There are two types i.e.
Monoembryonic and Polyembryonic. Polyembryonic varieties can b propagated through seed
because they produce true to type seedlings where as the monoembryonic varieties need to be
propagated vegetatively.
Inarching or approach grafting is the principal method of propagation followed by veneer
grafting. Cuttings do not root successfully in open. There is limited success under constant
growth regulators. Air layering with use of growth regulators is also reported to be of some
success but did not reach commercial exploitation. Shield and patch methods of budding are
practiced in Far East countries. It is not in vogue in our country. The method most commonly
used in this country is therefore, inarching because of its high percentage of success.
Inarching has some drawbacks:
 The rootstocks have to taken to the scion tree for grafting.
 Scaffolding has to be built to hold the rootstock pots at scion level.
 The rootstock plants have to be watered individually while they are perched at various levels
and at odd places hidden in the scion tree and all these increases the cost of production of grafts
making it very cumbersome.
Several devices have been suggested to get over these difficulties:
o Grafting in rainy season, so that, the rains wet the stocks.
o Avoiding the pot of the rootstock by substituting it with grass wrapping.
o Use of grafting pot stands
o Reducing pre grafting and post grafting irrigation costs on the, by keeping the pots in a trench
and letting in water to irrigate them.
o Training the scion trees to low heights.
o Wrapping roots in moss or soil and covering with polythene sheet so that no watering will be
needed till union takes place
Amongst the grafting methods, the detached scion method is gaining popularity (veneer
grafting).This has the striking advantage in using the scion sticks for propagation and the twigs
from the variety to be propagated can be cut from the mother plant and taken to the rootstock
seedling growing in a nursery. The scion stick, which is procured, must be 3-4 months old. It is
found that scions ranging from 2.5 to 10 cm in length are suitable for the purpose. But the growth
of the scion is always more when bigger scion pieces are used. If necessary the scion sticks can
be stored for 6 days during April to June by wrapping them in moist paper and enclosing in an
alkaline bag without any deterioration in the percentage of success. This is a less expensive and
easy method of propagation to inarching.
Rootstocks: A full knowledge about the effect of u+sing of the species of Mangifera and other
genera of the family as rootstocks is not available. Other species of Mangifera like M.foetida and
M.odorata have been found to show promise as rootstock.
Kalaypad variety is said to be dwarfing stock and a wild mango variety
Pulima (Ceylon) is considered as prolific rootstock. Polyembryonic seedlings which are uniform
amongst themselves are recommended as rootstocks as they reduce variability due to the
rootstock. Among them Pahutan and Olour are particularly good. Clonal rootstocks have-not
been on trail but the rooting of mango cuttings and layers with hormones and its effects offer a
great scope in selection of rootstocks for mango.
Kurukkan : Salt resistant and Polyembryonic.
Olour : Vigorous rootstock
Rumani,Kalepad&Vellaikolamban : D w a r f i n g .
Moovandan and Nekkare : S a lt tolerant.
Pulima : Prolific rootstock
Planting: Planting is generally done with a ball of earth during rainy season in moderately rainy
places and on the cessation of rains in the heavy rainfall areas. There is a popular preference for
aged plants to young plants, but practically there is no difference in fruiting. The young plants
are easy to transport and to establish. Planting is done in previously dug, exposed and filled pits
of 3‘X3‘X3‘ size. Sometimes wood is also burnt in the pits. Application of nitrogen to young
plants hastens growth and before filling the pits 50 kg. of well-decomposed FYM, 2 kilograms of
super phosphate are added. If white ant problem is there 100 to 150 grams of polydol power
should be added per pit. Cow dung if applied produces too much heat and attracts white ants and
hence should not be applied where white ants are a serious problem. Manure is applied 2 months
before planting or 6 months after planting. Planting is done on a cool day and preferably in the
evenings and watered immediately and staked. While planting grafts, the graft joint or the union
should be 20 cm above the soil surface to prevent entry of disease carrying organisms in to the
graft joint.
Spacing: Old orchards are planted too densely and the trees grow tall and upright. Cultivation is
difficult. Diseases and pests are common in closely planted orchards. So, yields will be low.
Spacing depends on the spread of varieties. Spreading varieties like Peter requires more spacing
when compared to varieties like Najukpasand. Normally spacing adopted for grafts is 10 X 10 M
and for seedlings and in very fertile soils it is 12 X 12M. Generally square system of planting is
followed. The spacing adopted under high density planting is 5X3 / 5X2.5 / 4x4 / 3x2.5
2.5x2.5m. In high density planting for Manjeera and Mahamooda the spacing adopted is 4.5 X
4.5 M and for Amrapali it is 2.5 x 2.5 M.
Inter crops and Interculture: Vegetables like bhendi, cowpea, potato ,cucurbits and
leguminous crops like groundnut and bean, dwarf banana and cover crops like sesbania and
Crotalaria juncea can be raised and buried in the soil for green manuring. Often young plants
produce flowers. These are pinched of during first 3-4 years. Otherwise the vigour of the plant is
lost. Removal of weeds is required at least twice a year. Mango requires no pruning except
removal of dead, diseased and dried parts and branches arising within 3 feet above the ground
level. This will help in easy cultivation.
Irrigation: The irrigation requirements of young and non-bearing trees are different from those
of bearing trees. During young and non-bearing period speedy growth of the trees and
expeditious development of their leaf canopy are the chief objectives to be achieved. This would
require more frequent irrigations through ought the year than for the bearing trees. The newly
planted young plants up to their first 4-6 months should secure irrigations twice in a week in hot
weather. For the first 4-5 years, the irrigations must be frequent and regular though of light
intensity because the root spread in the initial years are not very extensive. During rainy season,
the interval may be adjusted keeping in view the intensity and distribution of rainfall. In bearing
trees 2-3 months preceding flowering season, i.e., during October- December profuse irrigation
is not advisable to induce flowering and to arrest vegetative growth. Irrigation may be beneficial
from February to June. This stop the fruit drop and helps in development of fruit size. When the
trees are in full bearing stage, generally 2-3 irrigations are given between fruit set and fruit
development. It is better to avoid irrigations before harvesting for better quality of the fruit.
Basin system of irrigation is generally followed to economize water. The basins may be
connected in series or to a channel dug in-between rows.
Manuring: Mango orchards are not generally manured. But if manured, the yield will be more.
The chief requirements during pre-bearing age are rapid growth and the development of strong
framework. Good cropping, regular bearing and high fruit quality are the prime objectives of
bearing trees. For non-bearing trees liberal doses of Nitrogen, phosphorous and reasonable
amounts of potassium are to be applied. During non-bearing stage nitrogen is particularly needed
in heavy quantities to support healthy and fast growth. It would be advantageous to apply
substantial portion of nitrogen in the form of organic matter, so that the texture of the soil, its
moisture holding capacity and ultimately the development of roots there in may be improved.
Phosphorous is needed for the development of roots, respiration and translocation of
carbohydrates. Application of potassium will help in development of fruit, increases fruit quality
and control of fruit drop. During bearing age the manurial programme aims to secure sufficient
vegetative growth early in the season for the next year‘s growth and to ensure regular bearing
with superior quality. This can be achieved by heavy dose of nitrogen a little earlier than
flowering in the on year to initiate vegetative growth and suppression of bud differentiation. So,
that cropping in the ‗on‘ year is reduced and the production of vegetative shoots is promoted.
Mango manuring is therefore, quite complicated problem and grower has to keep in view all
factors involved to get good results.
Manurial schedule:
Age of the plant FYM
(Kg)
Nitrogen
(grams/plant)
Phosphorous
(grams/plant)
Potash
(grams/plant)
1-3 years 5-20 50-100 40-80 100-2004-6 years 25-50 100-200 80-100 200-400
7-9 years 60-90 200-250 120-160 400-600
10 years and
above
100 250 160 600
The manures and fertilizers are applied in a shallow ring dug around the base of the tree in young
orchards. In old bearing orchards, they are broadcasted under the canopy of the plant leaving 30-
60 cm from the trunk and thoroughly mixed into the soil.
In grown up orchards there is a prevalence of different timings of fertilizers application in
various regions of the country depending upon the intensity and period of rainfall, fruiting
period, periods of vegetative flushes, irrigation facilities etc.,. In A.P. the manures and fertilizers
are applied in two split doses. First dose is given during June-July, consisting of complete
Nitrogen with half potash at the onset of monsoon. The second dose is applied during
September-October with FYM, super phosphate and remaining half of potash.
Foliar application: Promotes growth, improves fruit set, yield and quality. Foliar spray is given
immediately after the harvest of the crop—urea @ 1-2% and another after flowering and at
marble stage to improve fruit set and to reduce fruit drop.
Training: The training of mango plants in the initial stages is very essential to give them proper
shape.Specially, when the graft has branched too low, the process of training becomes very
important. At least 75cm of the main stem should be kept free from branching and the first leader
of main branch should be allowed after that. The main branches should be spaced in such a way
that they grow in different directions and are at least 20-25cm apart. Otherwise there is every
chance of breakage due to smaller crotch angles and heavy top.
Pruning: Proper pruning of mango trees after the harvest gives the best results in terms of
disease and pest management, diversion of food materials to the productive shoots, increased
photosynthetic activity and increased carbohydrate and starch content, early production of new
flush that bear the crop in the next season. Pruning
11
also helps in increased cytokinin, Ascorbic acid and auxin content, which is beneficial for
flowering. Abscissic acid level will also increase which inhibits the vegetative growth and
promote flowering. Thus pruning helps in obtaining regular fruiting and production of quality
fruits. After giving a rest period of 15-20 days after harvesting, pruning has to be taken up.
The details of pruning are:
 Remove all the old inflorescences that flowered during the previous season.
This encourages the production of new vegetative flushes early in the season,
which can mature in winter and flower in the succeeding season.
 Remove all the lower branches, which are expected to touch the ground due
to weight of fruits in the ensuing season. This facilitates easy operation under
the tree.
 Prune all the diseased, dead and broken branches and twigs.
 Remove all the unfruitful branches and shoots that are lying inside the canopy
to facilitate free circulation of air and to allow sunlight. These branches and
twigs if not removed will harbour the pests like fruit borers, webbers, leaf
miners and diseases like anthracnose, bacterial spots, powdery mildew, black
band, pestalotia and red rust.
 Incase of aged trees the top has to be opened by pruning the central stem at
the top. A small branch on eastern and western side may be pruned to allow
sun light into tree canopy and for proper ventilation.
 Spray the trees after pruning thoroughly with 1% Bordeaux mixture or with
0.3% copper oxychloride as a prophylactic spray to control several diseases.
 Paste all the cut ends with 10% Bordeaux paste or with Copper oxy chloride
paste. Collect the pruned parts and destroy by burning.
Problems in mango cultivation:
Alternate (Biennial) and Irregular bearing in Mango: It is a burning problem in mango
industry since; it renders cultivation of mango less remunerative to the growers. When the
mango tree bears heavy crop, the bearing season is called ‗on‟ year. When it bears a poor or
lean or no crop, the season is called ‗off‟ year. In both the years the mango grower is at a loss.
In the ‗on‟ year there is abundant fruiting and the market is flooded with fruits and the prices
fall down. In the off year, there is scarcity of fruits for supply to market, prices are highly
remunerative but the grower has a very little or no fruits to supply to the market. Most of the
promising varieties like dashehari, Langda, Mulgoa,Kesar etc. are prone to this malady.
In some instances, however, failure to crop in one year is not followed by normal crop. Instead,
two or more bad years succeeds before a good cropping year occurs again. Thus, the rhythm of
bearing is not strictly alternate but irregular and erratic.
12
The non-bearing intervals seem to be longer in neglected orchards and old ones, while in good
orchard it tends to appear a biennial bearing or alternate bearing.
Causes:
1. The habit of bearing heavy and poor or no crop in alternate years is believed to be an inherent
character because some varieties, viz., Fazil, Neelum, and Bangalora are regular bearers.
The maturity and age of trees and seasonal vegetative growth influence and control flowering in
mango. In western India, vegetative flushes occur in February – March, March-April or
beginning of monsoon and October-November. In Bihar, new leafy growth occurs in early
spring, April-May and July-August. In U.P., vegetative growth occurs in two flushes in March-
April and July-August. In South India, vegetative growth takes place in February-June and
October-November. In Punjab, new flushes appear in April-may and August. In mango a definite
relation ship appears to exist between growth of vegetative flushes and fruit bud formation. An
early production of shoots during the first flush (February-April), and an early cessation of the
growth in the season seem to be conducive to regular bearing in mango. But in several old and
neglected orchards the tree bearing heavily in a year put forth little or no vegetative growth
during flowering to fruit maturity, and as such no fruiting wood is available for the following
year, which consequently, turns out to be an off year for cropping. Generally 8-10 month old
mature shoots produced in spring and early summer that cease to grow at least 4 months prior to
blossoming season will initiate flowering. Thus the spring and summer shoots get sufficient time
to grow rest and mature for producing flowers but later formed shoots fail to achieve this
physiological maturity. However, in regular bearing varieties, eg., Rumani, even in December
emerged shoots are capable of producing flowers to the extent of 83% only and 15% of these
flowered in next year. This indicates that a vast majority of vegetative non-flowering shoots
produced, though correct in stage of maturity, were lacking in vital substance necessary to induce
flower buds. Thus this hypothesis doesn‘t hold good for biennial bearing.
2. It is also contended that irregular bearing in mango was caused by nutritional deficiency
especially Nitrogen. A proportionate increase in nitrogen leads to vegetative growth, whereas its
proportionate decrease induces flowering. Higher starch reserves, total carbohydrates and C: N
ratio favour flower bud formation but not in Baramasi and regular bearing varieties. Studies on
nitrogen content in stems and leaves of different cultivars indicated possibility of high no. of
trees to flower, but no correlation between flower bud initiation and total nitrogen could be 13
derived. Thus C: N ratio reserve, though playing an important role in flowering, is not the
primary cause of biennial bearing.
3. Higher level of auxin like substances and an inhibitor (similar to ABA) and lower levels of
gibberellins (GA3) like substances are vital for floriferous shoot in mango.
4. The varieties that produce mostly terminal inflorescence and only few axillary types of flower
clusters are more markedly biennial bearers; while those varieties which produce a greater
percentage of axillary inflorescence are moderately regular bearing. Unfortunately, most of our
good dessert varieties are biennial bearers.
5. Adverse climatic factors such as cloudy weather, rains, high humidity, convert an ‗on‘ year in
to an ‗off‘ year by promoting incidence mango hoppers and diseases like powdery mildew and
anthracnose etc., especially during flowering, preventing pollination and damaging the floral
parts. Frost and low temperatures during flowering adversely affect fruit set there by turning an
‗on‘ year in to ‗off‘ year. However, these don‘t form basic causes of biennial bearing. In view of
the above various possible factors associated with this problem can be grouped as—internal
factors and external factors.
Internal factors: Physiological, genetical, nutritional, sex ratio and hormonal imbalance.
External factors: Rain, wind, low temperatures, cloudy weather, light, pests and
diseases.
Suggested measures to overcome alternate bearing:
 Planting of varieties which are regular bearers Eg., Totapuri, Rumani, Banglora, Neelum,
Mallika, Amrapali and Ratna.
 Plough and harrow the orchard twice in a year, in the beginning of the monsoon after harvest
and in October.
 Apply the fertilizers as per recommended schedule.
 After the harvest of the crop, dead and diseased branches and the Loranthus
parasite should be cut off and removed.
 Deblossoming: Half the no. of flower clusters are removed from the tree in the on year as
soon as they emerge. The food reserves of these deblossomed shoots would be utilized by the
tree in producing vegetative growths in the spring and summer and mature to produce.
 Ringing: A ring of bark of about 1.25cm wide is removed from branches of about 15 cm
thicknesses. Ringing causes concentration of large amount of carbohydrates in the branch above
the ring and it would put forth blossoms instead of vegetative growth. Ringing has to be done in
month of August. This is not advisable as it devitalizes the tree and should not be followed as a
regular practice.
 Over vigorous trees may be subjected to induce rest by withholding irrigation with good
exposure to sunlight. Application of common salt @ 2.5 kg. Per tree in September checks
vegetative growth causing accumulation of carbohydrates for induction of flowering. This is
practiced in over-vigorous trees and not on weak trees.
 Pruning: Proper pruning of mango trees after the harvest gives the best results in terms of
disease and pest management, diversion of food materials to the productive shoots, increased
photosynthetic activity and increased carbohydrate and starch content, early production of new
flush that bear the crop in the next season. Pruning also helps in increased cytokinin content,
Ascorbic acid and auxin, which was beneficial for flowering. Abscissic acid level will also
increase which inhibits the vegetative growth and promoted flowering. Thus pruning helps in
obtaining regular fruiting and production of quality fruits.
 Smudging during October-December is reported to be useful in forcing Mango to flower with
limited practical utility.
 Hybridization: By crossing good quality variety with regular bearing varieties may be helpful
in inducing regular bearing tendency in to the hybrid. Eg. Mallika and Neeleshan.
 Providing orchards with wind breaks, regular ploughing, and liberal manuring at appropriate
intervals and adequate irrigation and other cultural practices are also recommended for regular
bearing.
 Spraying Ethrel during October at 200 ppm at 20 days interval till flowering appears.
 Spraying 1% urea immediately after harvest of fruits in rain fed orchards and prophylactic
sprays against mango hopper during September- October, also helps in regularity in bearing.
 Application of growth retardants like Placlobutrazol (Cultar) especially in areas like Konkan
where the climate is hot and humid which results in continuous vegetative growth, inhibits the
growth promoting gibberellins within the tree with the result that vegetative growth gets
restricted and trees put forth regular flowering.
Mango malformation: It is a complex and serious malady in North India and not so common in
South India. Some varieties like Chausa, Bombay green and Fajri jafrani are more susceptible
than others in N. India. This malady has been distinguished into two groups i.e., vegetative
malformation and Floral malformation.
Vegetative malformation is more pronounced in young plants. Affected mango seedlings or
young plants develop excessive vegetative branches which have limited growth, swollen and
with very short internodes and develop abnormally compact rosette like shoots presenting a
bunchy top appearance.
15
Floral malformation: The affected inflorescence becomes clustered and round. Most of the
flowers lack essential organs and don‘t set fruit and its inflorescence continuously hang on the
tree for months, being more green and sturdy.
Causes: Various causes like nutritional disorders, physiological, viral, fungal and acarological
are reported. The available literature doesn‘t appear to support the above causes except the
fungal; the only positive evidence for the cause of this is fungal origin. I.e., Fusarium
moniliforis.
Control measures:
a. Destruct the infected small plant or plant parts
b. Spraying a fungicide like Captan @ 3grams or Bavistin @ 1gram / litre of water
c. Remove the affected parts by pruning 30cms below and paste with Bordeaux paste.
d. Early deblossoming combined with NAA 20ppm spray during October also reduces this
considerably.
e. Bhardhan variety of U.P. is resistant and free from this infestation.
Spongy tissue: A non-edible patch of flesh develops in the mesocarp of the fruit and becomes
spongy, sour and yellowish is termed as spongy tissue. This can be detected only after cutting
the ripe fruit. It is a physiological disorder in which the fruit pulp remains unripe because of
unhydrolised starch due to inactivation of ripening enzyme because of high temperature,
convective heat, and post harvest exposure to sunlight are the causes.
Alphonso variety is very susceptible to this spongy tissue.
Remedial measures:
 Sod culture and mulching are useful in reducing spongy tissue.
 Growing mango hybrids Ratna and Arka Puneet, which are free from this problem.
 Harvesting fruits when they are three fourths matured rather than fully matured ones also
reduces this malady.
Fruit Drop: Fruit drop is serious problem in mango and cause great loss to the growers. A tree
producing several thousand panicles yields only a few hundred fruits. Most of the flowers falling
down after full bloom or at later stage of development. Only 0.1 to 0.25% perfect flowers or even
less develop in to mature fruit. Fruits drop at all stages of maturity. Maximum fruit drop takes
place in last week of April or first week of May depends upon favourable condition. The fruit
drop can be divided in to three distinct phases eg., pin head drop, post setting drop and May
drop. The flower drop as well as the fruit drop is primarily due to the formation of an abscission
layer at the point of attachment of the fruit with the twig. Several factors
16
have been considered responsible for the formation of abscission layer. The causes can be
divided in to two;
External causes:
 Unfavourable climatic conditions.
 High incidence of serious diseases like powery mildew and anthracnose
and pests like hoppers and mealy bugs.
Internal causes:
 Poor soil
 Lack of pollination
 Low stigmatic receptivity
 Defective perfect flowers
 Poor pollen transference
 Occurrence and extent of self incompatibility.
 Abortion of embryo
 Degeneration of ovules.
 Competition between developing fruit lets.
 Drought / lack of irrigation.
Measures to prevent fruit drop:
 Spraying of 2, 4-D @ 10 ppm or NAA @ 50 ppm at pea stage and at marble stage helps in
preventing fruit drop.
 Providing pollenisers for self incompatible types.
 Maintaining sufficient soil moisture also prevents fruit drop and helps in increasing the size of
the fruit.
 Provision of wind beaks all around the orchards, which prevents drop due to high velocity
winds at the time of fruit development.
Cropping: Grafted mango usually starts bearing from the 4th to 6th year after planting. The
precocious varieties like dasehari start bearing even from the third or fourth year onwards. A
grafted mango tree usually continue to bear till up to 50 years, but its most prolific years of
bearing are generally from the 10 to 14 years. Seedling trees usually take about 8 years to come
to bearing but their productive life is much longer.
Harvesting indices: It requires considerable experience to judge the stage of maturity at which
the fruits are to be picked. If the fruits are harvested at an immature stage, they develop white
patches and the normal TSS / Acid ratio is also not obtained. On the other hand, if the fruits are
harvested when over mature or fully ripe, more microbial and physiological spoilage occurs due
to increased susceptibility of fruits, thus reduces the shelf life of fruits. The correct stage of
harvesting of fruits can be judged in several ways.
17
 Attainment of full size of a variety is indicated by stoppage of increase in size and flesh
becomes soft.
 Appearance of bloom (Whitish waxy layer), characteristic colour or spots on the skin and
development of typical flavour of a variety are also important indications of maturity.
 When a few ripe fruits have fallen on their own accord from the tree, the rest of the fruits are
considered sufficiently mature.
 The sap which exudes at the stem end on picking a mature fruit is thick and dries quickly.
 If the fruit sinks in water, if it is dropped in to water indicates its maturity.
 Specific gravity, TSS and pressure tests are also employed for testing the maturity of fruits.
Generally a specific gravity of 1.01 and 1.02. TSS of 12 to 15 % and a pressure of 1.75 -2.0 kg.
Per sq. cm will give a fair index of maturity.
 In some varieties, oil glands on skin of the fruit become distinctly clear.
 Measurement of the percentage of the starch in the flesh is found to be a comparatively
accurate method for judging the maturity of the fruit.
 For judging the maturity, the physical development of the fruit such as rounding of ventral
edge, development of beak, outgrowing of shoulders, filling up of hollow at the stem end,
broadening of apical end should also be considered for judging the maturity of the fruit. For
judging the maturity of the fruits one should not rely only on one criterion but should consider as
many criteria as possible.
Harvesting of fruits: The fruit injured or even slightly bruised during the picking operation
losses its keeping quality and becomes unfit for dispatch to distant markets. The usual practice of
harvesting the fruits is knocking down the fruits or shaking the trees violently to get the fruit
down need to be discouraged. If the fruit is hanging high, it should be picked up with the help of
a step ladder. In no case, the picker should climb up the tree as this practice is harmful both for
the tree and the picker. The fruits should always be harvested and the harvested fruits are placed
in canvass bags or padded baskets and carried to the packing house. A small fruit stalk should be
kept with the fruit at the time of harvesting helps in keeping the fruits in better condition in
transportation and storage.
Yield: The yield of mango depends on no. of factors like age of the plant, soil fertility, climatic
conditions, variety, type of plant material like graft or seedling, management of the orchard etc.
A mango tree having an age of 5 years bears about 200 fruits and 10-20 years bears a crop of
500-1000 fruits during an ―on‖ year. During 20-40 years its yield may range between 1000-
3000 fruits.

Lecture 3. Production technology of Banana, origin – importance –climate-soils – varieties –

planting – land preparation –system of planting – spacing – digging of pits – filling of pits –
application of manures – seasons of planting – intercultivation –desuckering – trashing –
mattocking – wrapping of bunches – removal of male bud – removal of floral remnants –
propping – earthing up – weeding - harvesting – maturity indices – yield.

BANANA
Botanical name: Musa spp. Family: Musaceae
Origin: Tropical regions of South East Asia (Assam, Burma, Indo-China region).
Banana is one of the oldest fruits known to mankind. Its antiquity can be traced back to Garden
of paradise where eve was said to have used its leaves to cover her modesty. It may be one of the
reasons why banana is called ‗Apple of Paradise and botanically named Musa paradisiaca.
Banana plants refer to Biblical legend as ―Tree of wisdom‖ for good and evil in the Garden of
Eden. The word Muza was derived from the Arabic term Muza, which probably came from the
Sanskrit, word Moka and got its place in Koran as the ―Tree of paradise,similar to that of
―tree of wisdom in Bible.
Importance: Every part of the plant has a ready use.
The ripe fruits are delicious and are used for table purpose.
The fruits of some cultivars are used as breakfast food after steaming.
The end of the inflorescence, technically known as pendant is cooked as a vegetable.
Many products are made from banana such as banana chips, fig, soft drink, flour and jam.
Banana flour is prepared from unripe fruits and banana powder from ripe fruits.
Starch is manufactured from pseudo stem.
The pseudo stems of banana of all types have been used for manufacturing paperboards.
In South India, the leaf of Banana is used as a plate for serving meals.
The sheaths and leaves are used for making crude ropes.
The banana species Musa textiles is well known for their strong fibre.
Nutritional Value:
a) Banana is a good source of vitamin A and a fair source of VitaminCand B2
b) Banana fruits are rich source of minerals like magnesium, sodium, potassium and
phosphorous and fair source of calcium and iron.
Banana is the second largest produced fruit after mango in India accounting for 21.87 per cent of
the total fruit production from 10.49 per cent of the area.
Varieties: In banana there are three types. They are table varieties, culinary types and hill
bananas. There are several varieties in banana but the commercially important varies are-
Table varieties -Poovan, dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Grand nine, Rasthali,Grosmichel,
Virupakshi, Nendran,Monthan.
Culinary varieties: Monthan. There are also other varieties like Yenugu bontha and boodidha
bontha belonging to this group.
Hill Bananas: Virupakhi (Syn: Sirumalai, and Mala Vazhai.)
Climate: The banana is strictly a tropical crop. It grows luxuriantly in the warm, humid and
rainy climate of tropical regions of the equator. It grows well in regions with a temperature range
of 10-40°C and an average of 23°C. In cooler climate the duration is extended, sucker production
is affected and bunches are small. Low temperature i.e. less than 10°C is unsuitable since, they
lead to a condition called choke or impeded inflorescence and bunch development. Banana
grows well under high rainfall areas .On an average 100 mm rainfall per month appears to be
satisfactory for growth of banana. Hot winds blowing in high speed during the summer months
shred and desiccate the leaves. Stagnation of water is injurious and may cause diseases like
panama wilt. Banana comes up well up to an altitude of 1500m above sea level in the tropics.
The hill bananas in Tamilnadu are raised between elevations of 500-1500m mostly under rain fed
conditions. Absence of strong winds and cyclones are important.
Soils: Banana is voracious feeder and requires a well-drained soil with plentiful organic matter.
Even though banana requires heavy irrigation, it cannot with stand water stagnation. Therefore,
the soil should be well drained and deep (At least 1m depth).It grows successfully in loamy soils,
well drained clay soils of delta areas, irrigated medium soils. The production in lighter soils is
good. Saline soils with salinity percentage exceeding 0.05 are unsuitable. Banana can grow well
even under slightly alkaline soils. Such soils are found preferable for avoiding the wilt disease,
which is known to be severe in acid soils.
Propagation: Banana is propagated vegetaively through suckers and rhizomes.
Suckers: There are two types of suckers. 1) Water sucker 2) Sword sucker.
Water sucker: Have broad leaves and broad pseudostem and they don‘t produce a healthy
banana clump and hence not suitable for planting.
Sword sucker: It has a strong large base, gradually tapering to a slender point with one or two
narrow sword like leaves at the tip. The sword sucker is most vigorous, grows fast and comes in
to bearing early. Hence, sword suckers are preferred for planting.
Rhizomes: After harvest, a number of its suckers are encouraged to grow up to 1-2 feet. They
are then dug out and their pseudostems are completely cut above the solid rhizome and roots
removed. The rhizomes weighing about 450-900 grams are stored for two months in a dry place
under shade. During storing the bottom remains cut off leaving the heart bud prominent at the
top of the rhizome. The conical rhizomes, which have a sound heart, will be selected for
planting. Sometimes the rhizomes are cut in bits of 1 kilogram and are used for planting.
Selection of sucker: Select only 3-4 months old suckers from healthy vigorously growing and
good yielding plants. The sword suckers should have 4-5” diameter at the base and 2-3 kg
weight.
Preparation of the sucker: The selected suckers should be separated from its mother plant
along with a portion of a rhizome. Later, the stem of the suckers should be beheaded at 20-30 cm
height in a slanting manner. This helps in producing new leaves quickly. The slanting cut also
prevents the stagnation of water in the sucker. The old roots should be removed and then dipped
in 0.1% cereson @ 1 g.per litre of water for 5 minutes before planting.
Land preparation: The land should be deeply ploughed, harrowed and leveled and pits of
45cmx45cmx45cm should be dug at the required spacing. The pits should be exposed for
weathering for about a week to control the presence of any grubs, ants, weevils etc. The soil from
the pits should be mixed with the following thoroughly.
5-10 kg of FYM
0.5 kg of castor or neem cake
2 kg of wood ash or 50 grams of muriate of potash
200 grams of super phosphate.
The pits are then filled with the above-manured soil thoroughly. While filling the pits with the
manured soil apply to the pit 50 grams of lindane dust to control weevil which affects the
rhizome or sucker in the soil. The sword suckers are later planted straight in the pit along with a
portion of rhizome at a depth of 10-15cm.
Planting: The period of planting should be such that the active growth phase of the plant may
continue un-hampered during the flower bud initiation stage or stage at which embryonic bunch
is formed inside the pseudostem. This generally occurs between 4 and 5 months after planting.
This stage determines the no. of hands / fingers in future bunch after planting. At this stage there
should be any extreme cold or hot weather or lack of soil moisture or lack of nutrients in the soil.
June-July (On set of monsoon) is the planting season.
In general the beginning of monsoon i.e. June is the best time for planting banana in most parts,
as the rapid growth during first 4 months of monsoon is particularly helpful. In the heavy rainfall
tracts like Malabar planting is done after the cessation of monsoon from September to October.
This also makes the plants quite small during the expected periods of high winds, storms and
cyclones etc.
Spacing: The spacing varies greatly according to the variety and climate.
Variety Spacing Meters) No. Of plants/ha.
Poovan, Monthan, Rasthali & Nendran 2.1X2.1 2150
Dwarf Cavendish 1.8X 1.8 3000
Robusta 1.8X 1.8 3000
Nendran 2.0X 2.0 2500
2.4X 3.0 1350
Hill bananas 4.8X 3.0 670
4.8X 4.8 420

Cultural operations in Banana:

Desuckering: During the growth of the mother plant, the suckers arise from its rhizomes from
time to time. If all these suckers are allowed to grow, the mother plant looses its vigour and
normal development resulting in lower bunch weight and total yield. Therefore the suckers
should not be allowed to grow near the parent plant till the mother plant commences flowering.
At flowering (six months after planting), a vigorous growing sword sucker should be allowed to
grow and one more sucker is encouraged to shoot out from the soil when the parent plant
matures its fruits. Thus the parent plant has completed its life, it has only two suckers. When the
mother plant is harvested and removed, the first sucker which is 6 months old takes the lead and
becomes the mother plant in the next generation and thus the successive generations of suckers
arising one after the other at 6 months interval perpetuate. Removal of all suckers up to
flowering of mother plant and maintaining only one follower afterwards is the best desuckering
practice. However under high density planting it is better to leave the follower after harvesting
75-80% of the plant crop so that uniform cultural practices can be followed. It has been observed
that sucker removal had no effect on yield in the first harvest, but yield in the second harvest was
highest in plants left with one sucker followed by plants left with 2 or 3 suckers and was lowest
in plants without removal of suckers.
Desuckering or pruning is the removal of unwanted suckers. It is done by either cutting off the
sucker or the heart may be destroyed without detaching the sucker from the parent plant.
Sometimes kerosene is poured into the cavity left after digging the sucker. In South India, crow
bar with a chisel like end is used for damaging the sucker.
Trashing: It is the removal of undesirable material from the banana field like dried, diseased and
decayed leaves, pseudo stem after harvest, male bud, last end of inflorescence and withered
floral parts.
Mattocking: After harvest of the bunch, the plant stem should be cut in stages at least after 30-
45 days to facilitate mobilization of the nutrients from the mother to the developing ratoon plant.
The pseudo stem should be cut leaving a stump of about 0.6 m height.
Wrapping of bunches: It is covering of bunches with polythene or gunny cloth that protects the
fruits from intense heat, hot wind etc. and improves the colour of the fruits.
Tipping: It is the removal of heart or male bud. The large heart shaped flower bud, contains
infertile male flowers in reddish scale leaves. This heart flower bud persists even after the fertile
flowers have developed and formed in to a bunch. It should be cut soon after the bunch is
formed, otherwise it is likely to use up some of the food, which would otherwise go to the
development of fruits. It is a practice recommended for improving the appearance of the bunch
as well as to ward off ‗ fingertip‘disease.
Removal of floral remnants: The removal of dried and persistent floral remnants present at the
apex of the fruit or finger helps in preventing the spread of fungal diseases. These floral
remnants provide shelter to some of the fungal spores.
Propping: It is a method by which support is given to banana bearing plants with the help of
bamboo, casuarinas or eucalyptus poles, protecting them from bending or falling down due to
heavy bunch load and from heavy damage by wind. It is very essential for tall varieties.
Earthing up: It should be done during the rainy season to provide drainage and to avoid water
logging at the base. It is to be done once in 2 or 3 months to prevent soil erosion from the basins
and to avoid direct contact of water with pseudo stem. Due to earthing up there are fair chances
of formation of good root system. It is better that whole rows of banana are strongly ridged up
about 10‖ high.
Weeding: In the first four months after planting, it is necessary to remove weeds. The stirring of
the soil by the spade after every 6 or 7 irrigations is necessary to maintain its tilth and absorptive
power. Weeds can also be checked by the use of herbicides. Diuron @ 4 kg per hectare and
simazine @ 6kgper hectare control grasses and broad leaved weeds when applied after planting
and repeated 30 days after planting. Glyphosate @ 1 kg a.i. per hectare at the time of planting
followed by 0.5 kg a.i. per hectare at 30 and 60 days after planting of suckers is recommended.
Banana is sensitive to 2, 4-D and hence the phenoxy compounds are not used.
Nutrient sprays: Spraying of a mixture containing 2% urea and potassium Dihydrogen
phosphate immediately after the emergence of inflorescence stalk helps in increasing the size of
the bunch and fruit content.
Cropping: Banana fruits develop parthenocarpically. Banana comes to flowering in about 9
months after planting. The dwarf bananas are ready for harvest within 11- 14 months after
planting, while tall cultivars take about 14-16 months to harvest. The fruits become ready in 3-4
months after flowering. Dwarf Cavendish variety takes about 11 months, Robusta 12 months and
poovan about 13 months from planting to harvesting. Banana is categorized as climacteric fruit.
Fruits don‘t ripe early and uniformly on the plant.
The maturity standards of banana fruit, although vary with the variety and the purpose of
marketing, can be judged by physical characters as well as by chemical analysis. The physical
characters like colour, shape, size and the ratio between consumable to non-consumable portions
are taken in to consideration. The total period required from planting to first harvesting is also
taken into consideration for harvesting of the bunch. In India the main banana season is from
September to April.
The indications of maturity for harvesting are:
 The fruits are harvested when top leaves start drying.
 Change in colour of the fruit from deep green to light green.
 Tendency of floral ends of the fruits to shed with slightest touch of the hand.
 Fruits should be plump and their angles should have rounded off i.e.; after the attainment of ¾
th full stage before the bunch is harvested. For export purpose, three fourths of the full maturity
stage (recognized by the sharp angularities of the fingers) is considered to harvest. At this stage,
the dwarf Cavendish shows a pulp-skin ratio of 35:1 or 40:1.
The entire bunch is harvested with one-foot long stalk. After 15 minutes of harvest, when the
latex flow ceases, the bunch should be packed properly and should not be allowed to come in
contact with soil.
Yield: Yield of banana varies with variety, agro climatic situation and management practices
adopted for production. Under Indian condition, varying yield between 15- 40 tonnes per hectare
has been reported.
Tall cultivars usually yield 15-20 tonnes /ha. Dwarf varieties are 30-40 tonnes per hectare.
Lecture 4. Production technology of Citrus – origin – importance -different citrus
species – climate – soils – varieties of different citrus fruits – sweet orange –propagation –
different methods of propagation adopted in different citrus fruits also commercial method
adopted – planting – land preparation – method of planting – spacing – digging of pits – filling of
pits – application of manures – season of planting – irrigation – manuring – pruning and training
– intercultivation – intercropping – flowering – bahar treatment – cropping – fruit drop – causes
and control – harvesting – maturity indices – yield

CITRUS
Botanical Name: Citrus sps. Family: Rutaceae
Origin: Tropical and Subtropical regions of south East Asia. Citrus fruits are a group of fruits
comprising of mandarins, sweet oranges, grape fruit, limes and lemons etc., Citrus fruits have a
prominent place among popular, extensively grown tropical and subtropical fruits. In India citrus
is considered to be the third most important fruit crop. Citrus fruits possess juice sacks. Unlike
other fruits they lack firm pulp.Mostly citrus fruits are consumed as fresh fruits particularly
sweet oranges,mandarinsand grape fruit. Citrus fruits are not only delicious and refreshing but
also they provide vitamins, minerals and many other substances. Citrus fruits contain
considerable amounts of Vitamin C. Fruits are also good source of Vitamin and P.The mild
bitterness in juice is due to the presence of glucoside called Naringin which is said to have a
medicinal value. The rind of the citrus fruits is rich in pectin and essential oils.
Important citrus species: There are several citrus fruits in the world. Some are ancient ones and
some are recent ones. Citrus species readily crosses with each other .so new types are coming up
from time to time. There are 16 species in the genus Citrus as per Swingle (1943) and 144
species as per Tanaka (1950).Hence classification of the kinds and varieties are complicated.
An abundance of locally used names and changing botanical nomenclature also hinders distinct
classification.
Important Citrus Species:
1. Sweet orange Citrus sinensis
2. Mandarin Orange Citrus reticulata
3 Acid lime Citrus aurantifolia
4. Lemon Citrus limon
5 Grape fruit Citrus paradisi
6 Pummelo Citrus grandis
7. Citron Citrus medica
8. Sweet lime Citrus limettoides
9 Gaganimma Citrus pennivesiculata
25
10 Vadlapudi Orange Citrus madaraspatana
11. Sour Orange Citrus aurantium
12 Rough lemon Citrus jamberi
13 Rangapur Lime Citrus limonia
Important citrus cultivars grown in India:
(1)Sweet Orange: More than half a dozen varieties are cultivated. Among them the important
ones are-Sathgudi, Mosambi and Batavian. The other varieties of Sweet Orange are-Malta, Malta
Blood Red, Jaffa, Hamlin, Washington Navel Orange and Pineapple.
(2)Mandarin Oranges: The important commercially grown varieties are- Nagapur Mandarin,
Coorg Mandarin, Khasi Orange, Kinnow Mandarin Kinnow Mandarin is a hybrid between King
Mandarin (C.nobilis) and willow leaf Mandarin (C.deliciosa).
The other varieties are- Ponkan, Satsuma Mandarin, Dancy Tangarin, Darjeeling or
Sikkim Orange and Cleopatra Mandarin.
(3)Limes and Lemons: These are acid fruits. Generally employed for preparing drinks.
Limes-These include Acid lime, Key lime, Mexican Lime, Tahiti lime, Sweet lime, Coorg lime
and Rangapur lime and sour lime. Among them the mostly cultivated one is acid lime. The
important varieties of acid lime are -Vikram, Pramalini, Chakradhar, Balaji etc.
Lemons: Often confused with limes. These are grown in small scale in pockets. In this there are
two types. They are seeded and seedless.
Seed Varieties-Lisbon, Villa Franca, Eureka, Nepali Round, Nepali Oblong and Rajhamundry.
Seedless Varieties- Malta, Lucknow and Italian.
Climate:
The sub-tropical climate is the best suited for citrus growth and development. Temperature
below - 40C is harmful for the young plants. Soil temperature around 250C seems to be optimum
for root growth. Dry and arid conditions coupled with well defined summer having low rainfall
(ranging from 75cm to 250 cm) are most favourable for the growth of the crop. High humidity
favours spread of many diseases. Frost is highly injurious. Hot wind during summer results in
desiccation and drop of flowers and young fruits. Darjeeling Mandarin (Khasi Orange type)
grows in altitude upto 2000m as it is adapted to a cooler climate
Soil:
26
Citrus can grow well in wide range of soils. Soil properties like soil reaction, soil fertility,
drainage, free lime and salt concentrations, etc. are some important factors that determine the
success of citrus plantation. Citrus fruits flourish well on light soils with a good drainage. Deep
soils with pH range of 5.5 to 7.5 are considered good. However, they can grow in pH range of 4
to 9. Presence of calcium carbonate concentration within feeding zone may adversely affect the
growth. Light loam on heavier but well drained sub-soils appears to be ideal for citrus.
Propagation: Seeds exhibit 45-90% polyembryony.The seedlings are comparatively more free
from decline and other virus diseases which are not transmitted through seed. Yet the yields are
not good compared to budded plants on account of the beneficial responses of the root stock
viz.,earliness,high yield and adaptability to the environment and soil, good quality, resistance to
diseases and pests. Vegetative propagation methods like budding are practiced. Shield budding
or Tbudding is practiced all over the world. The varieties to be propagated should be well known
for their good performance and free from diseases. The root stock should be compatible with the
scions and well adapted to the soils of the regions where tress are intended to be grown.
Rootstocks: The stock and scion must be compatible and should be capable of producing long
lived, productive trees. The influence of the most important and widely used root stocks and their
characteristics should be known to the grower for choosing the right kind of stock for the
locality.
The most commonly used stocks for sweet orange as well as mandarins in India are Jamberi
(Rough Lemon) and Karna Khatta.
The following rootstocks have been tried to study their influence.
1. Jamberi: With more number of seeds, high percentage of germination and polyembryony is a
vigorous stock for Sathgudi. The tree top is oval. Fruits are large, rind is rough and thick and
juice is insipid. Morality is very high due to quick decline or other diseases out of use.
2. Gajanimma: It has all the good nursery characters of Jamberi and has a prolific but is
susceptible to gummosis and collar rot resulting in high mortality and hence disordered.
3. Trifoliate Orange: It is the hardiest root stock and does well in forestry areas. Resistant to
many virus diseases. The plant gets dwarfed on this root stock and is frost resistant.
4. Karnakhatta: It is found to be most common and satisfactory rootstock for grape fruit, for
heavy and wet soil to Punjab and U.P.
5. Sathgudi seedling: Suitable for moderately heavy soils. It gives smooth joint. The trees are
long lived being tolerant to decline. Yields are moderate. Fruits are of fine quality and good
keeping quality.
6. Rangpur lime: It is used as stock for Mosambi in Bombay region. It is a vigorous grower,
resistant to many of the virus diseases chiefly Tristeza virus. It gives high yields with fruits of
much better quality and hence recommended as stock for sweet orange.
7.Acid lime: Slow growth. Thorns make it difficult to bud. Resistant to high water table
conditions.
8. Kichili: Drought resistant. Slow growth and gives a globular tree.
9. Pummelo: It has given a dwarf tree.
10. Wood apple: Dwarfs Sathgudi very much. Reduces prebearing period,
longevity and yield but increases the sweetness of fruit.
11. Sweet Lime: It is a satisfactory stock for Nagpur Santhra with better quality and tighter skin.
Raising of root stock seedlings: - Seeds freshly extracted from mature fruits picked from
healthy, vigorous and good yielding trees are sown on raised beds during July-Aug. The slimy
substance on the seeds is removed by mixing by them with wood ash and drying them under
shade. The seeds take 20-30 days to germinate and in another month, a pair of leaves emerge.
After 3 or 4 months 60cm in height. The seedlings are transplanted late the nursery beds under
shade and spaced 20cm apart and the seedlings will be ready in a year.
Selecting bud wood: Buds should be collected from a tree or trees of the desired variety. Bud
sticks are commonly selected from the next to last growth flush (the wood behind the current
flush) and from the current growth flush after it has matured and hardened. Older growth flushes
can be used if the bark still is green. Round twigs about the size of a pencil are preferred. The
buds located in the axils of the leaves (where the leaf is attached to the wood) should be well
developed, but still dormant. After the bud wood is cut from the tree, the undesirable wood
and/or growth flush should be removed and the remaining bud wood should be trimmed to
lengths of 20-28 25 cm (8-10 inches). The leaves should be cut off leaving a stub of the petiole
3-4mm (1/8 inch) long to protect the buds. Trimmed bud sticks should be labeled and used
immediately or placed in plastic bags in a cool place. Include a moist paper towel to maintain
turgidity and freshness. The label should include the variety, date of collection and source. Bud
sticks are usually tied in bundles for ease of handling.
Budding: The seedlings are ready for budding in about a year and budding along with a chip of
wood gives good results. In mandarin the removal of wood seems to decrease the percentage of
success. Generally done winter in July or in September in South India and October and
December in North India. T-Budding or Shield budding is easy to perform. The root stock is
generally budded at a height of about 9‖.
Sweet Orange: It is propagated by Shield or T- budding. The root stocks mainly used are
Jamberi and Rangapur lime. In Andhra Pradesh mainly Rangapur lime is used as a rootstock.
Acid Lime: It is commonly propagated by seed all over the country because the seeds exhibit a
high percentage of polyembryony. The nucellar seedlings are identical with the parent in growth
and production. These seedlings are hardy compared to the budded plants. The seedlings take a
little longer time than budded plants to start bearing but soon over take them in yield. If budded,
gajanimma is a prolific stock but there is scope for the spread and transmission of diseases and
the budlings are short-lived.
Lemons, Grape Fruit and Pummelo: Italian lemon which is seedless, it is propagated by
budding on Jambheri in the Deccan region. For lemons the root stocks found suitable in Punjab
and U.P are Rough lemon and kharna Katta.Pummelo is comparatively monoembryonic and
hence budded plants of pummelo are usually raised on the root stocks of Jatti Katt, iJamberi
etc.Similar is the case of Grapefruit.Pummelo as a root stock is found compatible with grape
fruit.
Mandarins: Mandarins are largely propagated by seed all over the country except Nagapur
Santhra which is the only budded variety grown on a commercial scale around Nagapur
(Vidharba) in Maharastra producing the finest mandarins of the world.
Planting:
Preparation of the filed: The land is ploughed until a fine tilth is obtained. If it is a virgin land
all the existing vegetation should be removed along with the roots. The land is leveled and pits
are marked as per the system of planting to be adopted.
29
Lay out: The square system of layout is commonly followed for planting the citrus crop. In
order to facilitate orchard management practices economically and efficiently. Citrus trees
should be planted in straight rows.
Digging of Pits: Pits of ½m x ½ m x ½ m size may be dug at required distances 3-4 weeks prior
to planting. But where the soils are shallow or under laid with hard pan, pits of 1mx1mx1m may
be dug to facilitate better root penetration. Before planting the pits are filled with 25kg of FYM,
1kg of bone meal, 3kg of wood ash and 50g of aldrin dust powder for control of termites
Planting Season: Planting is done from July to December. In low or scarce rainfall regions,
planting should be done at the beginning of the monsoon season (June/July) so that the humid
weather helps the young plants to get established fast. In areas of high rainfall, (1000 mm and
above) planting should be done at the end of the south-west monsoon season (October-
December.)
Spacing: Spacing adopted for different citrus species are--
Sweet Orange 6-8 m
Mandarin Orange 6-8 m
Acid lime 5-6 m
Lemon 6-8 m
Pummelo 6-8 m
Grape Fruit 6-8 m
Irrigation: Sweet orange trees are much more specific in their water requirement than any other
fruit crops. Higher requirement of water is needed to produce satisfactory crop. Most of the
santra plantations in India are rain fed conditions. Irrigation requirement of santra trees in the
plains is similar to that of sweet orange, Irrigation should be given when the top of the soil goes
dry of once in 7-15 depending on the soil and weather. Irrigation water should not directly touch
the tree trunk as it spreads diseases like gummosis and the soil should not be allowed to to
get excessively dry as it results in leaf fall. Irrigation should be given immediately after
manuring.Water is very essential during blossoming and fruiting periods. Any shortage of water
during maturity periods causes shrinking of the fruit and drying up of the pulp. As the trees
advances in age the basins should be extended up to the drip of the tree.
Manures and fertilizers: In Andhra Pradesh, citrus growers apply large quantities of farmyard
manure and organic cakes (Castor, Neem, Pongamia etc) to improve soil structure and to create
favourable conditions for healthy growth. Further, to meet the high demands for nutrients and to
maintain plant productivity, organic manures are 30 supplemented with chemical fertilizers. The
fertilizer schedule recommended for Andhra Pradesh is
Age of Plant Sathgudi Acid Lime
N P205 gms
K20
N P205 gms
K20
1 Year 300 70 80 375 150 200
2 Year 600 140 160 750 300 400
3 Year 900 210 240 1125 450 600
4th Year 1200 280 320 1500 600 800
5th Year & above 1500 350 400 1500 600 800
Fertilizers should be applied in a circular band at a radial distance of 120 cm from the trunk of
the plant is the most beneficial. Deep placement of fertilizers should be avoided. In fact, the
maximum root activity in sweet orange plantation was found within a depth of 25 cm while in
acid lime they are more surface oriented, 80-95% being located in the top 10 cm. As such,
fertilizers are worked in shallow into the surface soil. A composit nutrient spray prepared and
sprayed twice or thrice at 20-25 Days intervel commencing from the appearance of new flush
will correct deficiencies and increases the yield and quality of fruits. It is prepared as follows.
Zinc Sulphate 500 g
Copper Sulphate 280 g
Magnesium Sulphate 200 g
Ferrous Sulphate 200 g
Borax 100 g
Manganese Sulphate(Amorphouse) 200 g
Lime 900 g
Urea 1000 g
Water 100 lit.
Training and pruning: In order to allow the growth of a strong trunk, all shoots in the first 40-
50 cm from ground level developed in the early stage should be removed. The centre of the plant
should remain open. Branches should be well distributed to all sides. Cross twigs and water
suckers are to be removed early. The bearing trees require little or no pruning. All diseased,
injured and drooping branches and dead wood are to be removed periodically for initiating citrus
greening.
Interculture: Before manuring, the basins are dug and the weeds are removed. The tree basins
should be kept free of weeds. Superficial cultivation of citrus orchards is practiced to keep them
free of weeds. Deep cultivation should be avoided. Root stock sprouts water suckers and dead
wood have to be periodically removed and cut ends are pasted with Bordeaux paste.
Occasionally the water suckers are to be observed and they should be removed,.
31
Intercrops: Leguminous crops like soybean, gram, groundnut, cow peas, French bean, peas
etc., may be grown in citrus orchards. Intercropping is advisable during the initial three-four
years after planting.
Bahar Treatment: If left to nature the trees may bloom and fruit irregularly throughout the year.
In order to overcome this problem and to force a full crop in any of the three seasons, as required
by the grower and the traders, Bahar treatment is practiced in citrus orchards. In Andhra Pradesh,
the citrus trees generally bloom three times a year, i.e., in January-February (Ambe bahar or
Angam), June (Mrig bahar or Edagam) and October (Hastha bahar or Gairangam). Trees are
treated for Ambe bahar (January-February), in November or December. In this method, from
November onwards the amount of water is gradually reduced in successive irrigations and
completely stopped in December. About the middle of December, the land is ploughed. When
the trees start showing wilting symptoms (3-4 weeks), the soil around the tree to a distance of
120 cm is dug a depth of 10 cm and the recommended manure is added to the soil and the trees
are irrigated. The first irrigation that follows is sparing while the subsequent ones are more
plentiful. Flowers appear about a month after the first irrigation. In Maharashatra, the roots are
also exposed for about 10 days as part of the bahar treatment. This method is occasionally
practiced in a few places in Andhra Pradesh Consequently; plants give new vegetative growth,
profuse flowering and fruiting. . However, this treatment is considered to be harmful in the long
run and not encouraged as a routine practice.
Cropping: Budded sweet orange trees give a commercial crop in about 5 years. Mandarins may
take one or two years more. Seedling trees take about 8 years to come to bearing. The life of
budded tree is about 35 years and of seedling about 60 years. The fruit ripens in about 9 months
after flowering. The harvesting season varies in different parts of the country. Sweet orange have
three seasons of flowering and fruiting. The seasons of harvest in Rayalaseema are: Angam
season from September to February which yields about 80% of total annual yield. Gairangam
starts from July to September.Edagaru season starts from March to May.Cro is very negligible
during this season. Bastavian oranges yield during August -September. In North India these
fruits ripen from November-February. The mandarins have three seasons similar to sweet orange
in the agency tract. The main harvesting season santras in coorg is from December to April and
off season crops are available from July to September.
32
Fruit Drop: Fruit drop in citrus occurs more or less in three distinct stages viz., post setting
drop, pea size drop and pre-harvest drop. Among which the last one is most important and causes
huge loss to the farmers. Based on the causal factors, the fruit drop can be classified broadly as i)
Physiological drop ii) Entomological drop and iii) Pathological drop.
i) Physiological drop-Although the initial fruit drop period in citrus is primarily from
physiological reasons, the term is strongly associated to October fruit drop and describes the
abscission of fruitlets as they approach 0.5-2.0 cm in diameter. This is mainly due to competition
among fruits for carbohydrates, water, hormone and other metabolites. The problem is highly
aggravated by water stress and humidity.
ii) Entomological fruit drop--Citrus bud mite and orange bug are some important pests which
causes heavy drop of flowers and fruits in oranges. Besides fruit fly (Daucus dorsalis) and fruit
sucking moth (Otheris fullonica) are mainly causing fruit drop in the later crucial stage of fruit
ripening. Pre-harvest fruit drop is mainly caused by fruit fly infestation. Its activity is first
noticed during last week of October which continues till the final harvest.
iii) Pathological fruit drop--Fruit drop also occurs due to pathogenic fungi viz. Botryodiplodia
theobromae, Colletotrichum gleosporoides and Alternaria citri (stem end rot) which mainly
occurs predominantly on the mature fruits near ripening. High inoculum of these fungi in the
orchards builds up due to dead twigs on the bearing trees. Water spot also causes fruit drop in
which the rind absorbs large amounts of water in localized areas during period of prolonged rains
or dampness.
Control of fruit drop—
Maintain balance nutrients in the plants to develop sufficient foliage to support the developing
fruits. Prune the plants after harvesting to minimize pest and disease incidence.
Proper drainage should be made to avoid water stagnation. Irrigation should be applied at critical
stages viz., flowering, fruit set and fruit development. Dropped fruits should not be left in the
filed as they acts as carrier for the diseases
Spray GA3 10 ppm + urea 1% at the time of flowering
Spray 2, 4-D 15 ppm + Benomyl / carbendazim 1000 ppm + urea 1% one month after fruit set
when the fruit size reaches pea size (8-10 mm).
Spray GA3 10 ppm + potassium nitrate 1% two month after fruit set (18-20 mm fruit size).
Spray ZnSo4 (0.4%) + MgSo4 (0.2%) + CuSo4 (0.3%) at fortnight interval will decrease the
fruit drop and increase the fruit yield.
33
Harvesting: Generally, citrus trees start bearing fruits 3 - 5 years from planting (although
economic yields start from the fifth year and the trees may take 8 to 10 years to achieve full
productivity) and can be harvested 5 - 6 months from flowering depending on the variety and the
environment.
Maturity Indices:
Unlike some other fruits, citrus fruits do not ripen further once they have been removed from the
tree, so it is important that they are picked at the right stage of maturity. Maturity is measured
depending on different characteristics such as color, juice content, level of soluble solid (sugar)
and solids to acid ratio. Normally, citrus fruits are harvested by hand. Fruit is best harvested after
8:00 in the morning, when dew has dried up, since otherwise, if the fruit was still wet, it would
become dark and get spoiled. In addition, as citrus fruits are cold-sensitive (the plant dies at 3-5º
C below 0ºC), growers must have special care to protect the trees against cold. Lemons and limes
are the citrus fruits the most sensitive to cold weather. The general way to pick the fruit is by
pulling it from the stem, using gloves in order to avoid damaging the fruit. Once harvested, the
fruit has to be graded, sorted, washed and waxed, before being packed for delivery to the fresh
market.
Yield:
Sweet Orange 600-800 fruits/tree with a maximum of 1200
Mandarins 1000-1500 fruits/tree with a maximum of 5000
Acid Lime 3000-6000 fruits/tree
Melons 600-800 fruits/tree
Pummelo 100 fruits
Grape fruit 500 fruits

Lecture 5. Production technology of Grape – origin – importance – climate – soils – varieties –

commercial classification of grapes – table, wine, sweet juice and raisin grapes – their
characteristics and example of varieties - different methods of propagation – different rootstocks
used- planting – land preparation- system of planting –spacing – digging of pits – filling of pits –
application of manures – season of planting –training – different methods of training – head,
arbour, kniffin, and telephone trellies system – advantages and disadvantages of each system-
pruning – summer pruning and winter pruning – points to be considered while pruning and main
principles for successful pruning – irrigation – manuring – intercultivation – fruit thinning – use
of growth regulators in increasing fruit set, berry size, cluster size and maturity – harvesting -
maturity indices – yield.

GRAPE
Botanical Name: Vitis vinifera Family: Vitaceae
Origin: Armenia near Caspian Sea
The grape is one of the most delicious, refreshing and nourishing fruits. Grapes owing to their
taste, nutrient content, composition and low calorific value are refreshing fruits. It is probably
and obviously the largest produced fruit of the world. It is considered to be the fruit of the
temperate region but it has been successfully acclimatized to several sub-tropical countries.
In India, all most all our produce is consumed as table fruit, while in European countries 99% of
their produce is used for preparation of wines. Grapes are also used for preparation of other
products like raisins, fresh juice and Jams etc. The grape fruits are rich in sugar and particularly
in hexose and are easily digestible. It is fairly a good source of minerals like Calcium,
Phosphorous and Iron and vitamins B1 and B2.The juice is mild laxative and acts as a stimulant
to kidneys. In Andhra Pradesh it is grown in the districts of Mahbubnagar, Rangareddy, Medak,
Anathapur, Chittoor and Kurnool districts in an area of 1676ha with a production of 33,520
tonnes.
Climate: Grape is a semi arid subtropical crop. It requires warm and dry summer and cool
winter. Humid weather is not congenial for sweetness of the fruit, causes cracking of fruits and
encourages fungal diseases. Parts of India having more than 100cm of rainfall are not suitable. A
rain free period of 90 days from the time of pruning is most desirable. Frost does great damage if
it occurs during its growing period. It thrives well in regions with a temperature range of 4.5OC
and 45OC.
Soils: Light soils are ideal but they can grow on any well drained soil which is the most
important requisite for grape vine. Water table should be deeper than 2 meters. Soils at least
1meter depth with no hard pan up to 2 meters is suitable whether theyare rich or poor. Compared
to other horticultural crops grape vines are relatively tolerant to salinity and alkalinity but
excessive lime is harmful.
35
Varieties: The commercial varieties of grapes grown in India belong to vitis vinifera (European
grapes), which is indigenous to Mediterranean region. American grapes belong to vitis labrusca
and vitis rotundifolia, where the skin separates easily from pulp when ripe. The important
commercially grown varieties are- Bangalore blue, Gulabi, Anab-e- Shahi, Dilkush, Patcha
Draksha, Puas seedless, Thompson seedless, Beautty seedless and Perlette
Hybrids: Number of hybrids were developed by IIHR, Bangalore .The important hybrids, their
parentage and their important characters are given below.
Grape hybrids and their specific characters
Hybrid Parents Distinguishing characters
Arkavati
Black champaXThompson
Seedless
Good for raisin making
Arka Kanchan Anab-E-ShahiXQueen of
Vineyard
Late maturing and good quality
Arka Hans Bangalore BlueXAnab-e-
Shahi
Suitable for white wines, berries
with poor attachment
Arka Shyam Bangalore
BlueXBlackChampa
Good for juice and wine making,
suitable for double cropping in
S.India
Arka Neelmani Black champaXThompson
Seedless
Table as well as red wine
making
Arka Shweta Anab-e-ShahiXThompson
Seedless
Seedless and suitable for table
purpose
Arka majestic Anab-e-ShahiXBlack
Champa
Table purpose
Arka Chitra Angoor KalanX Anab-e-
Shahi
Table purpose
Arka Soma Anab-e-ShahiXQueen of
Vine Yard
Suitable making good quality
wine making
Arka Trishna Bangalore BlueXQueeen of
Vineyard
Suitable for wine making
Arka krishna Bangalore BlueXConvent
large Black
Suitable for juice
Arka Urvashi
HurXBeauty seedless Suitable for juice and
wine.tolerant to Anthracnose
Pusa Navarang MadeleineAngavineXRuby
Red
Tenturier,suitable for juice and
wine
36
Commercial classification of grape varieties: Depending on the use, the grape varieties may be
classified into five categories, viz, .Table, Resin, Wine, Juice and Canning.
Table grapes: The grapes are used as fresh fruit. These grapes must be attractive in appearance
and must have pleasing eating quality and good keeping and shipping qualities. Grapes with
Muscat flavour, thin skin, firm flesh and without seeds are preferred. The grapes should also
possess the characteristic colour of the variety. Important varieties are Thompson seedless,
Pusa seedless, Perlette, Beauty seedless, New perlette, Anab-e Shahi, Bhokri, Cardinal, Black
Muscat, Early Muscat, Fakhri, Kandhari, and Kale-Sahebi etc.
Raisin grapes: Seedless grapes posessing soft texture, a marked and pleasing flavour, large or
very small size after drying and a little tendency to become sticky during storage are classed as
good raisin grapes. For safekeeping, the raisins should not have more than 17% moisture.
Important varieties are Thompson seedless, Pusa seedless, Kishmish, Black Corinth and
Sultana, Muscat, Alexandria etc.
Wine grapes: Two types of wines can be prepared from grapes i.e. table wines and desert
wines. Table wines are produced from grapes of moderately high sugar content and of moderate
or high acidity. The desert wines are produced from grapes having high sugar content and low
acid content. Important varieties are Gross Column, Red Prince, Black Champa, Beauty
seedless, Cheema Sahebi etc.
Sweet - juice grapes: These grapes produce acceptable beverage when it is preserved by
pasteurization, germ proof filtration or other means. The juice must be able to retain fresh grape-
flavour.
Important varieties are Bangalore Purple, Bangalore Blue, Gulabi, Concord, and Pearl of
Csaba.
Canning grapes: Seedless grapes are used in canning with other fruits, in fruit salad and fruit
cocktail.
Important varieties are Thompson seedless, Pusa seedless, Perlette, Canner etc.
Propagation: Grape can be propagated both by sexual and asexual methods. Sexual propagation
is encountered with a no. of hazards like poor germination and long period for germination etc.
Asexual or vegetative propagation on the other hand has high percentage of success and it
ensures genetical purity. Vegetative propagation in grape is practiced through cuttings, grafting,
layering and budding depending on the varieties used and the growing conditions. Propagation
through hardwood cuttings is the most popular method of propagation in grape. Cuttings made
from well matured one season canes from productive vines which are of medium in thickness
(0.7 to 0.8 cm), with an internodal length of 8- 10cm and 25-30cm in length with at least 3-4
buds and dormant should be selected preferably from the October prunings. In making the
cuttings the lower cut should be given immediately below the bud and the upper cut should be
about ½‖ above the bud. They are planted in well prepared flat beds, leaving two nodes above the
soil surface. In North India these cuttings are planted in the nursery after allowing them
37
to form callus by burying them in moist soil or sand for 4-5 weeks. To control insect pests like
termites in the nursery beds, at periodical intervals, treat the soil with Aldrin or Heptachlor dust.
The rooted cuttings will be ready for planting in the main field only after one year. In India grape
is planted on its own roots. However, use of resistant rootstocks is necessary under infestation by
nematodes and other pests and diseases and also for saline soils. The scion variety can be chip
budded on suitable root stocks.
Phylloxera (Aphid) resistant root stocks—St.George and Riparia.
Nematode and soil salinity-- Salt creek
Resistant to nematode-- Harmony and Dog ridge
Spacing: The spacing that is given between the vines will depend on soil, climate, and vigour of
the variety, method of training, pruning and cultivation practices.
Region Training method Spacing
Bombay-Deccan Single stake 2.5X2.5m
Punjab-Haryana Kniffin 3X3m
Bangalore region
(Bangalore Purple)
Pendal / Bower / Over head / Arbour / Mandwa 5X6m
Madurai region Pendal / Bower /Over head / Arbour / Mandwa 8X9m
Hyderabad region Pendal /Bower / Over head / Arbour / Mandwa 5X9m
Planting: Preparation of the land before planting grape vine is essential. The land is prepare
thoroughly by deep ploughing and follow up by tillage and the land should be leveled. Pits of
1m3 are dug at required spacing. October is the ideal time for planting unrooted cuttings directly
in the filed. Rooted cuttings are planted in January or February. When rootstocks are planted,
budding or grafting is done in July- August. Either chip or wedge grafting is followed.
Training and Pruning: Proper methods of pruning and training contribute towards higher
production of better quality fruits in grape. Training mainly concerns with giving the form and
the direction of the trunk and arms and the position of the shoots. Training determines the form
while pruning effects the functioning of the vine. It is done to concentrate the activity of the vine
to the parts left after pruning. Pruning is the most important operation for the maintenance of
fruitfulness and quality along with vigour of the vine. Before actually discussing the subject of
training and pruning it is necessary to understand the various terms commonly used in these
operations to make the subject more intelligible.
Trunk -- The main stem of the vine which is vertical
Arms/Cordons --The main branches arising from the trunk or
38
(Primary) extensions of the trunk usually grow vertically
Arms/Cordons
(Secondary)
-- The branches arising from primary arms or
extensions of the primary arms or cordons.
Head --The region of the trunk from which the arms or canes arise
Shoot --The young growth(herbaceous) of the current season
developing from a bud situated on the arm or trunk
Cane --The matured shoot of the past season
Spur --The shortened cane or part of the cane left after pruning
Fruiting spur --The spurs having a few buds some of which (usually the apical
ones) sprout and grow into fruiting shoots.
Training: In the natural habitat, a grape vine is robust climber but it can be trained
on any fashion. Although a no. of training systems are known only four namely
bower, kniffin, telephone trellis, and head system are followed in India.
The choice of a training system depends upon many factors such as:
Apical dominance
Vine vigour
Variety
Bearing zone
Sun scald problems
Easiness to cultural operations
Land use
Climate
Capacity of the grower to invest
An ideal training system is one which
Facilitates different operations like pruning, culture, plant protection,
harvesting etc.
Spreads the fruits in the entire area provided for the purpose
Provides good leaf exposure
Avoids bigger wounds to the permanent parts of the vine
Maintains the vitality of the vine over a longer period.
Head System: This is the cheapest and easiest system of training grape vines. In
this system the vines are trained like dwarf bush. Less vigorous varieties and
varieties producing fruitful shoots from the basal buds are suitable for this system.
Ex. Beauty seedless, Perlette, Delight and Gold.
In this system the plants are spread very closely to accomodate2000-2500 plants
per acre. The vine is allowed to grow to a single stem with the help of stakes. After
attaining a height of 3‘ the plant is topped and two lateral branches are encouraged.
The plant is again topped at 4‘ height by which two or more laterals are developed.
After keeping 4 laterals, 4‘ above the ground in all directions, the rest of the shoots
are thinned out. These later cut to two buds at the first dormant pruning, will produce
39
secondary arms. Generally two arms of about 20-30cm are kept on each lateral. At
the time of second pruning, normally 1-2 fruiting spurs are kept on each secondary
arm. After 3-4 years, the vine becomes like a dwarf bush and needs no stake.
Advantages:
Simplicity in shape
Ease in training
In expensive to establish
Possibility of cross cultivation
Dis-advantages:
The vines are slow to come to full production
Increased possibility of bunch rot and poor colour
The bud and flower drop is maximum compared to other systems.
Pendal System: This system is also called as Arbour, Pergola, Mandwa, Over
head or Bower system. Owing to the vigorous growth of the vine and pronounced
apical dominance in the tropics, this system is most suitable for many of the
commercial grape cultivars. This is more popular system for Anab-e-shahi in
A.P.This is best suited for vigorous varieties, which don‘t perform well on other
systems.Inspite of being the most expensive; this is being adopted on a large scale
almost in all the grape growing regions of India.
In this system the vines are spread over a criss cross net work of wires usually 7‘
(2.1m) above the ground supported by pillars(Concrete, stone or iron).Galvanized
wires of 5,8 and 10 gauge thickness and turning buckles are used. Only the best
growing shoot from the plant is allowed to grow upright along the stake provided up
to the bower height. When the vine reaches the wires, it is pinched off 15cm below
the pendal level to facilitate production of side shoots close to the wires. Two
vigorous shoots in opposite direction are selected and allowed to grow in opposite
directions on the wires overhead. These two shoots develop into primary arms. On
each primary arm three laterals on either side at a distance of 60cm (2‘) (along the
wires) are kept as secondary arms. Thus, there will be 12 secondary arms on each,
which after maturity form fruiting canes. These primary and secondary arms for the
permanent frame work of the vine. The vines are allowed to trail straight along the
wires by tying intermittently with banana fibre.
Advantages:
Greater spread of the vines.
Better exposure of the foliage to the sun, resulting in better maturity of the
canes.
Higher production.
40
More uniform bunch colour
Superior quality of fruits, which are free from sunscald.
The vines in general give uniform performance
It gives good protection to the canes against hot desiccating winds with ease
in bird scaring.
Dis advantages:
It is the most expensive than all other systems
Pruning, training and spraying operations become difficult
The spraying material cannot reach effectively the leaves and shoots.
Telephone system (Over head trellis / Telephone trellis system): This system is
suitable for moderately vigorous varieties with more apical dominance. The chief
demerit of kniffin system, where the lower arms are rendered unproductive, is
modified in this system by wires, stretched at one height like telephone wires. It is
also an improvement over bower system in respect of ventilation and light
penetration. It is relatively less expensive than kniffin system. The usual spacing
provided for each vine is 3x3m.
Trellies are erected by using the granite stone pillars of 8‘ length and 6‖x6‖ thick at
the ends and 8‖x4‖x4‖ in the middle of the lines. The middle pillars may be spaced at
20‘ distance. Cross arms of 41/2‘ length are fixed on each pillar at a height of
5‘.These can be iron blades of 4‖ width and ¼‖ thick or the angle iron pieces of 2‖x2‖
width and¼‖ thick. Three wires of 8 gauge thick galvanized iron are pulled
horizontally over the cross arms at a regular spacing of 2‘ using turning buckles at
the end of pillars are supported side ward.
In this system the vines are allowed to grows straight up to a height of 1.5m (5‘) and
then trained over head on a canopy of usually 3or 4 wires (45-60cm apart) fixed to
the cross angle arms supported by vertical pillars or posts. The young growing vines
are supported by bamboo sticks. After reaching the height of telephone (5‘) the tip
should be pinched off to encourage side shoots close to wires. Two vigorous side
shoots (cross to wires) are selected as primary arms from which four vigorous
laterals on each side along the wires are allowed to develop on secondary arms.
Each complete secondary arm can carry 6-8 fruiting units.
Advantages:
Greater spread of the vine
Better exposure of the foliage to the sun resulting in the better maturity of
canes.
Higher production
More uniform bunch colour
Superior quality of fruits free from sunscald
Vines in general give more uniform performance.
Dis advantages:
Cost of establishment is high. At present rates it may cost 60-70 thousand
rupees.
41
It is a system difficult to develop i.e. vine training needs a lot of skill and effort.
The bunches are not as well exposed to light as kniffin system.
Not suitable for vines making low to moderate growth.
Kniffin System: It is also called as espalier system. It is a system of training grape
vine in which the arms of the vine are tied to horizontal wire at the same level above
the ground. This system is not as common as the bower system. It is suitable for the
moderately vigorous varieties with less apical dominance. Closer planting is adopted
for this training system with in the row and 3m (10‘) between the rows. Galvanized
iron wire of 8 gauge thickness is stretched parallel to the ground at a height of 75cm
above which two or more wires are stretched at successive heights of 60cm.when
the plant crosses the first it is topped leaving a bud above the wire. Two laterals are
developed on either side of the plant along the wire and the terminal shoot is allowed
to grow vertically. Similarly, a pair of laterals is developed along the second and third
wire. Thus each vine will have six arms.
In some cases only two pairs of laterals are developed at a height of 41/2‘ (1.35m)
and 61/2‘ (1.95m) from the ground level and in such cases it is called four arm kniffin
system.
This system is suitable for Beauty seedless, Early Muscat, Bhokri and Delight.
Advantages:
This system is cheaper when compared with bower system.
It is a good system for obtaining full crop on vines, the basal buds on the
canes of which are sterile and which require long cane pruning.
It is good for small clustered varieties which require fruit thinning for improved
quality.
The system allows more lateral spread of fruit bunches than cordon system.
The average yields are 10-15kg per vine when planted at 3.0 mx3.0 m
spacing.
Dis-advantages:
Cultivation is possible in one way
The lower arms become unproductive after some years.
The arms produce fruiting wood mainly at the extreme ends only.
From the pruning point of view, it is very difficult and exacting system. Since
the retained fruiting units are very few, they must be perfect and pruner must
have a thorough knowledge for their appropriate selection.
Its cost of establishment is about 50-60 thousand rupees per hectare.
This system is mainly confined to research institutes and it is not popular with the
farmers in any of the regions of the country.
Pruning: In grape pruning is done only once in North India during the month of
January to make the fruitful buds to sprout but in south India, pruning is done twice
in a year, once in summer and again in winter. Grape vines in these regions grow
continuously without any dormancy (due to tropical climate).Hence by pruning in
April (summer) the vines are forced to have a rest period, which helps in fruit bud
differentiation. Pruning time mainly depends on rainfall and temperature. Pruning is
adjusted so that there is no coincidence of rainfall with fresh growth and flowering
and also winter doesn‘t set in with in 8-10 days after pruning.
Pruning refers to the judicious removal of any plant part
To establish and maintain desired vine shape
To increase productivity
To facilitate various cultural operations
To distribute proper amount of bearing wood over the vein
For consistent productivity
Summer pruning: It is done during March-April in the states of A.P. and Karnataka,
but in July in Tamil Nadu.In this pruning the canes are cut back to one or two bud
level for building up the fresh vegetative growth. Hence it is called back pruning or
growth pruning.
Winter pruning: This is done during the last week of November in A.P. and
Maharastra, during the second and third weeks of October around Bangalore, but at
any time of the month of October in the interior northern districts of Karnataka and in
December in Tamilnadu. The mature canes (about 6 months old) are pruned. Entire
foliage and immature shoots are removed. Levels of pruning differs with
varieties.Anab-e-shahi and Bhokri are pruned to 5 bud level, Thompson seedless to
10 buds, Bangalore Blue to 4 buds and Gulabi to 9 buds. This pruning is also called
as forward pruning.
Some of the varieties like Perlette, Beauty seedless, Bangalore blue, Bhokri etc.
produce fruits on the shoots arising from the basal buds on the cane. In such
varieties the canes are headed back to 4-5 buds. Such varieties are called Spur
pruned varieties. On the other hand the Pusa seedless, Thompson seedless varieties
in which the fruits are produced on the shoots arising from terminal buds, the canes
are headed back to 8-12 buds. Such varieties are called Cane pruned varieties.
In the varieties like Bangalore Blue in Karnataka, Pacha Draksha and Anab-e-Shahi
in Tamil Nadu, the vines are pruned for cropping twice. Instead of back pruning
forward pruning is done in summer. Particularly in Bangalore blue, the vine yard is
usually divided into blocks and the pruning time is staggered in such a way that the
fruit is available almost throughout the year.
Points to be borne in mind while pruning: Pruning is a very crucial operation in
viticulture. So, much care and precession are to be exercised in pruning a vine. A
wise pruning envisages less depressing effect on the vine but more concentration of
activity in the parts left after pruning. Severe pruning i.e. retention of fewer canes
results in light crop. A vine in a given season can properly nourish only a certain
quantity of fruit. Hence, while pruning the vigorous vines, more canes are retained,
but in less vigorous vines less no. of canes are retained. If a vine has given a heavy
43
crop during the previous season, it has to be pruned severely during the present
fruiting season.
All the canes in a vine cannot be equally fruitful. Canes that are away from the trunk
are more fruitful than the ones nearer the trunk. Hence, the former are pruned lightly
than the latter. The thicker canes are pruned lightly as compared to thinner canes.
Main principles covering successful pruning:
Cut back only current seasons growth
Don‘t prune when the vine is young. Prune only when the stem has attained
15cm girth (thickness) which occurs after a year.
Fruit branches are borne only on fresh wood called‖ fruiting spur‖ of the current
season. This spur arises from the previous season‘s pruned spur or ripened
shoots.
A vine should be allowed to have only a limited no. of spurs.
The shoots borne on spurs should be kept checked retaining 10-20 leaves per spur
depending upon the variety.
Manuring: Grape is a heavy feeder of fertilizers. The following manurial schedule is
adopted in different years of growth.
At the time of planting: Fill the pit with50 kg of FYM,3kg of super phosphate,5 kg of
castor cake or neem cake and two baskets of wood ash with top soil or silt.
After the establishment of the vines: The following manures and fertilizers should be
applied every season of six months up to two years and properly irrigated after each
application.
100kg of FYM, 2-3kg of castor cake or neem cake, 2-3kg of super phosphate, 250g
of Ammonium sulaphate, and 125g of Urea.
From the 3rd year onwards the following manures and fertilizers are applied thrice in a
year
Manure/Fertilizer After summer pruning
(Growth pruning)
After winter pruning
(For fruiting)
One moth after
winter pruning
FYM 200-250 kg 200-300 kg ---
Castor or Neem
Cake
10-12 kg 10-12 kg ---
Amm.Sulphate ½ to 1 kg in 2 splits
at monthly intervals
1kg in 2 splits at 20 days
interval
250g
Super
phosphate
2-3kg 2-3kg ---
Urea -- 125-250gmIn two splits ---
Potassium
sulpahate
-- 3 kg &1kg at 15 days
interval from flowering to
fruiting.
500g
44
Potash plays an outstanding role in grape cultivation. From the time of October
pruning, flowering commences in a period of 90 days, the vine has to produce a crop
of 10-15 tonnes.The application of potash even in rich silt, and black clay loams at 1-
2 kg per vine at least in split doses has recorded good yields.
Repeated sprays of magnesium sulphate and borax at 0.05% to 0.2% strength have
helped to over come most of the deficiency. Due to regular use of Dithane Z-78 in
the spray schedule for control of fungus, ample supply of zinc is ensured.
Irrigation: Vine yard irrigation is chiefly governed by the nature of soil, its drainage,
the rainfall and its distribution and temperature in the locality.
Grape vine requires judicious irrigation for optimum growth and yield. During initial
year of planting, vine may be irrigated frequently. While stagnation of water around
the root zone leads to mortality of the vine. The excess water from frequent
irrigations is conducive to excess and rapid vegetative growth at the cost of the
fruiting of the vine.
Grape requires 6-8 irrigations after April pruning till the south West monsoon begins.
Vines are not irrigated from June-October.
8-10 irrigations may be given at 7-10 days interval after October pruning till March.
Each adult vine needs 200 liters of water in winter and 300 liters of water in summer
per irrigation. Watering the vine just before pruning may increase the flow of plant
sap.Hence; the vines are not irrigated after harvest and allowed rest for 15 days in
April before pruning is taken up. This practice of withholding water for a fort night
helps in controlling the flow of plant sap. The flow of plant sap inside the tissue at the
time of pruning should be at the minimum, as otherwise, the plant may be get
drained off the plant sap through the cut surface after pruning. This draining of plant
sap through cut surface is called‖Bleeeding”.Hence; vines should not be pruned when
the plant shows bleeding. Again while the berries are ripening, the irrigation of the
crop may make the berries less sweet.Hence, withholding of water before pruning
and also while the fruits are ripening is a sound practice.
Inter- culture: It is not feasible to grow any inter crop and frequent shallow tillage is
desirable. The vineyard should be kept free from weeds by shallow digging of 8-
10cm depth in 15-20 days interval with spade by manual labour and weeds hand
picked. Owing to shade the crop is susceptible to two mildews and anthracnose
disease against which a schedule of three prophylactic sprays of bordeaux mixture
sprayed after pruning, at flowering and when fruits are developing.
Fruit thinning: Thinning of berries at pea stage increases the berry size by
20%,fruit quality with high sugar content in Anab-e-shahi and lowered the acidity in
sub-acid varieties like Bhokri. Improvement in colour of berries and earlier maturity
are the other advantages due to thinning. It also means to remove diseased,
misshapen and shot berries.
45
Use of Plant growth regulators: Encouraging responses were observed both in
seeded and seedless varieties of grape by the use of growth regulators.
Effect on fruit set: A good fruit set was obtained by spraying the flower cluster
thoroughly 4-6 days after full bloom with 100ppm Gibberellic acid or 20ppm Parachloro
phenoxy acetic acid. This increased set in current grapes, Thompson seedless and
black Corinth.
Effect on berry size: Increase in berry size in Anab-e shahi, Kishmis and Bhokri
varieties was reported when GA was applied at 40ppm at bud and flower stages.
Higher concentrations resulted in the increase in the length of berries.
Effect on cluster size: Use of GA, TIBA and PCPA resulted in lengthening the cluster
parts especially the pedicles.
Effect on maturity: with the application of Benzothiozal A-Oxyacetic acid (BOA) maturity
can be regulated. Maturity can be delayed by 15 days with the application of this
Benzothiozal A-Oxyacetic acid.
Harvesting: Grapes should be harvested when they are fully ripe as they don‘t ripen
any further after harvest from the vine. The criteria for maturity are:
The bunches should be fully developed and every berry should attain a
uniform size, shape and colour.
The bunch is ready for harvest when the lower most berry of the bunch is soft
and sweet.
The berries should develop translucent look of colour peculiar to the variety.
Anab-e-Shahi develop amber or light honey colour.
The seeds of the ripened berries becomes dark brown
Total soluble solids also give the indication of ripening. Anab-e-shahi is
harvested when it records a brix of 15O-16O and Thompson seedless 21O-22O
The bunches should be harvested when they are ripen on the vine as they
are not subjected to post-harvest ripening process.
The bunches are harvested with secature or scissors. Then the immature and rotten
berries are removed with the help of scissors. Then they are packed in wooden or
card board boxes or bamboo staked baskets. The paper strips are used to avoid
damage to the berries.
Yield: Bangalore blue and Patcha draksha--5000 kg/ha, Bhokri - 4500 – 9,000kg/ha,
Anab-e-shahi-1000--15000kg/ha and Bangalore blue -30,000kg/ha.
Grapes are long lived and may yield up to a century with a good care. But on a
commercial scale they may be replaced after about 30 years with advantage.
Lecture 6. Production technology of Guava –origin – importance – climate – soils – varieties –
propagation – different methods of propagation – commercial method of propagation – planting
– land preparation – system of planting –spacing –digging of pits – filling of pits – application of
manures – season of planting – flowering – seasons of flowering – crop regulation – irrigation –
manuring – training – pruning for encouraging new shoots and for sanitation – pollarding,
bending intercultivation and intercropping – harvesting – maturity indices – yield.

GUAVA
Botanical Name: Psidium guajava, linn Family: Myrtaceae
Origin: Tropical America (from Mexico to Peru)
Guava is a subtropical crop. It is one of the most common and major fruits of India
and is considered the fourth most important fruit in area and production after mango,
banana, and citrus. It is a hardy and prolific bearer and highly remunerative fruit.
Guava is native to tropical America and seems to have been growing from Mexico to
Peru. It is believed to be introduced in to India during early 17th century.
In A.P it is commercially grown in Telengana, North coastal districts and Ananthapur
in Rayalaseema.
Guava is the rich source of Vitamin C, and a fair source of Vitamin A and B2 and
minerals like calcium, phosphorus and iron. The vitamin C content of Guava is 2-5
times higher than oranges. Guava fruits are used for making jam, jellies and various
culinary purposes. The fruits can be canned in sugar syrup. The leaves yield dye
and tannin and also have medicinal value of curing Diarrhea.
Climate: Guava cultivation can be extended to varying agro-climatic regions owing
to wider adaptability. Guava can be successfully cultivated both under tropical and
subtropical conditions. It does well up to an altitude of 1,000-1,500 meters. It grows
best with an annual rainfall below 100cm restricted between June-September.
Places having more than 250cm rainfall are not suitable for guava. Under heavy
rains and high relative humidity brings down the quality of fruits. Optimum
temperature requirement is 23-28OC.
47
The areas having distinct winter season, is considered best for increasing yield and
improving quality. The humid conditions lead to luxuriant growth of the trees and
yield fruits of poor quality. It can be grown as rain fed as well as irrigated crop
depending upon agro climatic conditions. At the time of flowering and fruiting, it
requires dry climate. High temperature and high velocity winds at fruit development
period lead to heavy fruit drop.
Soil: Guava adapts well to a wide range of soils. Well-drained, light sandy loam to
clay soils is good. Since it is a hardy fruit crop, it can be grown on alkaline soils
wastelands etc. It is sensitive to waterlogged conditions. It tolerates a wide range of
pH from 4.5 to 8.5.If the soils are having a pH of 7.5 and above there are more
chances of getting guava wilt. Some varieties like Lucknow- 49 can be grown in
saline soils also.
Varieties:Basically basing on seed content in guava there are two types-- Seedless
and seeded varieties. Seedless guavas are triploids with irregular shape and low
productivity and plants are very vigorous in growth.Hence, unfit for commercial
cultivation. Seeded guavas are more commercial, high yielder‘s with excellent
quality. The seeded guavas are diploids. Seeds range from 250-500 / fruit. Basing
on colour of the flesh again there are two types—White fleshed and red fleshed.
Among these two, white fleshed are more common and red-fleshed are less
common.
Important seeded, seedless and hybrid varieties commercially grown are:
Seeded varieties- 1. Allahabad safeda, 2. Lucknow-49, 3. Arka Mridula 4. Red
fleshed and 5.Allahabad Surkha etc.
Seedless varieties: Two types of fruits, completely seedless and partly seeded, are
borne on a plant of seedless variety. The completely seedless fruits develop on the
shoots arising from the stem and these are bigger in size and irregular in shape.
The partly seeded fruits are borne on normal shoots at the periphery and are small
in size and round in shape. The important seedless varieties are-Nagapur seedless,
Saharanpur seedless
Hybrids:
Saefd jam: This is a hybrid variety released from Fruit research station, Sangareddy
(A.P.). It is a cross between Allahabad Safeda and Kohir. Fruit size is bigger with
less seed and vitamin C is more in comparison to their parents.
Kohir Safeda: It is cross between Kohir and Allahabad safeda. Fruit is large in
size, slightly acidic. Yield 300 fruits per tree.
Other varieties like Nasik, Dharwar, and Apple colour, Banarasi, Hafsi, Anakapalli,
Harijha and chiitdar etc. are also considered as good cultivars.
Propagation: Guava can be propagated both by seed and vegetaively.
48
Seed Propagation: It is still common to raise commercial orchards by propagation
from seeds. This practice is not advisable because this would lead to lot of variation
among trees in fruit size, yield and quality. Hence, it is very important to plant an
orchard only with vegetaively propagated plants of known variety.
Vegetative methods of propagation —Air layering or ground layering can be
practiced for multiplication of guava plants and the best time for doing this is rainy
season. It is more commonly practiced in S.India. It is very convenient, cheap and
easy method. The layered plant being on its own roots grows more vigorously and
establishes quickly even in difficult soil conditions. Pot layering is practiced in
Telengana area.
Regarding budding shield or patch budding is generally practiced and the best time
is May-June.
Inarching is another common method of vegetative propagation and it is good to do
it in the month of July-August for high success.
Propagation of Guava by cuttings under ordinary conditions is not successful. It is
only successful under intermittent mist conditions with the aid of rooting hormones
like IBA and NAA. Hence, propagation through cuttings is not generally followed.
Some times stooling is practiced but the success is very poor, so it is not generally
followed.
Guava can also be propagated through root suckers but it not possible to obtain
large no. of suckers to raise orchards.
The commercial method of propagation for guava is air layering / pot layering or
inarching.
Planting: The field should be deeply ploughed and properly leveled before planting.
Pits of 75-100 cm3 size are dug well in advance to the onset of monsoon. The pits
are filled with a mixture of tank silt, FYM Or Compost and soil in equal proportions
.To avoid termite problems dusts like lindane are also mixed in the soil mixture.
Guava may be planted from June to December in South India and June to August in
N.India.
Spacing generally adopted is 5-6 meters in square system of planting. In highly
fertile soils it may be increased to 6-8meters.
Flowering and fruiting: The guava bears flowers solitary or in cymes of two or
three flowers, on the current seasons growth in the axils of leaves. The bearing
twigs grow a few centimeters long, putting forth 4-5 pairs of leaves. The blooming
period varies from 25-45 days depending on the cultivar, season and region. The
initial fruit set is quite high and approximately 80% of flowers set fruits. Afterwards
due to severe fruit drop only 34 - 56 per cent of fruits reach maturity. In cultivars like
seedless, the final retention is as low as 6 percent.
Under natural conditions, guava tree produces flowers and fruits twice in a year in
North India, but in South and Western India it is thrice i.e. almost throughout the
49
year, which results in no rest period and ultimately guava tree bears small crops at
different times of the year. The pattern of flowering and fruiting periods in guava are:
Ambe-bahar: When guava tree flowers during February-March or spring season,
this flowering period is known as Ambe-bahar.The fruits ripe from July-September in
rainy season. The fruits obtained during this season are insipid, watery and poor in
quality i.e. taste and keeping quality.
Mrig-bahar: When guava produces flowers in June-July or monsoon, this- flowering
period is known as Mrig-bahar.The fruits ripe from November-January in the winter.
The fruits obtained during winter are excellent in quality and therefore, the guava
trees are made to produce the Mrig-bahar flowering only.
Hasth-bahar: Some times, guava tree produces flowers in October is known as
Hasth-bahar. The fruits ripe from February-April. The quality is good, but yield is very
low. However, it fetches good price. This bahar in guava is not very common. It is
mostly a chance crop. Hast-bahar is observed in western and southern India.
Crop regulation (Bahar Treatment): Throughout India, Mrig-bahar is preferred over
ambe and Hast-bahars.Therefore, it become necessary to regulate flowering, so that
Mrig-bahar can produce heavy flowering and fruits are available in winter. The
practices followed for taking Mrig-bahar are:
Restricting irrigation water: The trees should not be given irrigation from February to
middle of May. Doing so, the tree sheds its leaves during hot season (April-May)
and goes to rest. During this rest period, tree can conserve food material in its
branches. In the month of June tree is well cultivated and manured followed by
irrigation. After about 20 -25 days the tree blaze in to profuse blossoms. The fruits
mature during winter.
Exposing roots: Carefully upper soil around the trunk about 45 - 60 cm radius is
removed, so that the roots are exposed to the sun which results in reduction in
supply of soil moisture from the soil to the top and therefore, the leaves begin to
shed and the tree goes to rest. After about 3-4 weeks the exposed roots are again
covered with the soil. Manuring and watering may be followed.
De-blossoming: It can be done with the use of growth of regulators. Among many
chemicals NAD ( Naphthalene acetamide ) at 50 ppm is the most effective.
Deblossming can also be done manually on small scale.
When flowers of Ambe-bahar are de-blossomed or thinned, the tree become more
potential to produce more flowers and fruits in Mrig-bahar.
Irrigation: Guava is a hardy plant and generally it doesn‘t require much irrigation.
But the yield and quality improve markedly by irrigation in summer. The young guava
plants need irrigation at weekly interval during summer months and 2-3 irrigations
during winter months. Just after transplanting, watering is necessary in the absence
of rains. For bearing trees irrigations are needed for flowering and better fruit
50
setting. Fruit size is reduced, if sufficient soil moisture is not maintained. Irrigation is
also required to check excessive fruit drop during summer months.
Manures and fertilizers: The requirement for manures and fertilizers to give guava
crop varies with the varieties, age of the crop, fertility status of the soil climatic
conditions and management practices. The fruit of guava are borne on current
seasons growth, therefore, manures and fertilizers encourages vegetative growth
and fruiting.
Manures One year after
planting (Kg)
Add every year
(Kg)
Bearing trees
(Kg)
Compost 20 20 100
Ammonium sulphate 1.0 0.5 3.0
Super phosphate 1.0 0.25 2.0
Muriate of Potash 1.0 0.25 2.0
Guava is a surface rooted tree and therefore the manure should be evenly spread all over
the surface of the tree basin and lightly dug in. In case of zinc deficiency, spraying trees
with 450g of zinc sulphate and 300g of slaked lime in 73 litres of water twice in a year,
once in June-July and second in September-October corrects the deficiency. Zinc
deficiency is serious in waterlogged areas.
Interculture : The orchard should be kept clean by ploughing twice or three once in the
beginning of monsoon to improve the infiltration of rain water into the soil and the second
ploughing in the middle of the rainy season to control the weeds. The third one at the end
of the monsoon to conserve the moisture. The basins should be kept weed free by
digging occasionally and the basins around the trees should be kept enlarged as the
trees get older. They should be kept a little bigger than the spread of the largest branch.
Inter cropping: In the early stages of establishment of guava orchard till the commercial
bearing, the interspaces can be utilized by growing suitable intercrops. Vegetable crops
like bhendi, brinjal, beet root and fruit crop like papaya can be grown as intercrops.
However, intercropping is not desirable in orchards with full grown plants.
51
Training and pruning: The main objective of training a guava plant is to provide a
strong framework and scaffold branches suitable for bearing a heavy crop with out
damaging the branches. Training guava trees to open centre system is good. Care
must be taken to prevent criss- crossing of the primary branches in the initial years
of planting. Incase of varieties having spreading habit, primary branches are allowed
at least 75cm above ground level. It is better to shape the tree canopy to a limited
height into a rectangular shape, allowing more spread in East-West direction. Dead,
diseased, intercrossing branches and suckers coming up from the base and sides of
framework should be pruned back annually.
In guava, the flowers and fruits are borne on current season‘s growth in the axils of
leaves arising from the old ones, hence, a light annual pruning is considered
necessary to encourage new shoots after the harvest. Seedling trees grow vertically
high up producing fruit bearing new growths at their top ends. They don‘t produce
much fruits lower down.On the other hand grafts or layers remain dwarf and their
branches grow horizontally and drooping producing enormous number of fruit
bearing shoots. This suggests that seedling trees can also be made more productive
by bending the upright branches horizontally.
Pruning in guava results in large fruits of higher value, early flowering, protection of
fruits from birds, rats etc. due to cover by vigorous foliage. Severe pruning reduces
yield largely, light pruning is always desirable.
Pollarding or Dehorning: When the trees are aged and don‘t give good yields, their
branches may be pollarded or dehorned. In this method the branches are cut leaving
30 cm in length at their origin. The cut branches produce enormous shoots and
flowers and ultimately give high yields.
Bending: It is a common feature that in the guava trees branches growing upright
and tall don‘t bear at all. In such cases, straight-growing branches may be bent and
tied on the pegs driven on the ground. In bent branches dormant buds are activated
and induced to bear flowers and fruits heavily. This method is successful especially
in varieties, which grow erect and bear little fruits.
Harvesting: Seedling guava trees require 4-5 years to bear, while vegetatively
propagated plants start bearing from third year after planting. The fruits turn greenish
yellow with the approach of maturity are considered ready for harvesting. Guava
fruits mature for harvesting after 4-5 months of anthesis. However it depends upon
the climatic conditions and variety. Fruits on ripening give excellent taste and
flavour characteristic of a particular variety. The fruits should be harvested
immediately when it is mature, because it cannot be retained on the tree in ripe
stage. Mature or half ripe fruits are preferred for consumption. Hand picking at
regular intervals is suggested to avoid possible damage to fruits instead of shaking
the tree. The fruits should not be allowed to over ripen on the trees as they
deteriorate in quality and are more liable to be damaged by birds. Individual fruits
are picked when they are still hard and firm at regular intervals.
52
Yield: The yield of guava varies due to different varieties, age of the plants, fruiting
season and orchard management practices etc. Seedling tree of guava of 10 years
old yields about 400-500 fruits. Grafted tree yields 1000-2000 fruits where as good
orchard yields about 25-30 tonnes per hectare.

Lecture 7. Production technology of Papaya and Pomegranate – origin – importance – climate

– soils – varieties –sex expression – climate – soils – propagation – raising of seedlings –
planting –land preparation – system of planting –spacing – digging of pits – filling of pits –
season of planting – irrigation – manuring – intercultivation and intercropping – flowering and
fruiting – harvesting – maturity indices – yield – papain – uses and its extraction.

Pomegranate- origin – importance – climate – soils – varieties –climate – soils – propagation –

methods of propagation – commercial method of propagation – planting – land preparation –
system of planting – spacing – digging of pits – filling of pits – application of manures – season
of planting – irrigation – manuring – cropping – harvesting – maturity indices – yield –
physiological disorder – fruit cracking and its control.

PAPAYA
Botanical name: Carica papaya L. Family: Caricaceae.
Origin: Tropical America
Introduction: Papaya is one of the important fruit crops of tropical and subtropical
regions of the world. It has originated in tropical America and was introduced from
Philippines through Malaysia to India in the latter part of 16th century by Portuguese.
It is one of the few fruit crops that flowers and fruits throughout the year giving early
(9-10 months after planting) and high yields (about 100 tones per hectare).
Besides its use as a fresh fruit, Papayas can be processed as Jam, Syrup,
Preserves, Papaya candy, canned fruits, salad, and jelly. Papya is also a
commercial source of protease enzyme, ―Papain‖.
Papaya fruit is highly nutritive and is very rich in Vitamin A. It improves digestion
and said to cure chronic constipation, piles and enlarged liver and spleen.
Normally papaya plants are Dioecious which bears male and female flowers
separately on different plants. There are Gynodioecious forms also which bears
female (Pistillate) and Hermaphrodite (Bisexual) flowers separately on different
plants. Male flowers are borne on long stalks and female and perfect flowers in small
clusters in leaf axils.
Climate: Papaya is essentially a tropical fruit crop and grows best in sunny places. It
is very sensitive to frost but withstands extremes of temperature. Temperatures
below 10OC will affect the growth and fruit set. It grows well in regions where
summer temperature doesn‘t exceed 38OC but it can stand up to 48OC.It also
flourishes well in regions up to an elevation of 1100m. It is adapted to a wide range
of rainfall conditions ranging from 35cm to 250cm annually; however, excessive
moisture adversely affects the crop as well as fruit quality. It does not stand strong
59
(80Km/Hour) or hot winds. Dry climate during flowering often causes sterility while
the same conditions during fruit maturity add to the sweetness of the fruit.
Soils: It can be grown on a variety of soils provided the soils are well drained. Under
water stagnated conditions and in soils with poor drainage foot rot disease may
cause heavy mortality. Hence, heavy soils should be avoided as papayas cannot
withstand water stagnation for more than 48 hours. A loamy soil with a pH of 6.5 to
7.2 is considered ideal. Medium black and alluvial soils are also suitable. Calcareous
and stony soils with poor organic matter are not suitable. It can be grown in poor
soils also provided with heavy manuring and irrigation.
Varieties: As the crop is grown entirely almost from seed, varieties are not well
defined. Varieties with medium sized fruits are generally preferred to those with very
large fruit. Since papaya is a highly cross-pollinated crop, seeds taken from a fruit
would rarely breed true to type. If a variety is to be maintained pure, controlled
pollination between selected female and male progenies of the same parent.i.e.
sibmating (i.e. crossing of sister and brother) has to be done. This consists of
collection of pollen from the male parent and applying it on the previously bagged
female flower. Seeds from such crossed or sib-mated fruit should be used for further
multiplication .Seeds from open pollinated fruits should not be used. Failure to
observe this precaution leads to the deterioration of the variety resulting in the
progeny being a mixture of all kinds of types with in a few years.
Based on the sex expression, papaya varieties can be either classified as dioecious
or gynodioecious. The dioecious varieties produce male and female plants in 1:1
ratio where as gynodioecious types produce plants of female and bi-sexual
(Hermaphrodite form) in 1:2 ratio.
Some of the commercially grown improved varieties of papaya are: CO1, CO-2,CO-
3,CO-4,CO-5,CO-6,CO-7,Washinton,Coorg Honeydew, Honeydew, Pusa dwarf,
Pusa delicious, Pusa giant, Pusa majesty, Surya, Red lady etc.
Propagation: It is mainly propagated by seeds. Since it is a highly cross-pollinated
crop, the plants raised from seeds have a mixed inheritance, which makes the highly
variable. So, genetically pure seeds should be collected from the sib mated or selfed
fruits.
Vegetative methods of propagation like cuttings, layering, grafting and budding are
not possible on a commercial scale due to the hollow and fragile nature of its stem.
Raising of seedlings: Freshly extracted seeds germinate better and grow quicker.
The fresh seeds are cleaned of the pulpy material adhering them, dried in shade.
About 400 -500 grams of seed is required for raising crop in one hectare. Seedlings
can be raised in nursery beds or in polythene bags .Among these, the seedlings
raised in polythene bags are found good. Seeds are sown at a spacing of 5cm with
in the row and 15 cm between rows. Seeds germinate with in 15-20 days. In about 2
months, seedlings grow to a height of 15 to 20 cm and are ready for transplanting. It
60
is essential that large ball of moist soil containing the entire root system is lifted from
bed and transplanted in the field without mutilating the roots in any manner. Hence,
raising seedlings in polythene bags is more desirable for better establishment, after
transplanting.
Planting: The land should be ploughed deep, harrowed and leveled. Pits of size
45cm X 45cm are dug and spaced about 2.5 m apart each way. This would
accommodate 1666 plants per hectare or 680 plants per acre. The pits after
weathering are filled with top soil mixed with 5 kg. of FYM, 100 grams of neem cake
and 40 grams of super phosphate. Four seedlings should be maintained per pit till
the identification of female and male progenies. Finally one female plant per pit and
one male plant for every 10 female plants should be retained in dioecious type.
Normally male plants flower earlier than female on pendulous hanging inflorescence
with branched stalk.
The best time for planting in most parts of India is the beginning of the monsoon in
the light rainfall tracts and close of the monsoon in the heavy rainfall tracts.
Manuring: Papaya is a quick grower and heavy feeder. To maintain vigour and
continuous fruiting manures and fertilizers are required. Doses differ with variety,
soil, rainfall etc.
While planting, along with top soil 5 kg. of FYM, 100 grams of neem cake and 40
grams of super phosphate should be mixed and pits are filled. After thinning of male
and female plants first dose of 50 grams each of N, P and K per plant (110 g of urea,
310 g of super phosphate and 80 g of muriate of potash) should be applied. The
same dose should be applied at 2 months interval from second month of planting.
Irrigation: Papaya is very specific in its irrigation requirements. Fruitfulness
depends on its vigour which in turn depends on irrigation and manuring.For high and
successful production regular irrigation is needed. Lack of moisture results in stunted
growth and poor fruiting. During summer, irrigations are to be given at 5-6 days
interval and during winter 8-10 day‘s interval. Ring system of irrigation is better. This
method prevents water coming in contact with the trunk. So, it prevents collar rot
disease.
Interculture: Land should be ploughed and harrowed cross wise at least twice in a
year. Frequent weeding around the stems is necessary. When the entire area is
covered by the foliage the weeding may not require.
Intercropping: When papaya is grown as a pure crop. Vegetables can be profitably
grown as intercrops for about 6 months from planting of papaya seedlings.
61
Flowering and fruiting: Starts flowering in 5-6 months after planting. Fruit setting
commences a fortnight after flowering. Fruit takes 4 to 5 months to reach full
maturity. Fruiting continues through out its life.
Harvesting: Starts in about 9-10 months after planting. The maturity is well
indicated by colour change and the consistency of latex. The latex of mature fruits
becomes watery. Fruits for local consumption should be picked when the green
colour is half way changed into yellow; for export it is necessary to pick sooner, after
the blossom end has turned colour Individual fruits should be harvested by twisting
by hand without damage.
Yield: Average yield is about 75-100 tones per hectare. Peak yield during 2nd year
and decline by third year. Economic life of papaya is 2 to 3 years.
Papain: The cultivation of Papaya for producing papain will be a profitable
proposition. Substantial quantities of papain can be extracted by adopting correct
techniques. Papain is the proteolytic enzyme present in the milky latex obtained from
green fruits of papaya. This enzyme is exclusively exported and there is great
demand in the international market. Papain is used in breweries, especially for
clarification of beer, medicines, cosmetics, tanning industry, tenderization of meat
and fish, extraction of animal and plant protein from various animals and plants etc.
In the medicinal field, papain finds use in the treatment of insect bites, itching of skin,
cancer,displaced disk in the spinal cord, dyspepsia and other digestive ailments, ring
worm infection, skin lesions and disorders of kidney. Several proprietary
pharmaceutical preparations using papain are available in the market now.
Papain extraction: The latex should be tapped from 75 to 90 days old immature
papaya fruits early in the morning up to 10.00am. On the selected fruit, four
longitudinal incisions should be given using a razor blade attached to bamboo
splinter. The depth of the cut should not be more than 0.3cm.The tapping has to be
repeated four times on the same fruit at an interval of 4 days. The latex should be
collected in aluminum trays and shade dried. The dried latex is then packed in
polythene bags. Before drying, potassium meta-bi-sulphate (KMS) 0.05% has to be
added to the latex for better colour and keeping quality. The latex can also be dried
in oven at a temperature range of 50-55 OC.
Papain yield ranges from 1.23g to 7.45g per fruit and the cultivar. Washington
variety recorded the highest mean yield of 7.45g per 100-150g of dried latex / tree /
year.
Varieties suitable for Papain: CO-2, CO-4, CO-5, Coorg honeydew, Pusa majesty
and Pusa delicious.
Time for papain extraction: Cool and wet period–gives more papain. July to
August is the best period.
62
POMEGRANATE
Botanical name: Punica granatum Family: Punicaceae
Origin: Iran (Persia)
Pomegranate was introduced into India from Persia or Afghanistan. It is a favourite table
fruit in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. In India it is a well-known and widely
grown fruit.
The fruit is liked for its cool and refreshing juice besides its use as a table fruit. It also
possesses a no. of medicinal properties. The juice is considered to be useful for patents
suffering from leprosy. The bark and rind of the fruit are commonly used against
dysentery and diarrhoea. The rind of the fruit is also a source of dye, which gives
yellowish brown colour and is used for dyeing wool and silk. Flowers yield a light red dye
used in dyeing clothes. Tannin also occurs in all parts of the fruit and is used in tanning
leather.
The fruits are a good source of sugars (14-16%), minerals (0.7-1.0%) and a fair source
of Iron (0.3-0.7 mg/100 g.)
In A.P it is grown in Ananthapur, Rangareddy, Medhak, Mahaboobnagar and Adilabad
districts.
63
Climate: pomegranate is mainly subtropical fruit However; it can adopt itself to wide range
of climatic conditions and can grow up to 1800m above sea level. The tree grows best in
semiarid climate where cool winter and hot dry summer (Which is present in Baluchistan,
Afganisthan and Iran) prevail. The tree requires hot and dry climate during the period of
fruit development and ripening. The optimum temperature for fruit development is
38OC.The tree can not produce sweet fruits unless the temperature is high for a
sufficient long period. Under subtropics it is deciduous in nature while in tropics it is
evergreen. Under humid conditions, the sweetness of the fruit is adversely affected.
Therefore it is considered that pomegranate is a hardy fruit and can thrive well under
drought conditions though the yield is low.
In areas of low temperature, the tree behaves as deciduous in nature and sheds its leave
during winter months. Aridity and frequent anomalies of the climate cause leaf shedding
and fruit cracking.
Soils: It can be grown on varied types of soil. The deep loamy or alluvial soils are ideal
for its cultivation. It can tolerate soils, which are slightly alkaline. It can thrive well on
comparatively poor soils where other fruits fail to grow. It can also be grown in medium
and black soils. It is rated as salt-hardy fruit plant.
Propagation: Pomegranate plants raised from seed vary widely and are
undesirable. Thus they must be raised vegetatively. Among the vegetative methods
of propagation hard wood stem cuttings, air layering and root suckers are the
important methods. Among these methods, stem cuttings are universally used for
raising plants on commercial basis.
Stem cuttings: Mature wood is used for making the cuttings. Cuttings of 20-25cm.
long are prepared from high yielding plants of 1-year-old wood. The best time for
making the cuttings is December-January when the plants shed leaves.
Treatment of cuttings with IAA 200 ppm or soaking basal part in 50 ppm solution for
18 hours improves rooting markedly. During monsoon season in S.India the cuttings
are planted directly in the nursery beds or in polythene bags. Rooting starts in 15-20
days after planting. The plants are usually ready for transplanting with in 8-9 months.
Air layering: Pomegranate can also be propagated by air-layering or goote.
Treatment with 10000 ppm Indole Butyric acid in lanolin paste was found to improve
64
rooting. The best period for air layering is rainy season. The survival of rooted layers
is poor in the field. Simple layering can also be practiced.
Root suckers: Healthy root suckers are taken out carefully and planted in the
beginning of monsoon season. This method of propagation is possible on a very
small scale because the availability of root suckers in large number is very difficult.
Varieties:Initially many cultivars of pomegranate were introduced in to India from
Afghanistan, Iran and Iraq, but they failed to establish because of disorders caused
by non-availability of chilling requirement during winter season.
Several types of pomegranate cultivated in India are distinguished by the shape of
the fruit, the colour, thickness of the rind, taste and colour of the seeds. The rind
may be thick or thin; colour may vary from pale yellow to crimson. The seed pulp in
superior types is thick; flesh is very juicy, while in inferior types it is thin. The seed
coat varies in hardness. Some of the soft seeded types are known as seedless. Lack
of lignification of the testa is the main cause of seedless ness in pomegranate.
Good taste, flavour and attractive seed colour (Aril) are favoured by the consumers,
but all these characters are not found in any single cultivar. However on the basis of
yield and other quality characteristics various varieties have been recommended for
commercial cultivation. The important commercially grown varieties are-Bhagwa,
Bedhana, Jodpur, RedDholka, Ganesh, Alandhi, Musket Red, Jalore seedless,
jyothi, Papershell
The edible part of pomegranate fruit is the juicy outgrowth of the seed called the
aril.
Hybrids:
Mridula: MPKV Rahuri, Maharastra, developed this variety. A seedling selection
from an open pollinated progeny rose from F1 progeny of a cross Ganesh X Gul-esha
Red. Fruits are medium sized, rind smooth, and dark red in colour. Arils are
blood red with very soft seed, juicy and sweet taste. It is significantly superior to
other commercially grown pomegranates. The fruits weigh between 230-270g.The
TSS of the fruit is 17-18OBrix and acidity of 0.47%.
Ruby: This was released from IIHR-Bangalore. This is a complex hybrid between
Ganesh, Kabul, Yercaud and Gul-e-sha Rose pink varieties. The fruit weighs
between 225-275g.The-rind colour is red, seeds are soft with dark red coloured arils
having TSS of 17O Brix and 0.64% acidity.
The other important varieties are Spanish Ruby, Vellodu, Kabul, Khandhari, and
Arakta
Land preparation and planting: Land is prepared thoroughly prior to pit digging It
should be well leveled. Pits are dug 60-75 cm3 before the on set of monsoon. The
65
pits are filled with 20-25 kg of FYM or Compost, 1 kg. Of super phosphate and 25
grams of phorate granules with the good soil mixture. The plants are planted usually
in the beginning of the monsoon in S.India and January to mid February i.e., during
dormant period in N.India, in square or hexagonal system of planting. The distance
of planting in case of many improved varieties is 5.0 X 4.0m. It was also
recommended that for higher yields for the first 4-5 years after planting, a distance of
5X2m may be adopted and alternate plants may be removed afterwards maintaining
a planting distance of 5X4m. However planting distance of 3.0 X2.5 or 4X2 m has
been reported to produce high and economic yield of good quality fruits.
Irrigation: The newly set plants require regular irrigation so that the roots become
well established and the plants can start growth. The plants may be individually
watered daily or about a week after planting. In northern India where planting is done
during the spring, regular watering may be given every 7 to 20 days till the start of
the monsoon. In areas where planting is done during the monsoon, irrigation may be
given whenever there is no rain for a prolonged period of time. After the plants are
well established, in about 6 months, they can stand considerable amount of drought
and irrigation may be given at intervals of 2 to 4 weeks depending upon the soil,
climate, weather conditions and intercrops grown. Regular irrigation is essential from
flowering to ripening of fruits, as irregular moisture condition results in dropping of
flowers and small fruits.It may also development of cracks on mature fruits, which
reduces market value and consumer acceptance.
Manures and fertilizers: It is a hardy fruit plant, growing successfully in low fertile
soils. Its productivity can be increased by application of manures and fertilizers. Both
macro and micro nutrients affects its growth, development and productivity. One
year old plants should be manured with about 10 kg.of FYM and 150 to 200 grams
of Ammonium sulphate.This amount is increased every year, so that a five year old
plant gets 50 kg FYM and 1 Kg of Ammonium sulphate.The adult bearing trees are
applied with 675g of Nitrogen, 250g each of Phosphorous and Potash. In case of
zinc deficiency Zinc sulphate @ 5 g per litre of water is dissolved and sprayed twice
on the new foliage. For controlling boron deficiency, application of Borax @ 12.5 g
per plant to soil or borax @ 2 g per litre is dissolved in water and sprayed.
Training: Pomegranate may be trained as multi-stemmed tree or single stemmed
tree.
(ii) Single-stemmed tree: The single stem is left by removing all the side shoots at
the time of planting. The main stem is headed back at a height of about one metre
results in the formation of branches. Four or five well distributed branches on all
sides above 60 - 75 cm from the ground level are allowed to grow. In the third year
of planting one can maintain desired shape of the pomegranate. Single stemmed
tree has tendency to produce less number of shoots.
66
The single stem system has its own disadvantages. The plants have a tendency to
produce ground suckers, making the plant bushy. As such it is rather difficult to train
the plant to a single stem. The crop is highly susceptible to stem borer and shoot
hole borer. More over this system is hazardous. Thus single stem system of training
is uneconomical for commercial cultivation. Therefore multi stem system of training
is more prevalent in the country.
(i) Multi-stemmed tree: In this method 3 - 4 stems are left at hill and remaining
shoots are removed. In Maharashtra, the growers prefer multistem training by
retaining all stems. But yield has not been found to be affected by number of stems
per plant.
Pruning: Pomegranate plants don‘t require pruning except removal of ground
suckers, water shoots and criss cross branches, dead and diseased twigs and giving
a shape to the tree. In pomegranate fruits are borne terminally on short spurs arising
from matured shoots, which have the capacity to bear fruits for 3-4 years. With the
advance in age they decline. Limited pruning of exhausted spurs to encourage the
growth of new ones is practiced.
Flowering and crop regulation: Depending on climatic conditions of a particular
location, pomegranate has different flowering and fruiting seasons in India. Under
tropical climate of S.India, with mild winter, the growth and flowering continues
through out the year. Similar pattern is also observed in sub-tropical, central and
Western India. In the above areas there are three seasons of flowering. In N.India
two seasons of flowering have been reported. In temperate climate the flowering is
seen in one season i.e.during April. The flowering period of different cultivars is also
quite variable. Under Delhi condition, depending on cultivar grown, the flowering
may be once or twice.Dholka, Khandhari, Muskat and Patiala flowered only once in
a year, while Ganesh and Japanese dwarf flowered twice.
Pomegranate produces flowers on previous season‘s growth as well as on one year
to two years old spurs. Flowers are borne in clusters or in single depending upon the
character of the variety. Flowers are borne on leaf axils and also some times
terminally. These flowers are hermaphrodite, male and or intermediate.
The three distinct seasons of flowering in Pomegranate have been named as:
1. Ambe bahar (February-March)
2. Mrig bahar (June-July)
3. Hasta bahar (September-October)
Bahar Treatment for crop regulation: A fully grown pomegranate has a tendency
to bear flowers and fruits through out the year. Owing to this, higher yield is not
obtained during any period. Therefore, to obtain higher fruit yield during a particular
period, pomegranate plants are given a resting period by which the natural tendency
of trees is altered with artificial means. Manipulation of flowering in a desired
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direction is called bahar treatment. This treatment also helps in getting uniform and
good quality fruits with a maximum production with fewer incidences of pests and
diseases.Bahar treatment include root pruning, root exposure, use of chemicals, with
holding water for about two months before flowering.
Selecting a bahar at a location depends on:
Availability of water for irrigation
Occurrence and extent of fruit damage by insect-pests and diseases affecting
fruit quality.
Climate of the area
Availability of fruit in the market
Comparable yields
Normally only two bahar treatments are followedi.e.Ambe- bahar and Mrig-bahar.
Hastha-bahar is seldom selected. For practicing Hasth-bahar, the trees have to be
forced to go in to dormancy by with holding water during August-September. This is
rather uncertain because of the rains that occur during this period.
Ambe-bahar is practiced by with holding water after the end of monsoon. When the
trees shed their leaves in October-November, subsequent land operation, manuring
and irrigation induce the plants to flower during December-January and the fruits
mature during July-August. This bahar is economical wherever irrigation facilities are
available.
For Mrig-bahar, the growth of plants has to be suppressed during December-April by
withholding water. The trees shed their leaves in March and remain dormant till May.
Subsequent soil operation followed by application of manures and fertilizers and
irrigation till the rainy season, induce flowering and fruiting where the fruits are
harvested during October-November.
Harvesting: Generally the fruits ripen in about 5 to 7 months from the time of flowering
stage. Mature fruits should be immediately picked from the plants after maturity stage, as
delay in harvesting leads to fruit cracking.
Fruits are harvested in the morning and evening times. Fruits should not be twisted and
harvested. Fruits should be harvested with the help of clippers retaining 1 cm of the stock.
All the fruits should be harvested in 2 to 3 pickings with in a span of 1 month.
Immediately after harvesting the fruits are kept in plastic crates and taken to a cool place.
Afterwards the fruits are cured in shade. This will make the skin harder and will stand
better in transportation
Maturity indices:
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a) Fruits are ready for harvesting in about 150 to 170 days.
b) External colour of fruit changes from green to yellow or red yellowish brown.
c) Fruit becomes soft.
d) Ridges on the fruit become flat.
e) Floral parts on the fruit dry out.
f) Fruits when tapped produce a metallic sound or cracking sound.
g) Acidity of the fruit should be less than 1.85%.
h) Basal beak shaped portion shrinks at the time of maturity.
Fruits harvested at a premature stage show poor keeping quality and are prone to
damage during handling and transport.
Physiological disorder:
Fruit cracking: It is a serious problem and is more intense under dry conditions of the arid
zone. The fully grown mature cracked fruits though sweet loose it’s keeping quality and
becomes unfit for marketing. They are liable to rot qualitatively. The cracked fruits show
reduction in their fruit weight, grain weight and volume of juice. It is mainly associated
with fluctuation of soil moisture, day and temperature, relative humidity and rind pliability.
This disorder may also develop due to boron deficiency in young fruits and moisture
imbalance in mature ones.
Prolonged drought causes hardening of peel. If this is followed by heavy irrigation or rains
the pulp grows and peel cracks. Cracking of fruits is also due to rise in air temperature
during fruit growth and development. It is also a varietal character, since the rind
thickness and texture are related to proneness to cracking. The percentage of cracked
fruits is also related to season. Mrig-bahar (June-July) crop is more susceptible to fruit
cracking because of variation in humidity. Ordinarily regular rains are received up to
August, so that the fruit continues to develop. If there is a break in rains the growth of the
fruit is arrested. As a result of this dry period the skin looses its elasticity and becomes
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hard. When there is a rain again the growth restarts resulting in cracking of fruits because
of lack of elasticity of fruit rind.
Control :
Adequate and regular irrigation and interculture throughout the bearing period.
Cultivating tolerant/less prone types like Karkai, Guleshah, Bedana, KHog and
Jaloreseedless and avoiding cultivation of susceptible varieties like vellodu, Kabul
and Khandhari.
Spraying Borax@ 0.1 to 0.2%
Spraying of GA3 in the month of June at 250ppm
Planting wind breaks around the garden.

Lecture 8. Production technology of Apple, Pear and Peach – origin – importance – climate-
soils – varieties – propagation – methods of propagation –rootstocks – planting – land
preparation – system of planting – spacing – digging of pits – filling of pits – application of
manures – season of planting – spacing – digging of pits – filling of pits – application of manures
- season of planting – planting of pollenizers – training –system of training adopted – pruning –
pruning for sanitation and production of new spurs – irrigation –manuring – intercultivation and
inter cropping – harvesting – maturity indices – yield.

th Bihar.
Litchi fruit is a single seeded nut and its edible portion is aril.
Climate: The litchi is exacting in its climatic requirements. This is the most important
factor in the spread of this delicious fruit. It requires a moist subtropical climate
without heavy frost or hot dry winds. The four essentials for litchi cultivation are said
to be (I) freedom from frost (2) high humidity (3) rich deep soil and (4) abundant
moisture. The plants grow luxuriantly at 30OC.The maximum temperature during
flowering and fruit development varies from 21OC in February to 380C in June in
Bihar. The dry and hot winds in summer causes fruit cracking and subsequently
damage the pulp.
Soils: It grows in variety of soils. However fairly deep, well drained loam soil rich in
organic matter is best suited for its cultivation. Light sandy loam soils are ideal for its
cultivation. High lime content in soil is also beneficial to its trees. If soil is deficient,
lime must be added to it .A sandy loam or clay loam with a pH of 5.5 to 7.0 and
sufficient soil depth is ideal for litchi cultivation.
Varieties: A large number of varieties are grown in different parts of India. Of these
Saharanpur Early bedana, Dehra doon, Culkattia, Muzzafarpur, Late bedana,
Swaran roopa are important. Swarna Roopa is an improved variety evolved through
selection.
Propagation: Litchi is raised both through seed and vegetative means. Propagation
by seed is not common because the plants raised from seed take 7 to 12 years to
come into bearing. These plants normally don‘t produce true to type fruits and often
produce fruits of inferior quality. More over, the litchi seeds loose their viability with in
4 or 5 days after removal from the fruit. Hence, the litchi is commercially be
propagated vegetatively. The most common method of propagation is air layering or
gootee.The best time for air layering is June.
Planting: Before planting, the land should be cleared and leveled. The pits of
1mX1mx1m size should be dug as per the lay out, a few weeks before planting. The
pits are refilled with a mixture of FYM (20-25 kg), bone meal and sulphate of potash
(400g) with a basket full of soil from a litchi orchard containing mycorrhizal fungi. It is
helpful in establishment and quick growth of newly planted plants. The pits are
watered to set this mixture with the earth. Planting is done after a week. Water is
applied immediately after planting.
Litchi trees are usually planted in a square system and the spacing adopted varies
from 9 to 12 m.
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6-9 months old true to type plants, with fine roots should be selected for planting.
Early monsoon season is the best time of planting. Planting can also be done in the
spring, if irrigation facilities are available.
Training and Pruning: Training of young litchi plants for making a good frame work
is necessary. Once the desired shape and a strong frame work is achieved, pruning
is not required, except removing dead or diseased branches and damaged shoots.
In India, this occurs indirectly when a part of the shoot bearing the cluster of fruits is
removed during harvesting. However, heavy pruning of trees causes profuse
vegetative growth resulting in poor fruiting. If trees becomes too old and produce
small fruits, pruning heavily improves the yield and quality of fruits.
Manures and fertilizers: In India litchi is grown mostly in natural fertile soil. A little or
no manure is given. The acute shortage of NP and K seems to stunt all forms of litchi
growth, including floral initiation.
The fertilizer schedule recommended in Bihar where most of the litchi area exists.
Manure/Fertilizer
First year
Increasing amount
every year
(Up to 5-6 years)
Fertilizer
dose of full
bearing tree.
Compost 20 kg 10 kg 60 kg
Castor cake 1 kg ½ kg 5 kg
Neem cake ½ kg ½ kg 3 kg
Single super phosphate 2 ½ kg ½ kg 5 kg
Muriate of potash 100 kg 50 kg 0.5 kg
Calcium nitrate -- ½ kg 0.002 kg
Fertilizer should be applied just after harvesting during the rainy season. Applying
fertilizers late in the season results in more vegetative growth and less fruiting. The
plants grown under deficiency of NPK can flower but don‘t set fruits. The plants
grown under magnesium deficiency don‘t even bloom.
Irrigation: January end to the onset of monsoon is a critical period for irrigation
since vegetative growth and fruit development takes place. Four months prior to
normal floral initiation period (December to January) in northern India, the plants
should not be irrigated. Though litchi is a deep rooted perennial crop, the absorbing
roots occur mostly in the upper topmost soil layer between 20 and 30 cm depth.
Therefore, this zone should have 50% soil moisture during the critical period. Young
trees should be irrigated by the basin method. The fully grown trees are irrigated by
flooding or by furrow irrigation depending on the availability and source of water as
per their requirement. The frequency of irrigation ordinarily depends upon type of
soil. Generally weekly irrigation is given in summer. No irrigation is required during
winter in fruiting trees before fruit set.
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Interculture: Maintenance of good sanitary conditions is must to keep litchi orchards
healthy and disease free. Litchi is a shallow rooted tree with most of its feeding roots
occurring 20-30cm deep. Therefore, deep tillage is harmful for its plants, since it may
cause injury to roots. Tillage operations should be limited to upper 7-10cm depth of
the soil layers. Litchi orchards should be given tillage for 3-4 times a year and must
be kept of weeds. Raising of cover crops or intercrops is very beneficial. Summer
cover crops are especially beneficial for maintaining humidity.
Inter-cropping: Inter-cropping of young orchards provides the much needed income
during the period when litchi plants are not bearing. Leguminous crops like peas,
beans, and grams are to be preferred for this purpose. The young orchard can also
be planted with filler trees of papaya and phalsa.
Harvesting: The no. of days taken by the fruit to mature varies with genotype and
environment and hence cannot be the deciding factor for its maturity. Generally litchi
fruits mature 50 to 60 days after fruit set. The development of colour on fruits is
dependable criterion of maturity but it differs from variety to variety. Generally fruits
turn deep red when fully ripe. Fruits harvested at this stage possess excellent
quality. Maturity of fruit is also determined by the shape of the tubercles which on
ripening becomes some what flattened and the epicarp becomes smooth. The fruits
are harvested in bunches along with a portion of the branch and a few leaves. It
prolongs the storage life of the fruits. Harvesting of litchi is usually done in May and
June. The fruits for local market should be harvested at their full ripe stage, while for
distant markets when they start turning reddish.
Yield: In India the yield varies from 80 to 150 kg fruits / tree / year depending upon
variety and tree vigour.
APPLE
Botanical Name: Malus pumila / Malus sylvestris
Family: Rosaceae Origin: South West Asia
It is the most important temperate fruit. It is the premier table fruit of the world. Apple
is also called as ―King of temperate fruits‖. It is under cultivation since time
immemorial.
It is a rich source of easily assimilable carbohydrate and it is also fairly rich in
calcium, phosphorous and potassium. It also supplies vitamin B and C.
In India it is predominantly grown in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and
hills of Uttar Pradesh, accounting for about 90% of the total production. Its cultivation
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has also been extended to Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Nagaland, and Meghalaya in
north-eastern region and Nilagiri hills in Tamilnadu.
The apple growing areas in India don‘t fall in the temperate zone of the world but the
prevailing temperate climate of the region is primarily due to snow covered
Himalayan ranges and high altitude which helps to meet the chilling requirement
during winter season extending from mid-December to mid March.
Botanically apple fruit is a false fruit (Pome) with fleshy thalamus as edible portion.
Most of the commercial apple varieties are diploids. Triploids are rare.
Climate: Most of the apple varieties require 1000 to 1500 hours of chilling at below
70C during winter to break the rest period. These conditions are available at an
elevation of 1500 to 2700m above mean sea level in the Himalayan ranges. By and
large the average temperature should be around 21 to 240C during active growth
period. The areas with frost free spring and adequate sunshine during summer with
out wide fluctuations in temperature are most suitable for apple cultivation. Low
temperature, rains and cloudy weather during flowering period hamper the bee
activity, affecting cross pollination adversely. Dry winds during summer desiccate
flowers and hampers bee activity, resulting in poor fruit set. Well distributed rainfall
of 100 to 125cm through out the growing season is most favourable for its optimal
growth and fruitfulness. Long drought spells during fruit development and excessive
rains and foggy conditions at fruit maturity hamper fruit size and quality.
SOILS: Soil depth, drainage and pH determine the suitability of soil. Loamy soils rich
in organic matter having a pH of 5.5 to 6.5 with gentle to moderate slope, proper
drainage and good aeration are most suitable. The soil should be free from hard
substrata and water logged conditions. The presence of lime in the soil is good for
apple cultivation.
Varieties: Apple varieties should have climatic adaptability, attractive fruit size,
shape, colour, good desert quality, long shelf life, resistance to pests and diseases
and tolerant to drought conditions besides high productivity.
In apple there are two types of varieties i.e. diploids and triploids. The diploids
usually have plenty of pollen and are self fruitful. The triploids on the contrary are
self unfruitful and productive only when they are pollinated by diploid varieties.
Golden delicious and red gold are recommended pollenizers in apple.
Diploids : Red-delicious, Yellow delicious, Jonathan etc.
Triploids: Baldwin, Beauty, Tropical beauty.
Some of the promising cultivars recommended for important apple growing regions
of the country are:
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Diploids- Reddelicious, Yellowdelicious, Jonathan- Triploids- Baldwin, Beauty,
RomeBeauty, Ambri, Sunheri, Ambstarking, Ambroyal, Ambrich, Chaubattia
Princess, Chaubattia Anupam, Ambred Red.
The cultivar Ambri is Indigenous and extensively grown in the Kashmir valley.
In apple some early maturing and good quality hybrids were developed at various
research stations in India.
Some of the hybrids developed and their parentage are
Lal Ambri ( Red Delicious X Ambri ), Sunehri ( Ambri X Golden delicious ),
Ambstarking ( Starking delicious X Ambri 81), Ambroyal ( Starking delicious X
Ambri 84), Ambrich ( RicharedXAmbri 15), Chaubattia Princess ( Delicious X
Early Shanburry ), Chaubattia Anupam ( Delicious X Early Shanburry ),
Ambredred ( Delicious X Ambri 57 )
Propagation: Apple plants are commercially raised by vegetative means, since
seedling plants are not true to type. Apple is generally propagated by budding or
grafting on seedlings of crabapple, golden delicious etc. Shield budding is done with
buds of current seasons growth in June. Among grafting methods tongue grafting is
the ideal method. Grafting is done in spring. Malling IX root stock is popular which
was introduced from East Malling research station, England. Several Malling root
stocks developed in England are vegetatively propagated. They can be used to
control the vigour of the plants and have resistance to wooly aphis, a pest on apple.
Crab apple Malus baccata is most commonly used rootstock of apple in India.
Planting: In flat and valley areas‘ planting is done in square and hexagonal system
of layout, in slopes contour / terrace planting is preferred.
Pits of 1m3 size are made and kept open for a month and filled with a mixture of 40-
50kg of FYM + 500g of Super phosphate + top soil. The soil is allowed to settle for a
month. Planting is done late in winter after the danger of frost is over. One year old
plants are planted. The planting distance varies from 7 to 10m depending on the
vigour of the rootstock.
Training and pruning: The plants are trained according to growth habit and vigour
of the root stocks. In India the apple trees are trained to modified leader system with
3-5 main branches and a clear trunk of 1.0 to 1.5m.After completion of training in 4-5
years with proper pruning the branches of the tree should make an extension growth
of 25 to 50cm every year to maintain a balance between vegetative growth and fruit
production. Some apple trees bear fruit on short crooked growth called spurs. These
spurs bear for several years. Such spurs should be pruned to encourage vegetative
growth and new spur development in only when they stopped bearing fruits.
Pruning is done when the plants are dormant i.e. in the month of December-
Jamuary.
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Manures and fertilizers: Application of manures and fertilizers start right from
planting of an orchard. The first application should be made at the time of filling of
pits. The fertilizer dose should depends upon soil fertility, type of soil, kind and age
of trees, cultural practices, climate and crop load.
In an orchard of optimal fertility, N, P and K may be applied in the ratio 70:30:70 g/
year age of the tree. The dose should be stabilized (700:350:700gN: P: K per tree)
after 10 years of age. These applications may be supplemented with FYM@10 kg
per year age of the tree with the maximum of 100 kg. Apple trees prefer N, P and K
in the form of Calcium ammonium Nitrate, Super phosphate and muriate of Potash
respectively. In off years the fertilizer dose of NPK may be reduced to 500g, 250g
and 400g respectively.
In bearing trees, FYM along with P and K should be applied during December-
January. Nitrogen is applied during February-March, 2 to 3 weeks before bud break.
The Nitrogen can be applied in two split doses, first dose 2-3 weeks before bud
break and the second one, one month after flowering.
The fertilizers should be broadcasted in the tree basins 30cm away from the tree
trunk up to the canopy drip line and mixed well in the soil.
Irrigation: Most of apple orchards in India are situated in rain fed sloppy areas
where irrigation facilities are inadequate except in flat valley areas. Apple requires
uniform distribution of rainfall throughout the year or needs to be supplemented with
irrigation during critical periods. The most critical period of water requirement in
apple is from April to August, the peak requirement being after fruit set. During
summer months, the irrigations can be given at 7-10 days interval and rest at In3-4
weeks interval.
Harvesting: Since apple is a climacteric fruit, the maturity of fruits doesn‘t coincide
with ripening. The fruits usually don‘t attain full ripe edible quality on the tree while
harvesting. The fruits should be harvested at proper picking maturity to attain proper
edible quality at ripening. Picking of immature fruits results in poor quality fruits
lacking flavour and taste which shrivel during storage. Over mature fruits develop
soft scald and internal break down with poor shelf life. There are several reliable
maturity indices which can be adopted singly or in combination for proper fruit
harvesting. They are:
TSS of the fruit pulp
Ease in separation of fruit from the spur
Change in ground surface colour from green to pale
Change in seed colour to light brown
Fruit firmness
Days from full bloom to harvest
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All the fruits on the tree won‘t mature at a time, thus more than one picking are
required.
Yield: A full bearing tree yields from 40-100 kg fruit. The bearing generally
commences after 5 years of planting and continues for about 50 years. Sveral
varieties of apple show alternate bearing.
PEACH
Botanical name: Prunus persica L.
Family: Rosaceae Origin: China
Peach is an important stone fruit grown in warm temperate zones of the world. The
attractive colour of the fruit with excellent quality, taste and rich nutritive value make
peach a most popular fruit in the world. Among temperate fruits, peach has the
lowest chilling requirement and is earliest in flowering. Processed peaches like
canned, dried, frozen, preserved jam, juice and beverages are also popular
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products. Nutrient rich baby food can also be processed by blending peach pulp with
sugar syrup.
The peach fruit is rich in proteins, sugar, minerals and vitamins. The peach kernel is
a good source of fats, proteins, fibre and minerals.
China is the original home of peach and recorded to be grown as far back as
2000BC from china, the peach reached the mediterranean region very early in the
history and then spread to other parts of the world. Introduction of cultivated peach
into India probably took place in the latter half of the 19 th century.
Smooth skinned mutants allied to peaches (P.persica) are called nectarines and is
classified as P.persica var.nucipersica . It is a non-pubescent peach (Fuzzless) with
smaller, size fruits are called nectarines.
Botanically the fruit of peach is a drupe. Its two types are worth mentioning –in first
group the pulp remains clinged to stone and called clinged stone peaches and in
second group pulp remains free from stone and called free stone peaches. In the
genus persica there is one species ―Nucipersica‖ whose outer appearance
resembles plum but fro inside it is like peacxh.These are called nectarines.
Climate: Peaches require humid climate with cold winter and dry summer. It is
moderately winter hardy and sensitive to low temperature injury. Swelling buds are
injured at - 6.5OC. The chilling requirement of most of the varieties is 850 hrs. Ths
chilling requirement varies from variety to variety and it ranges from 75-850hr.Sites
which are free from early spring frost are more suitable as peaches bloom early in
the season. Deep valleys are not ideal sites because cold air settles in these areas,
and frost and freeze injuries are very common. The land with gentle slope is ideal.
Soils: Deep sandy loam soil rich in organic matter is best for its successful
cultivation. Peaches are highly susceptible for water logging and prefer perfect
drainage. Fertile and heavy soils are hazardous as it makes heavy vegetative
growth and hence results in winter injury. The pH of the soil should be between 5.8
and 6.8. Acidic and saline soils are unfit for peach cultivation.
Varieties: Peach is generally self fruitful except the variety J.H Hale, which is male
sterile. On the basis of their use, peach cultivars can be grouped into table cultivars
and canning cultivars.
Table cultivars: Table cultivars should be yellow fleshed, free stone and with a
regular bearing habit. Eg. Alexander, Elberta, J.H.Hale, Cardinal etc.
Canning cultivars: Canning cultivars should be yellow fleshed, cling stone with a
small non-splitting pit, uniform size, devoid of red colour at the pit and should mature
uniformly. Eg.Certex, Halford, Fortuna, Crawfords early, Golden bush etc.
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Nectarine cultivars: Smooth skinned peaches are called nectarines. These
cultivars are mostly preferred for table purposes. Eg. Nectared, Sun grand, Sunlite,
Sun red, Sun rise and sun ripe.
Propagation: Peach is commercially propagated by grafting and budding. Peach
seedlings are generally used as rootstocks, though plum, apricot and almond
seedlings can also be used. Some times Bhemi (P.mira) is also used as rootstock.
Since wild species produce more vigorous and hardy seedlings than the cultivated
varieties, wild seedlings are preferred as rootstocks.
Nemaguard, Yunnan, Nemared and Shalin are nematode resistant rootstocks of
Peach.
Peaches are commercially propagated by tongue or cleft grafting and ―T‖ budding or
ring budding.
Planting: The planting in peach is carried out during winter season. In hilly areas,
contour or terracing system of planting depending upon the steepness of the slope
and in plains square system of planting is adopted. Pits of 1mX1mX1m size at a
spacing of 6-7m in hills are dug during September-October. In high density planting
a spacing of 3X3m is followed. The pits should be refilled with fertile top soil mixed
with 40 kg of well rotten farmyard manure. 10 liters of chloropyriphos solution
(1ml/Liter) can be applied to each pit to avoid any damage from insects.
Training and pruning: Of the conventional training systems modified leader and
open centre are usually adopted to train peach trees. If sun light exposure is a
limiting factor (hills) vase or open centre system of training is usually followed.
Peaches require heavy and regular pruning because fruiting occurs laterally only on
previous season‘s growth which bears only once in its life time. The pruning of
peach has two important components –Thinning out and heading back of the shoots.
Pruning should be done so as to produce 25 to 50 cm of growth annually under
temperate condition, which is sufficient for maintaining optimum productivity
Manures and fertilizers: Peach requires a higher amount of Nitrogen than other
temperate fruits. Non-bearing trees should be given 454g (1lb) of Nitrogen per tree
for every year of age of the tree. The bearing orchard should receive 1100g (2.5lb)
each of Nitrogen and potash and double this quantity of phosphorous in inorganic
form and 15-25 tonhnes of FYM per ha.
Whole quantity of FYM along with P and K is given during December-January. Half
of N should be given in spring before flowering and the remaining half a month later
if irrigation facilities are available.
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Sice active roots of peach tree are present at 0-60cm radial distance from the trunk
and at depth of 0-25cm the nutrients must be applied in this area followed by mixing
up to the depth of 15cm.
Irrigation: To get optimum size and quality fruits, irrigation is very much essential.
There should be sufficient moisture in soil before the emergence of leaves and
flowers and frequent irrigations are needed during the fruit development. Lack of
irrigation, particularly during dry and hot summer result in fruit drop, reduced fruit
size and quality. At least two irrigations should be given during fruit development.
Irrigations should be stopped a few days before harvesting and at the time of
dormancy, when the plants should become, sufficiently hardened to withstand cool
weather.
Interculture: A peach orchard should be regularly cultivated. Ploughing, which
should not be deeper than 10cm, is generally done in winter. A suitable cover or
green-manure crop may be sown in the rainy season after the fruits are picked and
ploughed-under during winter.
Intercropping: The interspaces in young orchard can be economically utilized by
growing short duration crops like cowpea, soybean, turmeric and pineapple. till the
peaches come into commercial bearing. Exhaustive crops like okra and onion should
be avoided as intercrops.
Crop regulation: Heavy flowering and fruiting are characteristic features of peach
trees resulting in small sized, poor quality fruits and reduction of flowering in
subsequent season. Hence, for production of quality fruits of good size, crop
regulation through thinning is essential.
The criteria for fruit thinning in peach are based on fruit to leaf ratio, spacing
between fruits, number of fruits per tree and expected fruit size. The number of fruits
to be retained per tree after thinning varies with the cultivar, tree vigour and soil
fertility condition. Usually 30-40 leaves per fruit are the appropriate ratio. In thinning
desirable space between fruits is 15 to 20cm.
Harvesting: To get premium price and reduce the losses during packing and
transporting, peaches should be harvested at optimum stage of maturity. A large no.
of maturity indices are there to decide the maturity like – days to maturity, calendar
date, fruit size,firmness,sense of touch, pit discolouration,freeness of pit, taste,
ground colour,sugar,acidity, starch, sugar: acid ratio.
All peach fruits won‘t mature simultaneously. Therefore, these may be harvested in
3-4 pickings at 4 days interval. For distant markets peaches are harvested when
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they attain a good colour but are still hard and ripe, but where as for local
consumption tree ripe peaches are harvested by twisting with hand. The peak
harvesting period for peach is mid-May to mid-July.
Yield: The peach comes to bearing after 2 years of planting. The plants bear for
about 20 years. The average yield of fully grown trees of different varieties varies
from 50 to 125 kg in hills.
PEAR
Botanical name:
(1) French pear Or European Pear or Soft pear: -Pyrus communis
(2)Oriental pear or Japanese Pear -Pyrus pyrifolia
Family:Rosaceae Origin: South-West Asia
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Pears are the only temperate fruit grown to any extent on the hills in South India.It is
next only to apple in importance. It is a rich source of Carbohydrates as sugars and
starch and cellulose and minerals like Calcium, phosphorous and sulpher.
There are two types of pear .They are (1) European pear (French pear) and (2)
Oriental pear or Japanese pear. The European pear is usually characterized by
persistent calyx, fleshy pedicels and pyriform shape. While the oriental pear
possesses deciduous calyx, on fleshy pedicels and the shape of an apple.
The high perishability of pear is responsible for its limited cultivation. Pear is
cultivated at lower altitudes than apples.
Climate: It can be grown on a wide range of climatic conditions, as it can tolerate as
low as -26OC temperature when dormant and as high as 45OC during growing
period. A large no. of pear cultivars requires a temperature of below 7OC for 1,200
hours during winter to complete their chilling requirement to flower and fruit
satisfactorily.
Soils: It grows best in deep, well drained, fertile, medium textured and relatively
more clay soils. It is more tolerant to wet soils but less tolerant to drought than apple.
Pears even do well on poorly aerated heavy soil with high water table which is heavy
in texture for most of deciduous fruits. A soil depth of about 6 feet is ideal for proper
root growth and fruit production. A neutral pH of 6.0 to 7.5 is desirable because Fe
(Iron) deficiency appears on highly alkaline soils.
Varieties: Most of the pears varieties are self unfruitful and require pollenizers.The
following varieties are recommended basing on the results after adopting large no. of
trials. They are: Baghu Gosha, Conference, Early china, Bartlett, Favourite, Hardy,
Nashpati and Kieffer etc.
Pollination and fruit set: Fruit set, in both European and Japanese plum, is a
problem. From fruit set point of view European plum can be divided in to three
important groups namely (1) Self fruitful varieties,(2) Self unfruitful and (3) Cross
unfruitful. It is therefore, safer to interplant with at least one pollenizer variety, while
planting varieties of the first two groups with synchronized flowering period. Both the
self-unfruitful and self fruitful varieties have good pollen and can be used for mutual
cross pollination.
Japanese plum varieties are mostly self-unfruitful and some are self fruitful. It is
therefore advisable to provide pollenizer varieties for both the group of plum.
The dependable pollenizer varieties are Vickson, Santa Rosa, Red Heart, and
Elephant Heart.
To make the pollination of plum varieties more effective, it is recommended to plant
every third tree in every third row with pollenizer. Alternatively one or two pollenizer
rows may be planted after every 2 or 6 rows of a variety.
108
Propagation: Pears are commercially propagated by Shield (T) budding. The root
stocks generally used are the wild Himalayan pears i.e.Pyrus pashia, P.pyrifolia,
P.kashiana. To produce dwarf trees Quince-D root stock is used. Some commercial
varieties are not compatible with Quince-C root stock. By double working using an
intermediate rootstock like Old Home, the incompatibility can be over come. Quince
A is a vigorous root stock
Planting: The pits of size 1m X 1m X1m are dug and filled with a mixture of soil and
compost. For a crop on its own roots an initial spacing of 3mX2m is given which is
changed to 6mX4m after 4-5 years. For pear on quince-D a planting distance of
3.5m X 1.1m is enough since, it has the effect of dwarfing the trees.
Manures and fertilizers: An optimum dose of major nutrients of 600g N, 150g P
and 300g K per tree per year is sufficient to get the maximum yield. It is generally
grown in poor soils. Calcium deficiency in pear causes black end and cork spot
disorders.
Training and pruning: Proper training and pruning of pear trees is essential for the
development of strong frame work, to maintain vigour and growth, spread of fruiting
area uniformly, secure fruits of good size and quality, encourage regular bearing and
to provide convenience of pruning ,spraying and harvesting.
Pear trees are usually trained to ―Modified leader method‖. In this system 4 or 5
well spaced primaries are developed during initial years and then the leader is
headed back.Ths first branch is allowed at a height of 60cm from ground and
subsequent branches 10-15cm apart around the trunk.
In pruning bearing trees, a certain amount of thinning out and heading back of
outward growing laterals are considered adequate. A balance is required to be
maintained between fruit production and vegetative growth. Pear bears fruits on
spurs on 2 year old wood and a spur continues to bear for more than 6 years. The
limbs with spurs over 6-8 years old need to be removed in phased manner.
In hills, dormant season, when the danger of heavy snow fall is over, is the best time
of pruning. Early pruning may result in severe cold injury.
Irrigation: In heavier soils, moisture supply representing 50% or more of the
maximum available moisture in the upper 1m is essential for maximum growth of the
fruit, shoot and trunk. Lighter soils or those with a gravel substratum need more
frequent and heavier application of irrigation.
Harvesting: Fully mature fruits are harvested for fresh consumption, while still firm
and green for canning and distant markets. The fruits are picked individually by
109
giving a gentle twist rather than direct pull. Harvesting should be done in 2-3
pickings at 3-4 days interval rather than single picking.
Yield: The average bearing life of the pear tree in India is 60 years.30-40tonnes of
fruits / ha / year can be expected.
PLUM
Botanical Name: Prunus domestica (European plum) Family: Rosaceae
Prunus salicina (Japanese plum)
Origin: European plum--Caspian Sea (Caucasus region)--Japanese plum-China
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Plum is an important temperate fruit which is used both as fresh and in preserved
form. Of the stone fruits, it ranks next to peaches in economic importance.
There are two types of plum: (1) European plum and (2) Japanese plum. These
were introduced in 1870 into Himachal Pradesh.
European plums are cultivated at higher elevations (1300 to 2000M) and the
Japanese plum at lower elevations (1000-1600M) and in the sub-mountane areas.
Plum fruits supply fair amounts of sugar and minerals like potassium, calcium,
magnesium, iron, zinc and vitamins like ―A‖ and ―B‖ like thiamene, ribo-flavin and
Niacin.
Most of the European plums are self fruitful and Japanese plums are often self
fruitful.
In India Japanese plums are more popular compared to European plums. European
plum is more popular world wide.
Japanese plum bears heavy crops and needs fruit thinning.
Climate: European plum requires a temperature below 7.2OC for 800 – 1000 hours
for winter chilling for satisfactory bud break where as Japanese plums requires
comparatively lower chilling i. e. 700-800 hours below 7.2OC. Areas free from spring
frost are conducive to plum production. Areas receiving 100-125 cm rainfall well
distributed through out the growing season are considered suitable. Areas subjected
to high wind velocities or cyclones are not suitable and can only be used for plum
cultivation by providing wind breaks. Hail prone areas are to be avoided.
Soil: Deep sandy loam soils with good drainage are best suited for plum cultivation.
European plums perform even better on heavy loam or clayey soil.Unfavourable soil
conditions can be over come by the use of appropriate root stocks. Water logged,
poorly drained, very shallow soils with excessive salts should be avoided. The depth
of the soil should be at least 6 feet.
Varieties: There is large no. of varieties in India but for commercial cultivation only a
few are recommended. They are: Santa Rosa, Beauty, Grand duke, Plum red,
Kelsey, wickson, Bur Bank, Victoria etc.
Beauty, Santarosa and Mariposa are self fruitful cultivars and used as pollenizers for
plum. Kelsey, Eldorado, Wickson, Larado and Farmosa are self unfruitful cultivars.
Propagation: Since it doesn‘t breed true to type from seeds, vegetative propagation
by grafting and budding is commonly used for commercial multiplication of plants.
Plum is raised on seedling root stocks of wild apricot (Zardalu) and Myrobalon B
plum clonal root stocks. Tongue grafting, Chip budding and ―T‖ budding are the
important methods employed commercially for propagation of plum. After grafting or
budding the plants take about 2 years to attain standard size plants.
111
Planting: Plants are planted in pits of size 60cm3 at a spacing of 5-6m either way.
One to two year old budded plants are planted during spring before bud break under
extreme winter condition.
Manures and fertilizers: Plum requires adequate amounts of nutrients for better
growth and quality of fruits. Application of manures and fertilizers depends on soil
fertility, type of soil, topography, age of tree, cultural practices and crop yield. For a
bearing tree of 7 years and above 40 kg of FYM and 2 kg of Calcium ammonium
Nitrate(500g N),1560 g of single super phosphate(250g of Phosphorous) and 1,170
g of Murate of potash(700g of potash) should be applied. Full dose of FYM, P and K
should be applied during December and January. Half of the nitrogen should be
applied in spring before flowering and remaining half a month later.
Training: Plum plants are generally trained according to their growth habit and
vigour of the root stock. Training is done to give a proper shape and to develop a
strong frame work of branches. Plum trees are generally trained to ‗open centre
system‘.
Pruning: The bearing habit of the plum is variable. Several varieties of European
plum bear on spurs so; pruning is necessary for spur renewal and 75 to 80%
removal of new growth in each season. The Japanese varieties bear a profuse crop
on shoots and require more severe pruning. Bearing trees are pruned to maintain a
balance between vegetative and reproductive growth. Pruning should be regulated
that the tree makes 30-50cmof extension growth every year.
Irrigation: Plum requires adequate amount of water through out the growing
season. In India most of the plum orchards are on sloppy land growing under rain
fed conditions. Though the annual rainfall is very high, its distribution is not uniform
through out the growing season. Generally, drought conditions prevail during the fruit
growth and development, therefore irrigation is necessary during this period. The
peak water requirement period in plum is May to June, which coincides with the
rapid fruit development period.
Harvesting: Since, plum is a climacteric fruit, it does not attain full ripe edible quality
on tree. So; fruits should be picked at proper stage of maturity. The various maturity
indices are:
Days from full bloom
Firmness of the fruit.
Total soluble solids
Change of ground colour from green to yellow or red depending on the
cultivar
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Yield: Fully grown plum trees yield 60-70 kg of fruits. Harvesting time varies from
variety to variety in different states. Fruits are available in the market from second
week of May to third week of July.

Lecture 9. Production technology of Custard apple – origin – importance – different species

annonaceous fruits – sithaphal – climate-soil-varieties – propagation – different methods of
propagation – raising of seedlings – commercial method of propagation – planting – land
preparation – system of planting – spacing –digging – of pits – application of manures to pits –
season of planting – training and pruning – irrigation – manuring – intercultivation and
intercropping – flowering – factors affecting fruit set- fruiting- harvesting – maturity indices –
yield.

70
Annonaceous Fruits
Annonaceous fruit include custard apple or sithapahal (Annona squamosa),
Bullock‟s heart or Ramaphal (Annona reticulate),cherimoyer or lakshman phal
(Annona cherimola) and sour sop(Annona muricata).Among these fruits, sithaphal
is available on a fairly large area and hence is of commercial importance. The other
fruits mentioned above are not available or cultivated on a large scale and so are of
not commercial importance.
Custard apple
Botanical name: Annona squamosa Family: Annonaceae.
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Origin: Tropical America.
Custard apple has been growing in India from time immemorial. It is found growing
wild in tropical and subtropical parts of India in forest areas and on hill slopes.
Andhra Pradesh is the major custard apple growing state in India.
In A.P it is being grown on a large scale in Mahaboobnagar district in Balanagar
area and in the uplands of Rajhamundry and Peddapuram taluks of East Godavari
district.
The custard apples are rich source of carbohydrates, protein, fibre, minerals like
calcium, phosphorus and iron and VitaminC.They are considered as good energy
source.
Custard apples are mostly consumed as table fruits. They can be preserved as jam,
jelly and are also used in ice creams. Baked fruits are also commonly eaten in A.P.
The edible portion of the fruit is creamy, granular with excellent blend of sweetness
and acidity.
Besides high nutritive value, it has also a high medicinal value. Oven dried kernels of
seeds contain about 30% oil which is used for making soaps and cake is used as
manure. Due to the presence of Annonaine, the leaves stem and other parts of the
plants are bitter. Because of this bitterness goats or cattle do not attack the plant.
The leaves of sithaphal yield a tetra hydro isoquinoline alkaloid, which is a cardio
tonic active principle. It was identified as higenamine. An alcohol Ancorin has been
extracted and this is considered to possess insecticidal property. Traces of
Hydrocyanic acid (HCN) have been found in the leaves, bark, root and seeds.
Climate: Annonas are mostly sub tropical fruits. They prefer warm climate and
moderate winter and humidity. The tree remains dormant for a short period during
cold season i.e. the months of December to February and shed their leaves. The
prolonged cool weather and frost adversely affect its growth. High temperatures
affect fruit growth and yield due to soil moisture stress. Custard apple can thrive well
to an elevation of 1000 meters above sea level. Annual rainfall of 50-75 cm is
considered adequate for its growth and fruiting. Moist climate is favourable for
proper growth and development. Mild summer and evenly distributed rainfall is
favourable for its higher yield. Warm temperature with high humidity and occasional
rains are required for good set and development of custard apple fruits.
Soils: Custard apple grows well on sandy, rocky, gravely and even on heavy soils.
The tree is rather shallow rooted. So, it does not require a deep soil but drainage
should be proper, as it suffers from water- logging. Sub-soil with hardpan or having
high water table needs to be avoided. It can tolerate salinity to a great extent but
doesn‘t withstand alkalinity.
72
Varieties: Custard apple is a seed propagated crop. Custard apple seedlings are
found growing wild in India. Since custard apple is a cross-pollinated crop wide
variation in form, size, colour of the pulp, seed number, quality and yield. This
natural variability available with in the species is often exploited to identify superior
genotypes which are usually named after the place of collection like Balangar,
Washington, colour of the fruit like red custard apple, crimson custard apple, yellow
custard apple and size of areoles like Mammoth.
Some of the varieties grown commercially in different agro-climatic regions of the
country are-Lalsithapal, Mammoth, Balanagar, British Guinea, Pinks Mammoth,
Island gem, Washington, Arka Sahan, Atemoya
Propagation: Both sexual and asexual methods are employed for propagating the
annona plants. However to maintain the genetic uniformity for obtaining higher yield
of better quality fruits, the clonal propagation is a must. Diffrent methods of
vegetative propagation are-cuttings, grafting and budding.
Cuttings: A very high rooting success (90%) has been recorded when custard apple
cuttings were etiolated 15 days before planting treated with NAA 5000ppm and
rooted under intermittent mist. Root cuttings of custard apple have given only 2-5%
success.
Budding: Custard apple can be successfully propagated through budding. Among
the budding methods shield, patch, modified forket and chip budding, shield budding
is most successful. Sithaphal on its own rootstock and on cherimoyer has given 60-
80% success. Budding is done in early spring when the sap starts flowing or in the
autumn. For taking bud wood, dormant, last year‘s shoots should be preferred. The
seedling rootstocks, however exhibit wide variability in growth and yield of scion.
Grafting: It can be propagated successfully by grafting. Among the grafting methods
like tongue, cleft, veneer, inarching, splice, inarch grafting on A.cherimola and
A.reticulata is more sucessful. The latest technique of custard apple propagation is
by veneer grafting. This method is being adopted on a commercial scale at FRS
Sangareddy.
Variability in seedling rootstock performance is a major cause of scion with regards
to yield and fruit quality reduction. It is suggested that clonal propagation of cultivars
or rootstocks would eliminate most of this variability.
Planting: There are hardly any commercial plantations of custard apple in India
except a few orchards in Saurastra region of Gujarat. The fruits come in the market
from semi-wild forests in Deccan plateau.
About 6months to one year old seedlings and grafts are considered quite suitable for
transplanting when they are not raised in-situ.
The pits of 45-60cm3 are dug on deep soil where as dimension of pit increases on
poor soils to 75cm3 to 90cm. Pits are filled with a mixture of top soil, Farm Yard
73
manure (15-20 kg) and 300 grams fertilizer mixture of urea, super phosphate and
muriate of potash in equal proportion. This promotes excellent growth of newly set
plants.
The distance of planting on poor soil is 4m and on good soil is from 5-7m both ways
in square system. Closer planting is recommended in rain fed regions with a view to
improve pollination by maintaining more humidity.
The best time of planting for custard apple is in the beginning of rainy season to
avail the advantage of rainwater.
Training and pruning: Newly planted custard apple plants are trained with wooden
sticks fixed near the stem. It will help to grow plants straight. The plants are trained
to single stem up to 1m height.
The custard apple is very slow growing plant. It forms a small bush with large no. of
branches of various sizes and ages. The fruits are borne on new as well as old
wood. Light pruning of old wood induces better branching of the plant. Pruning can
best be done to avoid over crowding and to promote well spread branches. In
budded plants the growth is uniform and there is very little need for any pruning. The
custard normally goes to dormancy from November to December. The leaves
gradually turn yellow at the time of harvest of fruits and drop with the approach of
winter. The plants remain in leafless condition for about two months in the winter
season and new growth emerges with the onset of spring. Pruning should be carried
out when the plant is to put forth new growth in early spring after dormancy.
Manuring and fertilization: The custard apple is mostly cultivated on poor soils,
thus manures and fertilizers should be applied for better growth and yield. Fertilizer
application checks decline and extend longevity of trees. The flowering can be
advanced by 10-15 days with high doses of nitrogen and phosphorous, but low
nitrogen delayed flowering by over two months. High nitrogen rates resulted higher
flower production while high N, P and K enhanced the fruit set.
For bearing plants 50 kg of FYM, 1 kg of Castor cake, and 1 kg.of bone meal are to
be applied during June-July. 250g of N, 125 g of SSP, 125 g of potash should be
applied in two splits when there is moisture in basins i.e. during June-July, and
August-September. The fertilizer dose for young plants has been recommended as
250g of N, 125g each of P2O5 and K2O.The fertilizers should be applied on the
commencement of rainy season.
Irrigation: The fruit set and development of Annonas occurs during rainy season,
thus they produce a fair crop even without any irrigation. Therefore, annonas are
considered drought tolerant. Two to three irrigations before the onset of monsoon to
promote fruit set and one to two irrigations after the monsoon to increase fruit size
should be given to Custard apple.
74
Water stagnation during heavy rains causes tree decline. Such trees shrivel and
drying of old branches takes place and sometimes they may die suddenly.
Intercultural operations: For good health of the plants it is necessary to keep the
weeds under control. One harrowing during August - September checks the growth
of the weeds and also conserves moisture.
Custard apple bears flower on the current season growth and very rarely on older
wood. The early completion of leaf fall is essential for the initiation of the new
growth. Therefore manual defoliation during mild summer is recommended.
Inter cropping: Intercropping is not generally practiced in Custard apple orchards.
However growing of legumes as inter crops, up to the period of full development of
plant canopy, helps in improving the soil texture and fertility, and it directly affects
plant growth and productivity. Crops like groundnut, black gram etc. in rainy season
and gram, pea etc. in winter can successfully be grown as intercrops.
Flowering and fruiting: Custard apple has a short juvenile period. The plants begin
flowering within 4 years of planting. Annona species bears flowers on old and
current season‘s growth. The flowering period of custard apple is very long
commencing from March-April and continues up to July-August. The peak flowering
is observed in April and May. From initiation, a floral bud develops in to flower in 27-
35 days depending on the species. No fruit set occurs during the entire spring and
summer and it commences only during the rainy season, leaving little period for the
late set fruits to develop before the onset of winter season. The setting of fruits early
in the season is important because immature fruits instead of developing become
inedible in winter season and turn in to stone fruits.
Factors affecting fruit set: A custard apple tree may bear 1500-2000 flowers but
hardly 2-3 percent sets fruit. This low fruit set is due to Dichogamy, high temperature
and low humidity at the time of flowering and lack of pollinating agents.
The setting of fruit early in the season is important, but in India the early flowers
produce no pollen and hence artificial pollination is difficult. It is possible to increase
the set of fruits during the rainy season. By hand pollination of flowers 85% set can
be obtained compared with 30% in natural pollinated ones
Another factor, which may affect the fruit set, is dichogamy. Some custard apple
trees shed pollen in the morning and others in the afternoon. The stigmas are not
receptive when the pollen is shed and the receptivity also remains for a short period.
Hence it is cross-pollinated. Pollen grains are sticky; the wind pollination is very less
effective. There are no insect pollinators in Annona.
Increase in fruit set is possible by application of NAA at 20 ppm during flowering for
3-4 times at 8-10 days interval and spraying with GA3 at 50 ppm.
75
Harvesting: If the fruits are left on the plant unduly long they split up and damaged.
Custard apple fruits are climacteric; therefore they are harvested when they are
mature, firm and plumpy. Fruits are harvested when the segments become
conspicuous and the colour between the segments changes from white to light
yellow or orange. Fruits also changes colour from green to light green. The skin
between the segments turns into light yellow colour when the fruits have fully
matured. It ripens within a week after fruits are harvested. If the fruits are harvested
before maturity the segments held together and the fruits become hard, the pulp
ferments and the quality is poor.
Yield: In custard apple seedling plants start fruiting in 4-5 years while grafted or
budded plants give fruits in 3-4 years. After 15 years reduction in fruiting has been
noted. The period of fruit development from flowering to harvesting covers about 4
months.
A good bearing tree of custard apple gives about 100-150 fruits. Each fruit weighs
about 80-120 grams and contains 30-60 seeds. Well-managed crop produces about
8-10 tones of fruits per hectare depending on the variety grown.
Disorder in Sithaphal:
Stone fruits: The sithaphal plants go to dormancy immediately after the harvest of
the crop. In neglected trees the dormancy starts very early. At this junction the fruits
on the tree suddenly turn brown. Such fruits are known as stone fruits. These fruits
continue to stay on the tree even after the fruits have shed or even after new growth
commenced in spring.
The occurrence of such fruits is common in sithaphal during November-December.
The formation of stone fruit may be due to physiological disorder or malnutrition.
Application of super phosphate and bone meal improves crop yield and reduce
formation of stone fruits. When trees are cultivated and attended properly fruits
reach at harvest earlier than the dormancy period and thus escape development of
stone fruits.

Lecture 10: Production technology of Ber and Phlasa -origin – importance – climate – soils –
varieties – propagation-method of propagation – raising of seedlings and rootstocks uses -
planting – land preparation –system of planting – spacing – digging of pits – filling of pits –
application of manures to pits - Season of planting – training – method of training – pruning for
sanitation and bearing – time of pruning – irrigation – manuring – intercultivation and
intercropping – flowering and fruiting – harvesting – maturity indices – yield.
BER

Indian Ber : Zizyphus mauritiana Chinese ber: Zizyphus jujuba

Family: Rhamnaceae Origin: Indo-China region

Although ber is often referred as poor man‘s fruit, yet it is not a poor fruit. It excels many
important fruits in vitamins and minerals. The ber fruits are rich in nutritive value. They
contain considerable amounts of protein, minerals, vitamin C and carotene. Vitamin ‗C‘
content of ber fruit is more than that of citrus fruits.
Climate: It grows under varying conditions of climate all over India even at an elevation
up to 1000 m above mean sea level. For its successful cultivation, it favours a hot and
dry climate. It can withstand extremely hot conditions but it is susceptible to frost. The
trees shed leaves and enter into dormancy during summer. Under moderate climate of south
India, however, the trees continue to grow throughout the year. It is extremely drought hardy
owing to its deep root system and other xerophytic characters. The tree prefers dry
atmospheric conditions for development of good quality fruits. High atmospheric humidity
is distinctly disadvantageous particularly during fruiting.

Soil: It adapts to a wide variety of soils, varying from shallow to deep and from
gravelly and sandy to clayey. Ber can also withstand alkalinity and slightly waterlogged
conditions. It can also be grown on marginal lands which are unfit for growing other fruit
crops. However, deep sandy loam soils which are neutral or slightly alkaline provide best
media for its excellent growth and fruiting. The ber tree is drought hardy and can grow under the
most hazardous conditions of soil, water and climate.

Varieties: Numerous horticultural varieties of ber are grown all over India. Some of the most
popular varieties are - Umran, Kaithli, Banarasi karaka, Gola, Seb Dandan, Meharun The other
important varieties are Sanur-2, Meharun, Dandan etc.

Propagation: The Ber was commonly propagated by seeds during earlier period. But main
disadvantage of this method is of heterozygosity and variability in seedling progeny. Therefore,
propagation of superior varieties by budding is recommended. Among the different methods
of budding adopted, the most common method is shield budding on a suitable rootstock.
For raising a budded plantation, it is considered best to sow ber seeds in the field itself at
proper distances and use the seedlings thus raised for budding in situ.

The commercial method of propagation of ber in India is by budding. Among the

different methods of budding adopted, the most common method is shield budding on suitable
rootstock.

Rootstock: Two species of Zyzyphus namely Zizyphus rotundifolia and Z.nummularia

are growing wild in India and are known for their extensive root system and hardiness.
The ber plants should be budded on Zizyphus rotundifolia for higher fruit yield. The seedlings
of Z.nummularia are slow growing and become buddable after a long period than
Zizyphus rotundifolia. On the rootstock Z.nummularia, budding forms inverted bottleneck
formation.

Planting: The ber plants can be planted in February-March and again in August
eptember, but the latter season of planting gives a better success. Before the plants are put in
the field, the orchard site should be properly laid out according to the system of planting to
be adopted. 1m 3 pits should be dug and left exposed for one month before actual planting. Pits
should be refilled with a mixture of top soil, about 20 kg well rotten FYM and 1 kg super
phosphate per pit. To avoid the attack of white ants 30 g of carbaryl or aldrex dust is added to
each pit. The refilled pits should be about 5 cm higher than the ground level and irrigated
thoroughly, so that the loose soil settles down firmly. The plant may be set in the center of the pit
with the help of a planting board, maintaining the same level of soil at which it stood in the
nursery. The budding point should remain 15-20 cm high from the ground level. The plants
should be immediately watered after planting. The grafted ber plant is spreading in habit
and grows in to a big tree. The tree requires proper spacing for its healthy growth and
fruiting. For obtaining good yields, ber plants should be spaced at 7.5 m apart in square system
thus accommodating 180 trees per ha. The young bud lings should be stalked to avoid the
breakage at the bud union.

Training: The ber is a spreading type of tree. If it is uncared and left to nature, it tends to remain
bushy and take spreading form creating management problems. So, training and pruning of ber
trees are highly desirable to build a strong framework and to obtain regular and profitable yields.
For developing a strong framework, it is essential to train them right from the nursery stage.
When the scion buds sprouts only one upright growing shoot should be retained at the
time of planting and the others should be removed. Training of ber is carried out during the
initial three years after planting. During the first year, an upright and vigorous main trunk is
developed up to a height of one meter from the ground level by removing all the sprouts.
From this trunk 3-4 well-spaced and favorably located main branches should be allowed and
the rest are removed. These form the mainframe work of the tree. On these primary branches 3-4
upright growing secondary branches are allowed. In the second year, the secondaries
should be trained to carry tertiary branches. During the third year, final balancing and
correction of the tree framework is done, along with first pruning. All the criss-crossing,
dead, diseased and weak shoots should be removed.

Pruning: Pruning is an essential operation in ber production as fruits are borne in the axil of
leaves on the young shoots of current season. Pruning is therefore, done every year to induce
maximum number of new healthy shoots which bear good quality fruits. Pruning consists of
heading back of 1/4 th of previous seasons growth (branch lets and shoots) together with the
removal of diseased, broken and criss cross branches is also necessary to avoid crowding. The
ber trees shed their leaves and enter into dormancy by the end of May. The best time of pruning
is end of May or beginning of June when the trees are in dormant condition. Spraying of Thio-
urea once i.e. 2 days before pruning induces bud sprouting from maximum no of nodes.

Manures and fertilizers: Ber orchards are seldom manured. However, productivity of trees can
be improved if manuring is done every year. The dose depends on fertility status of the
soil. The manurial schedule varies from place to place.
The manurial dose can be split in to two equal halves and applied one during June after pruning
and the other at the fruit set i.e. September-October.

Irrigation: Though ber is drought resistant, it responds well to irrigation. To improve the
productivity, irrigation is a must. However ber trees need not be irrigated during most part of
the year. But irrigation during the period of fruit development (September—December) is
very essential and beneficial. Irrigation is given at 7-10 days interval depending on the prevailing
climatic conditions.

Flowering and fruiting: In ber, the flowering period lasts for about two and half months
from June – August and it slightly varies from place to place. The time of flowering varies in
different parts of India. Flowers are borne in the axils of the leaves of mature as well as
current season‘s shoots.Flowers are hermaphrodite and pollination is mediated by insects. Fruit
setting starts in the second week of October and continues up to first fortnight of November.
Fruit of ber is a drupe. There is a great variability in the extent of fruit set (2-18%) in
ber.This can be increased by the application of GA20ppm and 2, 4, 5-T 20 ppm at full bloom.
After fruit set, large numbers of fruits drop due to various reasons. Extent of this drop

varies from cultivar to cultivar and management practices. It varies from 50-95% of initial set.
Spraying of 2, 4-D at 10-20ppm is most effective in controlling this fruit drop.

Harvesting: Ber trees are regular and heavy bearers. Bud lings start bearing with in three years
of planting. Thereafter it gives regular yields. Under the prevailing conditions of our
state, ber flowers in the months of June to August and the harvesting of fruits begins by
November on wards and lasts up to the end of January. The fruit requires about 120 days to
reach maturity. Under ripe fruits are acrid and don‘t have satisfactory sweet ness, over ripe fruits
on the other hand lose their attractive colour and become red, loosing their crisp and juicy
texture.

Yield:The average yield per tree varies with the variety. It ranges from 100-200 kg.

PHALSA

Botanical Name: 1. Bush Phalsa: Grewia subinaequalis 2. Tree Phalsa: Grewia asiatica

Family: Tiliaceae Origin: India

Phalsa is a subtropical fruit and native to India. It is a successful crop of arid and semi-arid
regions. Being a hardy fruit, can be grown successfully even on inferior and marginal
lands. Phalsa fruits are a good source of Vitamin A and C. Fruits also supply phosphorous and
iron. Fresh fruits have cooling effect. Fruits are used for making juice, squash and syrup. Fruit
contains 55-65% juice, which makes an excellent refreshing drink. Fruits are eaten when they
are fully ripe. They are astringent, cooling and stomachic. Fruits contain seeds; hence they
are not liked much as table fruit.

In India it is cultivated on a large scale in U.P, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya
Pradesh. It is cultivated on a very limited scale in Maharastra, Gujarat, A.P., Bihar and West
Bengal, in South India along the Western Ghats along the Malabar Coast.

Climate: Phalsa can be grown all over the country except at higher altitudes. It relish distinct
winter and summer for best growth, yield and quality. In regions having no winter, the plant
doesn‘t shed leaves and produce flower more than once, thus yield poor quality fruits. Full-
grown plants can tolerate freezing temperature for a short period. The plants can tolerate
as high as 45 O C.High temperature during fruit development favours ripening of fruits. At
flowering time, clear weather is needed, where as rains at that time affect fruit setting adversely.
For raising profitable crop of phalsa, satisfactory arrangements for irrigation need to be made.

Soils: Phalsa can be grown on a wide variety of soils even on moderately sodic soils. It
grows well in well-drained loamy soils. The plant is sensitive to water logging, which
makes it chlorotic. So, soils which have poor sub surface drainage and water logged should
not be selected for commercial cultivation of Phalsa. Iron chlorosis is a common problem in
calcareous soils i.e. it is sensitive to lime. The ideal soil for growing phalsa is the rich loamy
type.

Varieties: There are no improved varieties of phalsa. Some local selections –local and sharbathi
are popular. However, Haryana agricultural university, Hissar has recognized two distinct
types Tall and Dwarf. Dwarf type is commonly grown. It is quite productive.

Propagation: Phalsa is commercially propagated through seeds, which is the easiest and
most commonly used method of propagation. Propagation by cuttings (hard wood) and layers
is also possible with the help of growth regulators (IBA 2500ppm –30,000ppm). In
layering, air layering and simple layering are mostly followed.

Planting: Land is prepared well before the plants are set in the field. Pits of size
50cmX50cmX50cm are dug and re- filled with a mixture of top soil and well rotten FYM in the
ratio of 1:1.To save the plants from the possible attack of white ants add 30g of BHC 10% dust
to each pit. After that the plants are planted in the pits. Eight to twelve months old seedlings
are better for planting in the field. Phalsa plants should preferably transplant in the field
during January-February before they start new growth. The plants being dormant at that
time, they can be lifted from the nursery with bare roots. However for transplanting
during August-September, the seedlings are to be lifted from the nursery along with the ball of
earth. Transplanting in the rainy season is therefore a little more cumbersome and riskier than
that done in the spring, when plants are dormant.

Phalsa plants can be planted at a distance of 2.5 to 3.0m from plant to plant and 3.0 to 4.0m from
row to row. Phalsa is well suited for close planting. Increase in plant density may increase the
yield. The plants can be planted at 2X2m apart in square system accommodating 2500 plants per
hectare.

Manures and fertilizers: Being a hardy crop, phalsa is hardly fertilized. The fruits are borne
on new growth; hence application of fertilizer definitely encourages vegetative growth. In
order to get profitable crops of good quality, full-grown phalsa plants should be given10-15 kg of
well rotten FYM, soon after planting. Nitrogenous fertilizers should be applied preferably in two
split doses one at the time of flowering and second after fruit setting @ 1 kg of CAN or
Ammonium sulphate per bush.

Higher yield of phalsa can be obtained by application of 100 kg N; 40kg P 2 O 5 and 25 kg K 2

O per hectare respectively. Of the micronutrients, Zinc and iron are beneficial for juice content
and berry size. Spraying of Zinc sulphate @0.5% and Ferrous sulphate @0.4% can be done
at pre-bloom and post-bloom stages.

Irrigation: Phalsa is drought tolerant crop but irrigation is essential for higher yield of quality
fruits. First irrigation is needed in February after application of fertilizers. Irrigation during
summer (March-April) at 2-3 weeks interval is desirable.

Inter- culture and inter- cropping: One or two ploughings after pruning the plant is desirable
to control weeds and to incorporate FYM or compost. It is desirable to grow green
manure crop such as green gram, Cowpea or black gram during the rainy season in early
life of the orchard (First or second year of planting). The green manure crop should be turned
into the soil towards the end of rainy season or earlier.

Flowering and Fruiting: Flowering in phalsa starts from February-March and continues
till May. The first flower to open is at the base. The flowers are borne in the axils of the leaves.
The flowers are mostly cross-pollinated and honeybee seems to play a major role in pollination.

Training and Pruning: The phalsa fruit is borne in clusters in the axil of leaves on the new
growing shoots produced during the current season. Annual pruning is therefore very
essential to have new vigorous shoots to ensure regular and heavy fruiting. Phalsa plant is
allowed to develop as a bush; hence, no initial training is practiced. Pruning is an essential
annual operation for obtaining better quality fruits.

Both severe and very light pruning affect the crop yield. The desirable height of pruning
varies from 50-100cm from ground level. The phalsa plants are rather slow in shedding their
leaves in winter. The best time for their pruning is during December-January, when the
plants have shed their leaves and in all cases the operation should be finished well before
the start of the new growth.

Harvesting: The phalsa begin to bear fruits in the second year. A good commercial crop is
usually obtained during third year. In Punjab and Haryana, the harvesting season of phalsa
fruit start by the end of May and lasts till the end of June and in South India it is March-April.
Fruits should be harvested at the right stage of maturity. Phalsa fruits become fully mature in 55
days after the fruit set. Maturity is judged by colour. The phalsa fruit should be picked when the
colour has changed to deep reddish brown and the pulp tastes sweet. Fruits are individually
picked by hand and collected in bamboo baskets cushioned with polythene sheet or
newspaper cuttings. Several pickings are necessary, as all fruits don‘t ripen at one time. The
fruit picking is usually done on alternate days.

Pre-harvest application of Ethephon or Ethrel @500ppm when few fruits start to change
their colour reduces the no. of pickings from 7 to 3 and improves fruit quality in terms of
TSS,VitaminC content and colour development due to an increase in anthocyanin pigment.

Yield: On an average a mature plant provides 2-4 kg of fruits.

Lecture 11: Production technology of Pineapple and Litchi – Pineapple – origin – importance
– climate – soils – varieties – propagation –propagation material – commercial method of
propagation – planting – land preparation – systems of planting – spacing – diggings of pits –
filling of pit – application of manures – season of planting – irrigation – manuring –

Pineapple

Botanical Name: Ananas comosus / Ananas sativus Family: Bromeliaceae

Origin: Brazil

Pineapple is one of the commercially important fruit crops of India and most delicious of
the tropical fruits. It is known as “queen of fruit crops”. .
The fruit is a good source of Vitamin A and B and is very rich in Vitamin C and
calcium. It contains phosphorous and iron. The fruit contains a special enzyme called
Bromelin which digests protein. It provides adequate roughage to prevent constipation.
Fruit is used for table purpose, preparations of juices, slices, tit bits,squash, jam, mixed
jam, candy etc. The fruit juice is also canned. Dried waste after extraction (pomace) is
valuable cattle feed. Pineapple juice is also utilized in the
manufacture of alcohol, calcium citrate, citric acid and vinegar. Fruit of pineapple is
botanically called, Sorosis.
Climate: It is a tropical fruit crop. It thrives well in mild tropical climate. It grows well near the
coasts well as in the interior, so long as the temperatures are not extreme. The optimum
temperature ranges from21-23 O C. At low temperature, no fruit bud differentiation takes
place. It can be grown up to an elevation of 1100m above the sea level; provided they are free
from frost. It requires an optimum rainfall of 150cm which should be well distributed. Where the
rainfall is less, supplementary irrigation must be provided.
Soil: Pineapple can be grown on any type of soil (except heavy clay).However, Sandy
loams, laterites and slightly acidic soils with pH 5.5 to 6.00 are suitable for crop cultivation.
The soil should have a depth of at least 60cm with out hard pan beneath or water
logging. Soils should have low calcium content.
Varieties: There are many pineapple varieties, which are divided into three groups,
according to Hume and Muller’s (1904) classification. They are Cayenne, Queen and
Spanish.Some cultivars grown commercially in India are-Giant Kew, Kew, Queen,
Mauritius, Jaldhup and Lakhat, Charlotte Rothschild etc.
The varieties of Cayenne and Spanish group are dual purpose (fresh fruit and canning)
ones, where as varieties of queen group are grown exclusively for fresh fruit purpose as
they are not suitable for canning owing to deep eyes.
Kew is more suitable for canning because of its shallow and broad eyes and it is shy
suckering where as queen is not suitable for canning because of its prominent eyes
irregular and deep set and it shows high suckering habit.
Propagation: Pineapple is mainly propagated by vegetative methods. It can be propagated
by shoot suckers, ground suckers, slips, crown, and stem bits and from splitted crowns.
However, suckers and slips are usually preferred for planting since they flower comparatively
earlier than crown. Propagation by crowns is very limited. Use of stumps or discs for
planting in India is very rare.
Suckers: Suckers are the shoots arising either from the leaf axils on the main stem below the
fruit or from the base of the plant near the ground. The suckers are preferable for planting, since
the plants bear the first crop earlier than the slips in 14-18 months.
Slips: The slips or the gills are the shoots borne on fruiting stem ie. shoots arising from
immediately below the fruit. Plants from the slips give large sized fruits though late in
production ie.20-22 months for the first corp. Slips are used for planting commonly in shy
suckering varieties like giant Kew and Kew.

Crowns: Crowns are often used as propagating material in Kew variety because of its shy
suckering habit. These are late fruiters and take about 20- 24 months.
Stumps: Stumps are the stocks of the fruits. These are also some times used to make up shortage
of planting material. Stumps are cut into bits known as discs and they are first planted in furrows
and are allowed to sprout. Later the new shoots are separated and planted. This should be
avoided since the resulting plants produce irregular plants with low production.

Preparation of the land - The selected site of land for planting should be prepared very
thoroughly by ploughing and cross ploughing. If the land is undulating terracing should be
practiced. The land should be dug up to a depth of 40-50cm. till a fine tilth is obtained. At the
last round of ploughing or digging FYM or compost is applied. After leveling, the land is
laid out into trenches alternating with mounds for planting the suckers. For double row system of
planting, two shallow furrows about 10-15cm depth are to be opened. Suckers of uniform size
(400-450g) should be selected for planting as they give best yields compared to higher or
lower size categories of suckers. Planting material should be collected from high yielding
well maintained gardens, which are free from pests and diseases.
Preparation of the planting material-At the time of planting few basal scaly leaves of the suckers
should be stripped off to encourage the formation and entry of roots into the soil. Before
planting, the suckers should be dried for one or two days, by spreading them upside down.
Fresh suckers should not be planted in moist soil, otherwise they decay. The suckers should
be dipped in Bordeaux mixture (1%) or
Dithane Z-78(0.3%) and Difoltan (0.2%) to avoid mealy bugs and heart rot.
Planting methods: The popular method of planting pineapple is the double row system.
The two rows are spaced at 60cm apart and in each row the plants are planted at 45cm
apart in such a way that no two plants are exactly opposite each other. The double rows are
spaced at 1.5 to2.0 meters. In this method15,000 to 20,000 suckers can be accommodated
per ha. When it is desired to have more than two ratoon crops, the above method can be adopted.
Otherwise close spacing may be chosen. In this method, early and higher yields are obtained
from a unit area. In this method a spacing of 25X60X105cm or 25X60X90cm is adopted.
This accommodates 49,000 to 53,000 suckers per hectare.
Planting: Planting may be done normally during the rainy season, avoiding periods of heavy
rainfall. July and August are the best months.However, where irrigation facilities are
available, planting can be taken up all-round the year to ensure supply of fruits throughout the
year.
Flowering: One of the major impediments in successful cultivation of pineapple is its
erratic flowering behaviuor.Evenafter 15 to 18 months of growth under ideal management less
than 40 to 50% of the plants normally flowers leading to overlapping of operations and irregular
supply of fruits to canning factories. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to regulate flowering
for better returns as well as to have regular supply to canners.
Regulation of flowering will also be beneficial in economizing labour requirement. To achieve
uniform flowering in pineapple NAA in the form of ‘Planofix’ at 10-20ppm (1ml planofix in 9
litres of water) or a mixture of 10ppm of Ethephon(Ethrel)+2%urea+0.045% sodium carbonate
may be poured (50ml) in the heart of the plants 15-16 months after planting on a clear sunny day.
The ethephon solution should be used immediately after preparation.
Cropping: The plats generally flowers12 months after planting from February to April. The
fruits take about 135 to 165 days to mature and ripen. The fruits ripen from June to
September depending on the variety in our state.
Harvesting: The plats generally flowers12 months after planting from February to April.
The fruits take about 135 to 165 days to mature and ripen. The fruits ripen from June to
September depending on the variety in our state. When at least 2 or 3 rows of eyes at the base
have turned yellow, the fruit is ready for harvest. However for distant markets the matured fruits
are to be harvested. Harvesting may be done with a long, sharp knife, cutting the fruit stalk few
centimeters below the base of the fruit. The fruit with the crown can be kept without damage for
3-4 days after harvest.

Yield: The yield per hectare varies from 40-60 tonnes depending upon the variety.

Ratoon crop: Ratoon cropping is common in pineapple. After the harvest of the first crop, all the
suckers borne on the plant should be removed leaving only one sucker on the mother plant.
Similarly all slips should be removed. Then the plants are fertilized, irrigated and earthed
up so that the plants have good anchorage for the ratoon crop. The crop is retained like this for
four or five years and then removed.

LITCHI
Botanical Name: Litchi chinensis Soun Family: Sapindaceae
Origin: Southern China

Litchi is an important subtropical fruit crop. It is one of the most popular fruits in India both in
fresh and dried forms.Litchi is famous for its excellent quality, pleasant flavour, juicy pulp
(aril) with attractive red colour. Although, litchi is liked very much as a table fruit, dried and
canned litches are also popular. A highly flavoured squash is also prepared from its fruits.
Litchi is also an excellent source of Vitamin C, but it contains insignificant amount of protein,
fat, pectin and minerals especially calcium, phosphorous and iron. Litchi reached India by the
end of 17 th century. The spread of litchi to other parts of the world has been limited and has
taken place only in comparatively recent times. This is an account of its exacting requirements of
climate. Even today, its original region remains the biggest producer of litchi. India ranks
second in the world next to china in litchi production. Most of the litchi growing areas in India
fall in North Bihar.
Litchi fruit is a single seeded nut and its edible portion is aril.
Climate: The litchi is exacting in its climatic requirements. This is the most important factor in
the spread of this delicious fruit. It requires a moist subtropical climate without heavy
frost or hot dry winds. The four essentials for litchi cultivation are said to be (I) freedom from
frost (2) high humidity (3) rich deep soil and (4) abundant moisture. The plants grow
luxuriantly at 30 O C.The maximum temperature during flowering and fruit development
varies from 21 O C in February to 38 0 C in June in Bihar. The dry and hot winds in
summer causes fruit cracking and subsequently damage the pulp.
Soils: It grows in variety of soils. However fairly deep, well drained loam soil rich in organic
matter is best suited for its cultivation. Light sandy loam soils are ideal for its cultivation. High
lime content in soil is also beneficial to its trees. If soil is deficient, lime must be added to it .A
sandy loam or clay loam with a pH of 5.5 to 7.0 and sufficient soil depth is ideal for litchi
cultivation.
Varieties: A large number of varieties are grown in different parts of India. Of these Saharanpur
Early bedana, Dehra doon, Culkattia, Muzzafarpur, Late bedana, Swaran roopa are
important. Swarna Roopa is an improved variety evolved through selection.
Propagation: Litchi is raised both through seed and vegetative means. Propagation by seed is
not common because the plants raised from seed take 7 to 12 years to come into bearing. These
plants normally don‘t produce true to type fruits and often produce fruits of inferior quality.
More over, the litchi seeds loose their viability with in 4 or 5 days after removal from the
fruit. Hence, the litchi is commercially be propagated vegetatively. The most common
method of propagation is air layering or
gootee.The best time for air layering is June.
Planting: Before planting, the land should be cleared and leveled. The pits of
1mX1mx1m size should be dug as per the lay out, a few weeks before planting. The pits are
refilled with a mixture of FYM (20-25 kg), bone meal and sulphate of potash (400g) with a
basket full of soil from a litchi orchard containing mycorrhizal fungi. It is helpful in
establishment and quick growth of newly planted plants. The pits are watered to set this
mixture with the earth. Planting is done after a week. Water is
applied immediately after planting. Litchi trees are usually planted in a square system and the
spacing adopted varies from 9 to 12 m. 6-9 months old true to type plants, with fine roots should
be selected for planting. Early monsoon season is the best time of planting. Planting can also be
done in the
spring, if irrigation facilities are available.
Training and Pruning: Training of young litchi plants for making a good frame work is
necessary. Once the desired shape and a strong frame work is achieved, pruning is not required,
except removing dead or diseased branches and damaged shoots. In India, this occurs indirectly
when a part of the shoot bearing the cluster of fruits is removed during harvesting. However,
heavy pruning of trees causes profuse
vegetative growth resulting in poor fruiting. If trees becomes too old and produce small
fruits, pruning heavily improves the yield and quality of fruits.
Harvesting: The no. of days taken by the fruit to mature varies with genotype and environment
and hence cannot be the deciding factor for its maturity. Generally litchi fruits mature 50 to 60
days after fruit set. The development of colour on fruits is dependable criterion of maturity
but it differs from variety to variety. Generally fruits turn deep red when fully ripe. Fruits
harvested at this stage possess excellent quality. Maturity of fruit is also determined by the
shape of the tubercles which on ripening becomes some what flattened and the epicarp becomes
smooth. The fruits are harvested in bunches along with a portion of the branch and a few
leaves. It prolongs the storage life of the fruits. Harvesting of litchi is usually done in May and
June. The fruits for local market should be harvested at their full ripe stage, while for
distant markets when they start turning reddish.
Yield: In India the yield varies from 80 to 150 kg fruits / tree / year depending upon variety and
tree vigour.
Lecture 12: Production technology of Sapota and Jackfruit –Origin - importance – climate –
soils – varieties- - propagation – methods of propagation – commercial method of propagation-
different root stock s used – planting - land preparation – system of planting –spacing –
digging of pits – filling of pits – application of manures – season of planting –irrigation –
manuring – intercultivation and intercropping –flowering and cropping – harvesting – maturity
indices – yield.

SAPOTA

Botanic name: Achras zapota (Manilkara achras, Manilkara zapotilla)

Family: Sapotaceae Origin: Tropical America

It is a delicious fruit introduced from tropical America. Sapota is mainly cultivated for its fruits
in India while in other countries; it is mainly cultivated for the milky latex produced
from the bark and fruits, which yields a commercial product called ―Gutta parcha” which is
the base for the manufacture of chewing gum (Chicle).

Varieties: The important and widely adopted varieties are Cricket ball, kalipatti,
Kirthibatti, Pala, Baramsi, Guthi, CO2, PKM-1 etc.

A good table sapota should have 2-4 seeds with melting sweet pulp. Thick skinned, hard-fleshed
varieties with sandy texture are considered inferior.

Hybrids:

CO-3: It is hybrid between Cricket ball and Vavivalasa.Trees are intermediate in stature.
Bearing commences fourth year of planting. Fruits are dull brown, oblong sweet and yield
annually about 157 kg fruits per tree.

PKM-2: Hybrid between Guthi and Kirthibarthi. A high yielder with a yield performance
of 1500-200 fruits per tree per year weighing 80-100 kg. Fruits are bigger in size and
oblong to oval shaped. The average fruit weight is 95g.TSS ranges from 25-27 O B.

PKM-3: Developed at Horticulture College and Research institute, Periyakulam, TNAU.It

is a hybrid between Guthi and Cricket ball. It has vertical growth habit and hence lends itself for
high density planting. Fruits are big sized with oval shape and have a cluster bearing habit. The
fruit yield is 14 tones/ha. Other varieties: Baramasi, Chhatri, Jonna valasa, vavivalasa,
Bangalore, Thagarampudi,

Propagation: commercially followed method is softwood grafting

For grafting in sapota various rootstocks are used. Use of proper rootstock is important in
grafting. The different rootstocks used are:
 Rayan or Khirni or pala: Manilkara hexandra

Among the different rootstocks rayan / pala is the most vigorous and productive
rootstock.

Planting: The land is ploughed twice and leveled properly to avoid water stagnation. Pits of
90cm size are dug at a spacing of 8X8 m or 9X9m. System of planting generally
adopted is square system. The pits are allowed to weather for 15 days before planting. Planting is
done preferably during early monsoon period. Each pit is filled with a mixture of 30 kg. FYM,
500 g. Neem cake with top soil. Then the plant is planted in the center. Care should be taken to
see that the graft joint is at least 15cm above the ground level. After planting, the plants are
watered properly and protected from scorching sun as well as from dry and hot wind. The
plants are trained properly up to 3-4 years. The lower most branches up to a height of 60-90cm
may be removed. The root stock sprouts are removed periodically. Irrigation: Though sapota
can tolerate drought conditions to some extent, yet it responds well to irrigation. Young plants
are watered regularly during dry season and at long breaks in the monsoon, winter and
summer at an interval of 6-12 days. In areas where there is water scarcity, drip or pitcher
irrigation systems can be effectively practiced. Insufficient irrigation results in dropping of a
large no. of flowers leading to a loss in yield up to 40%.

Flowering and fruiting: Sapota starts bearing small crops from second or third year of planting
but economical yields can be obtained from seventh year onwards. Flowers appear in leaf
axils on new growth. Under tropical conditions, flowers are seen almost through out the year.
However, there are two main seasons of flowering i.e. March-April and September-October and
hence, two harvesting seasons.

Harvesting: Sapota is a climacteric fruit and it ripens properly and improves in its quality after
harvesting. It matures in about 4-6 months after fruit set depending upon cultivars and
available heat units. The fruit harvested earlier than physiological maturity takes too long to
soften and has poor quality. On the other hand, fruit harvested late soften quickly resulting in
spoilage during handling and transportation. Great difficulty is expressed in determining maturity
because of continuous flowering and fruiting. The fruits to be harvested must be fully mature and
maturity can be judged by several external symptoms as mentioned below.

 Fruits at full maturity develop a dull orange or potato brown colour.

 A mature fruit when scratched shows light yellow streak instead of a green streak,
which is a sign of immature condition. 57

 Brown scaly material disappears from the fruit surface as the fruits approach full maturity.

 As the fruit matures, the milky latex content is reduced.

 The dried spine like stigma at the tip of the fruit falls of easily when touched.

The matured fruits are harvested with stalk intact individually by giving a twist and collected
with out bruising. The fruits thus harvested are spread in a thin layer on a bamboo mats under
shade for an hour or two. To avoid bruising of fruits they are collected in gunny bags and
lowered to the ground carefully. Continuous flowering and fruiting observed in sapota, though
there are two distinct periods of harvest viz; September-November and January-March. At some
locations a third crop during June-July is also obtained in small quantity.

Yield: The yield depends upon several factors such as age of the tree, variety, agro-climatic
conditions of the locality, nutritional and plant protection measures. Bearing starts from 4th year
onwards and economical yields can be obtained from 7th year. It takes 4-6 moths from
flowering to fruit maturity. March to May and September to October are the two distinct
seasons of harvest.

S.No Age Yields

1. 4-5th year 250 fruits per plant.

2. 6-7th year 800 fruits per plant.

3. 8th-20th year 1200-1500 fruits per plant.

4. By 30th year 2500-3000 fruit per plant.

JACK FRUIT

Botanic Name: Artocarpus heterophyllus Family: Moraceae

Origin: India.

It is medium to large sized tropical fruit tree. It gives the largest fruits, which are borne
on small leafless stalks arising from the trunk and main branches of the tree. The fleshy carpel
(Perianth) is the edible portion. Jack is rarely grown as a plantation but preferred very much in
home stead and as a shade tree or as a mixed crop. It occupies a considerable area in coffee
gardens and roadside plantations. It is popularly known as poor man‘s food in the eastern and
southern parts of India.

 It is a rich source of vitamin A, C and minerals and it also supplies carbohydrates.

 Tender jackfruits are popularly used as vegetable.

 The skin of the fruits and its leaves are excellent cattle feed

 Its timber is valued for furniture making since it is rarely attacked by white ants.

 The latex of the bark contains resins

 Pickles and dehydrated leather are its preferred delicacies.

 Canning of flakes can be done. They can be bottled and served after mixing with honey and
sugar.

 Nectar is prepared from its pulp.

 The rind is rich in pectin

 The flakes, seeds, sterile flowers, skin and core contain calcium pectete.

They are considered as good sources of pectin.

Propagation: Jackfruit is commonly propagated through seeds. Seeds should be sown

immediately after extraction, since; they loose their viability during storage. Seventy
percent of the seeds germinate up to 15 days after extraction. But after 30 days storage the
germination is declines to thirty percent. Soaking seeds in NAA 25 ppm or 500 ppm of GA 3
for 24 hours improves their germination and seedling growth. Generally seedlings are raised in
pots or polythene bags and after 1-2 years the seedlings are planted at site. Air layering, grafting
(Inarching and epicotyle) and budding (Forket, chip and patch) are means of its vegetative
propagation. Inarching is normally practiced. Inarching is done on Jack seedlings or
A.hirsuta rootstocks and also on Rudrakshi. The plants attain planting size in one year.

Varieties: Being a cross-pollinated crop and mostly seed propagated, its innumerable types
of fruits differ widely in density of spines, rind, bearing, size, shape, quality and period of
maturity. Such variations among clones offer great scope for clonal selection.

There are two broad groups of cultivated types—soft-fleshed and firm fleshed.

Soft fleshed: When fully ripe, the fruit yields to the thrust of finger easily. The pulp is very juicy
and soft. The taste varies from very sweet-to-sweet and acid to insipid.

Firm fleshed: The rind doesn‘t yield to thrust easily .The pulp is firm and crispy. The taste is
variable in degree of sweetness.

Rudrakshi and Ceylon Jack are the important jack varieties.Rudrakshi is mostly grown
for root stock purpose

Other varieties:

Jack fruit varieties NJT1, NJT2, NJT3 and NJT4 collections from Faizabad(UP) have large
fruits of excellent quality and bulbs having low fibre. They are suitable for table purpose.

NJC1, NJC2, NJC3 and NJC4 have small to medium sized fruits with thin rind and soft flesh.
They are suitable for culinary purpose.

Planting: The land is ploughed in two directions, after clearing of the filed .The plot is then laid
out according to the spacing. In fertile soils spacing adopted is 12mX12m on either side
accommodating 70 plants per hectare. On average soils spacing can be reduced to 10mX10m or
11mX11m. June to August is the best time for planting.
Irrigation: It is not normally irrigated. The tree is sensitive to drought. Irrigation during
dry period is essential in arid regions for normal growth.

Harvesting: Jack produce fruits usually 7-8 years after planting .The fruits are in season
from March to June.

Harvesting Indices:

 A dull hollow sound is produced when the fruit is tapped by the finger.

 The last leaf of the peduncle turns yellow.

 Fruit spines become well developed and wide spaced.

 The spines yield to moderate pressure.

 Development of aromatic odour.

For distant market, fruit should be harvested when still firm and with out any aroma. The tender
jackfruit, which is used for culinary purpose, is harvested before the hardening of the
seeds.

Yield: It ranges from 20-100 fruits / tree. The fruit weight varies from 10-30 kg.

Lecture 13: Production technology of Coconut - botanical name – family – origin –economic
part- importance – botany – varieties –tall, dwarf and hybrids – climate – soil – planting –
manuring – irrigation –intercultivation – harvesting – and yield

Botanical name: Cocos nucifera

Family : Palmae
Origin : Indo-malayan Region ( South East Asia)
Plant part : Tender stems with flower panicles

Uses and Importance:

Most useful palm of the world. Provides food, drink, oil, fibre, shell and fuel, thatch,
beverage, timber for domestic fuel. Hence called as ‘kalpa vriksha’
1. It is one of the cooking media in our country as well as in South East Asian
countries.
2. It produces 60% of edible oil, consisting of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
3. The oil is used in the industry for the manufacture of detergents, cosmetics and
other related products.
 4. The hardened white endosperm which is called as white meat is used for the
manufacture of different products like copra, copra flour and it is being used
extensively in the confectionery and food industry.
5. The liquid endosperm which is a source of minerals and vitamins forms a delightful
nourishing drink.
6. The hard endocarp is called as shell and it is used as a fuel and also for the extraction of
tannins.
7. The coconut leaves are used for covering the thatched houses.
8. From the midrib of the leaf fibre is extracted and is used for making ropes.
9. The thick mesocarp of coconut is used for making attractive, decorative products and
the dust being used for making coco beat which is a media for growing hi tech
floricultural plants and for hardening tissue culture saplings.

Coconut is cultivated in more than 80 countries in the world. India ranks 1 st in

production area and 3 rd in area after Philippines and Indonesia. Most important source of
vegetable oil in the world. Kernel has 65% oil.(oil palm 46%). Copra and coconut oil are the
traditional products for oils and fats. Provide raw material for a number of industries.
Provide employment to more than 10 million people. Coconut based industries include coir
manufacture, copra processing, oil milling and distillery. Export of coir and coir goods alone
earn Rs. 260 million foreign exchange.

Botany:
In the genus Cocos, the C. nucifera is the only species available. The palm is called as caudex
and it is tall, unbranched palm growing to 15-30 meters. Stout trunk raising from swollen base.
It has fibrous roots. Stem terminates into a radiating crown of leaves. Leaves are born at
crown region and they are called as fronds. The leaves are pinnately compound with
swollen petiole. The leaf petiole scars are present on the surface of the stem which are
inconspicuous at the base and prominent above 1 m height. Leaves are long, large,
pinnately compound. Monoecious, one inflorescence in one axil, every month.
Inflorescence is called as Spadix and it is enclosed in a spathe consisting of two boat shaped
sheaths. The inflorescence originates in the axils of leaf and opens at the time of anthesis.
When fully grown, spathe splits longitudinally release inflorescence. The inflorescence
possess main rachis and secondary rachices. Female flowers (buttons) appear at the base.
They are called as buttons. The number of female flowers per inflorescence varies from 10-
15. Female flower has tricorpic ovary. Male flowers are located at distal ends which come to
maturity early that the female flowers. Male flower has 6 stamens; Male flowers open earlier,
so necessitate cross pollination. Female flower production is high during March to May
and low from September to January. Fruit is a large one seeded drupe, round or ovoid in shape.
Fruit has Epocarp (green coloured thin layer), Mesocarp (the cushiony thick layer),
Endocarp (the hard shell), testa, meat or kernel. The water is known as liquid endo sperm. The
white coloured soft meat is known as hardened endosperm or white meat. Embryo is present at
the tip of the meat.

Varieties:
Varieties are classified into two groups i.e. 1. Talls and 2. Dwarfs
Tall varieties: are extensively cultivated. Talls and dwarfs are crossed to produce hybrid
varieties. Ex: East Coast Tall, West Coast Tall, Laccadevi ordinary, Laccadivi micro and
Andaman ordinary.
Dwarf varieties: Short statured, early to bear (3 – 3 ½ years after planting). Palms are short
lived 40-50 years. Trunks are without bole. Fully developed leaf measure 4 meters. They exhibit
alternate bearing. Dwarfs grown for tender nuts and ornamental palms and hybrids.
Exhibit three nut colours – green, yellow and orange. Chowghat orange dwarf (COD),
CGD, Malayan Green Dwarf (MGD), MYD, MOD, Ganga Bondam.

Climate:
A tropical plant. Grow between 260 N and S latitudes. Does not tolerate
extremes of temperature. Generally its cultivation is below 600 m elevation; Can be
cultivated up to 1000 m elevation. Requires humid warm climate with an average annual
temperature of 27 0 C with a diurnal variation not exceeding 7 0 C. When temperature is less
than 22 0 C, palms does not flourish. Temperatures below 15 0 C, impair fruiting. Require
2000 sunshine hours per year with 120 hours per month. Does not grow under shade. If
grown under shade palm become lean and lanky. Palms tolerate wide range in intensity and
distribution of rainfall. Annual rainfall of 2000 mm with even distribution is best for proper
growth. Irrigation is required in the areas of uneven rainfall distribution. Soil moisture
deficit during summer hampers nut production greatly.
Soil:
Adaptable to wide range of soil conditions from light sandy to heavy clays. In
heavy rainfall areas – well drained types of soil. In poor rainfall areas – deep fine soils are
essential. Clayey, black cotton soils, subject to water logging; shrink and crack during dry
periods are not suitable. Sandy soils support good crop, when there are assured sources of
ground water. Laterite soils – should be deep up to 1 m or below without a rock or hard pan.
Alluvial, red sandy and silty loams are also suitable provided they are well drained. Alkaline,
saline soils are not suitable. Ideal pH is 5.2 to 7.0

Planting material: Sexually through seeds.

Selection of mother palm:
1. Middle aged (25-40 years); spherical or semi-spherical crown and 30-40 opened leaves,
an inflorescence in each axil, with at least 2 female flowers on each spikelet and yield high (more
120 nuts per palm per year). Regular yielding, free from pests and diseases.
2. Length of petiole and bunch stalk should be short and stout.
3. Palms growing close to houses cattle sheds, compost heaps etc may be avoided as it is
difficult to identify inherently good trees.
4. Nuts should be medium sized; nearly round or spherical. It should be typical of the variety; 12
months; from January to May. Stored for 30-45 days under shade over a layer of about 7-8 cm.
5. The bunches should have a preponderance of heavy nuts.
6. Trees producing barren nuts should be discarded.
7. Open sites are selected; nursery should be raised in sandy soil. Should have adequate drainage
and irrigation facility.
Collection of seed nuts:
1. The time of harvest of seed nuts vary in different regions
2. West coast seed nuts are harvested during February to March.
3. Seed nuts should be 11-12 months old.
4. Seed nuts should be cut and lowered by ropes to avoid any damage.
5. Seed nuts should be cut and are arranged by their stalk end u on the floor of a shed over a
layer of about 7.5 cm dry sand and completely covered with it till the planting time.
6. For multiplication of coconut selection of mother palm, seed nut and seedling plays an
important role for getting quality plant material.

Coconut being cross pollinated plant mother plant is selected with utmost care. Nursery
should be near a water source. Field should be worked to fine tilth. Field is laid out into raised,
long and narrow beds to accommodate 4-5 rows at 30 x 30 cm. Seeds planted in the nursery at
the beginning of monsoon in shallow trenches 20-25 cm deep) at 30 x 30 cm. Planted either
horizontally or vertically with husk visible. Horizontal planting is preferable, seedlings will
be robust. Suffer less damage, exhibit higher germination and vigorous growth. Irrigated
adequately after planting. Nursery needs regular watering, weeding and plant protection for
getting early and maximum germination. Seed nuts treated with 0.2%. BHC is applied
against termites. Nuts germinate within 10-12 weeks in A.P. In 5 months maximum seed nuts
would germinate. Seedlings distributed at 9-12 months, whereas in A.P. and Karnataka 6-8
month old

seedlings are lifted and planted in secondary nursery at 90 cm to 1meter either

way. Where the planting is done in ponds submerged in water 3 year old saplings are
preferred.

Selection of seedlings:
Seedlings selected at 9-10 months.
1. Early germinated,
2. Healthy and vigorously growing seedlings.
3. With good girth (10-12 cm) at collar region and
4. At least 6-8 opened leaves
5. showing the indication of early splitting are selected.
Selected seedlings are lifted carefully.

Preparation of land: Land is cleared. Ploughed deeply and repeatedly from all directions. On
slopes, contour bunding or bench terracing depending on the degree of slope. Where
water table is high, raised mounds are formed. On plains, leveling is done.
Planting:
Planting is done at the beginning of South west monsoon. If irrigation is available,
planting can be done even in May. In heavy rainfall areas, plant at the end of rains. Planting can
be taken up in the months of June- July and again during September and October. After planting
the plants are tied to a stake and irrigated properly till they are established.

Spacing:
A spacing of 7.5 to 9.0 m in square system. Spacing varies depending on
planting system, type of culture, soil type and variety etc. For tall varieties triangular system of
lay out with 7 to 7.5 m. For dwarf varieties square system with 6 m spacing is adopted. In
monoculture – closure spacing and in case of intercropping wider spacing is given.

Digging and filling pits:

Pits of 1 m cube are dug up during summer and left for weathering. Few weeks
before planting pits are filled up to 50 cm depth, with top soil mixed with river sand, wood ash,
bone meal, MOP and 50 grams BHC 10 % dust. In sandy soils, two layers of Coconut husk
spread at the pit bottom, compost or FYM should not be added to the pit. After filling pits are
watered and allowed to settle.

Transplanting:
 Seedlings are transplanted in the pit by scooping out a small hole in the centre of the
pit. Seedlings should be staked and watered.

Care of young palms:

The care of young palms during the initial 3-4 years will influence the growth of
young palms; bearing age; productivity. Seedlings fenced against cattle, shaded against sun,
regularly irrigated. Pits/ basins weeded periodically, mulched with coir dust, coir / paddy
husk. Protected from insect pests like termites, leaf eating caterpillars, rhinoceros beetle.
Gap filling should be completed within first year. Regular manuring from first year of planting.
Young palms require more Nitrogen and Phosphorous compared to adults.

Applied twice in a year for rainfed crop (May-June; October to November) four
times a year for irrigated crop (April – May, August – September, December and February).
Manures and Fertilisers are applied to young palms at a distance of 25 – 50 cm from the trunk
and forked in, basin size is increased as the palm grows up to 2 m at flowering.

Irrigation and moisture conservation:

Palm needs large quantities of water for satisfactory performance. Due to irrigation,
production of female flowers and setting percentage increase considerably. Irrigation is
more essential in light soils and areas of low rainfall and long spells. Common method is
Basin and flood irrigation; when water is scarce drip irrigation is to be provided. In rainfed
coconuts mulching of basins is required. Trenches are dug all along the row to a depth of
90 cm and 60 cm width. They are filled with Coconut husk layer after layer mixing
with dug out earth. Coconut dust is placed around the plant absorbs the moisture and
maintain cool atmosphere around the root zone. Coconut husk and coir dust (as sponge) absorb
moisture 6 & 8 times by weight and release slowly during dry periods. Decompose
slowly and will lost for 5 to 6 years and 8 – 10 years respectively and add potash to
the soil. Husks/ dusts can be buried in layers alternating with soil in pits or trench dug
up in between the rows of trees at a depth of 0.5 to 1.0 m and 2.0 m away from the palms.

Manuring:
Remove large quantities of nutrients from the soil. Should be replenished
promptly and regularly.
In addition to the above 500 grams Mg SO4 is to be applied along with the adult dose. June-
July and November – December months is the time for fertilizer application in irrigated
conditions. July-August is the time for rainfed conditions. Organic manures are applied during
monsoon. In light soils manures and fertilizers are applied 2 meters away from trunk and
forked in. In other soils trench is dug 2 m away from trunk and fertilizers are applied.
Mixed cropping:
Growing long duration crops in alleys of a perennial. Crop is mixed cropping.
Shade loving or shade tolerant crops are mixed cropped. Ex: Cacao, clove, nutmeg, Cinnamon,
Black pepper. Adequately and separately manured.

Harvesting:
Talls start flowering 5-7 years after planting. Dwarfs flower 3rd year. Full bearing
attained after 2-3 years. Once enters bearing, continuously produce flowering. 12 bunches are
expected year. They take 11-13 months from flowering to maturity. Hallow sound on
tapping, brown colouration of husk are the maturity indices. However coconuts are harvested at
different ages for different purposes are as follows…

Monthly harvests are made for tender nuts. For copra and oil matured nuts are harvested at 45
days interval during summer and 60 days interval during rainy season. 8 – 10 harvests are made
per year. For seed only one harvest is taken per year.
Yield: Tall variety 60-80 nuts under rainfed conditions. 80-100 nuts under irrigated
conditions.

Lecture 14: Production technology of Arecanut – botanical name – family – origin –

importance- botany – varieties – climate-soil- raising of planting material – preparation of land –
planting- manuring – irrigation – intercultivation – cover cropping - intercropping – harvesting –
yield and processing

Botanical name: Areca catechu

Family : Palmae
Plant part : Kernel
There are four important species under Commercial cultivation is confined only to India,
Bangladesh and Srilanka. Areca genus. A. normanbyii, A. triandra, A. macrocarpa and A .
catechu., out of which only Areca catechu is commercially cultivated. Its cultivation dates
back to pre Christian era in India. Cultivated for kernel, which is chewed. In India it is
extensively grown in Kerala occupying 68% area, Karnataka occupy 28% are and the rest of area
is spread out in Tamil nadu, Assam, Orissa and shore areas of A.P. Kerala,
Karnataka and Assam comprise 90% of the total area and production. Arecanut has three
alkaloids namely Arcoline, Arcolidine and Guracine. They help in control of worms in
digestive tract. In India it is being used for chewing along with Betel leaf and offerings
in ceremonial function.

Botany:
Varieties: Indigenous varieties:-
Thirthahalli (Karnataka)
Sreevardhan (Kerala)
Mehatinagar (Maharastra), Sreechakra (from coastal maharastra)
Kahikuchi (Assam)
Introduced varieties: CPCRI, Kasaragod and its regional research centre at vital in
karnataka improved certain strains of A. catechu. They introduced the following strains
from various countries. Mangala, Sumangala and Sreemangala.
Mangala:- introduced from China. It is a semi tall variety. It flower early in 3rd year it self.
Male phase is extended and overlaps with female phase leading to selfing. Higher fruit set leads
to higher yield of around 10 kg ripe nuts per palm per year. Yield is 70% more than locals. Fruit
is dark orange coloured and weight 48 to 50 grams each with 11.5 to 12 grams of nut.
Sumangala:- Selection from Indonesia. It is prolific than mangala. It yields around 17.5
kg nuts per palm at 10th year.
Sreemangala:- It is a selection from Singapore. It is a prolific yielder. It yields around 16.5 kg
per palm at 10th year.

Climate:
A tropical plant. It grows well up to 1000 m above MSL. It require well distributed rainfall.
Cultivated mainly from 280 N and S latitudes. Requires moist climate, hence grown along with
Mango, Jack and Coconut. It cannot withstand extreme temperatures with wide diurnal
variations. Optimum temperature is 15 to 380 C. Banana is intercropped to keep down the
temperature.
Soil:
Deep well drained soils are suitable. Laterites and red loams and alluvial soils are
preferable. Does not stand water stagnation.Drainage is more important in high rainfall areas.

Planting material:
Propagated through seed. Elite mother palm should have
1. Higher productivity 2.Higher percent of fruit set 3.Precocity 4. It should be able to transform
50% of the female flowers to nuts 5.Stability in yield. 6. Nuts should be fully ripe, should be
heavier (above 35 g) to get high percentage of germination and high vigour. Medium to
heavy nuts are selected and are soaked in water. Lighter nuts which float on water are
rejected and heavier nuts are used for multiplication. Seed nuts are sown immediately in
the nursery beds raised in sandy soils. Two to three month old sprouts with 2 to 3 leaves are
transplanted to the secondary nursery. Secondary nursery beds of 150 cm width and
convenient length are prepared. Sprouts are planted at 30 x 30 cm spacing with the on set of
monsoon. Provide shade by erecting pandal or by growing banana. Beds should be supplied with
basal dress of well decomposed cattle manure @ 5 t per acre. Irrigate the beds provide facility
for draining excess water. Weeding, mulching should be done as per the requirement. Seedlings
are transplanted at 12-18 months old. Seedlings with good number of leaves (5-7) and having
minimum height are selected as they are high yielder. Seedlings lifted along with a ball of earth.
Manuring:
100 grams: 40 grams: 140 grams of NPK and 12 kg green leaf and 12 kg compost for
bearing palm is recommended in Kerala. Organic manures are applied once in September –
October. Fertilizers are applied twice in September – October and February for irrigated
areas. Once in March – April for rainfed areas. 1/3rd of the above dose should be applied
during the first year. 2/3rd of the above dose should be applied during the second year. Full dose
should be given from 3rd year onwards. First split is broadcasted around the base after
weeding and forked in. Second split is given in a trench (20-30 cm) dug around palm at 75 –100
cm radius from the base of the palm.
Harvesting:
Harvested at different stages of maturity for different purposes.
I. For preparation of chali supari:- Fully ripe, 9 month old fruits of yellow to
orange red colour are harvested from December to March.
II. For preparation ofKalipak supari: – fruits of 6-7 month old are harvested
from July to December.
Yield: Average yield is 10 kg per palm per year at 10th year. Average yield in
India is 1250 to 1500 kg per ha.
Processing:-
I. Chali supari:-
It is a dried nut. For preparation of chali supari 9-10 months old nuts at full maturity or ripe
stage are harvested. Ripe fruits are sun dried for 35 to 40 days. Husk loosens from the
kernel. Nuts are dehusked and kernels are cut into two halves transversely. In other method the
nuts are cut longitudinally along with husk and again dried in open field. With the help of a sharp
pointed sickle the kernel is separated out and cut transversely. Again these kernels are
dried to reduce the moisture percentage to 10-12%. These kernels are cut into smaller pieces or
whole kernels are used for marketing process. The products are called chali supari. Chewed
along with betel leaf, preferred in North, North East, West and Central India.
II. Kalipak supari (Kempadike):-
This product is more popular in Karnataka, A.P. It is mostly used for sweet supari and
also for ritual offerings. Nuts are dehusked. They are cut into two halves transversely. Boil
with water and dilute extract of previous boiling (kali). Kali or cheguru is prepared by
boiling broken pieces of chali supari, herbs and other tuberous roots available in forest. By
repeated boilings a black colour syrup is obtained in which the selected nuts are transferred and
boiled till they reduce its volume or its weight to 1/4th level. Milk is added to the boiling
medium to remove astringency. Boiled kernels are sun dried for 7-8 days and graded
according to size and quality. Preferred in Karnataka, Tamil nadu and Andhra Pradesh.

Lecture 15: Production technology of Cashewnut- botanical name – family – origin –

introduction – importance – botany – climate –soil – varieties and propagation - preparation of
land – planting – irrigation – manuring – intercultivation – intercropping – training and pruning-
cropping –harvesting – yield-processing

Botanical name: Anacardium occidentale

Family : Anacardiaceae
Origin : Tropical south America (south east brazil)
Plant part : Kernel

Introduced into Malabar coast of South India in 16th century by Portugase. It is grown up
to 28 0 N and S latitudes. India stands first both in Area and Production. Brazil, Tanzania,
Mozambique, Kenya and Nizeria are other important cashew nut producing countries.
Cashew gained commercial importance in 1920s. India produce 40% of raw nuts and
exports 90% of the world produce. Two lakh people were engaged in Cashew industry. India
imports 90,000 tonnes of raw nuts and export 50,000 tonnes of kernels. Export earnings from
Cashewnut constitute 2% of total earnings from Agricultural commodities. Major cashew
growing states in our country is Kerala, Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Orissa and Goa. Important cashew growing districts in Andhra Pradesh are
Guntur, Krishna, East and West Godavari, Srikakulam, Vizayanagaram, Nellore, Prakasam.
Importance:
1. Cashew nut is rich in proteins and vitamins A, B and E.
2. Kernel give 40% oil.
3. Testa rich in tannins used in leather industry testa with kernel pieces used as poultry feed.
4. Cashew apple is a rich source of Vitamin C (5 times more than Citrus), contain 10-12%
sugars.
5. In Goa Feni (liquor) is prepared from Cashew apple.
6. Apple is dried and powdered into a meal and used as animal feed.
7. CNSL is a bi product. It is phenol. It is used for resins, varnishes, paints, insecticides, break
linings, wood preservatives etc.

Botany:
It is an ever green, low spreading tree and it grow up to 10-15 m. It has strong tap root and
extensive lateral roots (Rhamniferous root system). It has intensive and extensive types of
branching. Intensive shoot grows to 25 to 30 cm terminates into a panicle and 3-8 laterals
arise from below the panicle. It leads to bushy growth. Extensive shoot grows to 20-30 cm.
bud sprouts below and leads to further growth. Continues for 2 to 3 years without flowering. It is
a spreading tree. High yielders have more than 60% intensive branches whereas low yielders
have less than 20% intensive branches. It is a polygamous monoecious tree. 95% of
them are staminate flowers and the rest are hermaphoridites. Flowering occurs in three
phases i.e. male, mixed and female phases. Pollination is by insects and by wind. 85% of
perfect flowers are fertilized of which only 4 to 6% reaches maturity. Cashew apple is fleshy
peduncle. Nut is the real fruit. Nut is a drupe. Kidney shaped and it is grey in colour. Nut vary
in size, shape, weight and shelling percentage.

Climate:
It is a hardy tropical plant. It grows between 28 0 N and South latitudes. It grows to 1000 m
elevation. It is profitable up to 600 m. It requires a well distributed annual rainfall of
around 500 mm. It can stand 300 to 400 mm. Rainfall should spread over 5-7 months
with 3-4 months of dry period before flowering. It requires 15 to 40 0 C temperature. Mean
annual temperature should not be less than 20 0 C. It is sensitive to cold. If Relative
Humidity is less than 10%, leaves scorched and fruits drop. Excess humidity favour incidence
of pests and diseases. Proximity to sea is favourable (160 km)
Soil:
Cashew is raised on laterites, red soils and coastal sands. In the East coast it is grown on porous
and poor sandy soils.In the west coast it is grown on laterites. Sandy loam soils having 3
meter depth are ideal for cashewnut cultivation. The crop cannot stand waterlogging but can
stand drought. It requires a pH of 6 to 7.5.
Varieties:
BPP 1(H 2 / 11): it is a selection from a cross between T. No. 1 x T. No. 273.
BPP 2 (H 2/12): it is a selection from a cross between T. No. 1 x T. No. 273.
BPP 3 (SCH 3/3): it is a survey collection from Simhachalam.
BPP 4 (EPM 9/8): it is a survey collection from Epurupalem.
BPP 5 (T.No.1): it is a clonal selection from Bapatla.
BPP 6 (T. No. 56): it is a clonal selection from Bapatla.
BPP 8: it is a selection from a cross between T. No. 1 x T. No. 39.
BPP 9 (H 3/28): it is a selection from a cross between T. No.56 x M 10/4.
In Maharastra: improved varieties are Vengurla 1,2,3,4 and 5.
In Tamil nadu: improved varieties are Vridhachalam 1 and 2.
In Karnataka: improved varieties are Ullal 1 and 2.
In Kerala: improved varieties are Anakkayam 1, BLA 39-4, K22 -1 .
Propagation:
It is propagated by seed and by vegetative means.
It is used to collect seed from high yielders. Elite mother tree should have the
following characters
1. Compact canopy. 2. Dwarf trees with intensive branching 60% or more
productive shoots per unit area. 3. Short flowering phase ( 2-3 weeks). 4. More
than 20% bisexual flowers. 5. 5-8 fruits per panicle.6. Medium nuts with 5-6
grams average nut weight (120 to 130 nuts per kg) 7. Regular bearing habit. 60
Vegetative propagation: soft wood grafting has become more suitable and commercial
method of propagation of cashew nut.
Cropping:
The crop comes to fruiting in 3-5 years and by 10th year it attains commercial bearing
status. Commencement of flowering differs from west to east coast. Flowers during
December to January on the west coast; January to February on the East coast.

Harvesting:
Harvesting commence from February on west; April on East coast. Fallen fruits are
gathered. In Goa, fruits are plucked from the tree for preparation of a liquor called Feni.
After gathering fruits, nuts are to be separated from apples. Nuts sun dried for 2 to 3 days,
stored in gunny bags nuts should not be dried for more than four days, since they become
brittle and break during processing and cause damage to the kernels.

Yield:
Yield depends on strain, soil, rainfall, sex ratio, fruit set and management. Individual
tree yields vary particularly in seedling progenies. Highest yields are obtained in Kerala. At
15 years age, 1600 kg per ha yield was reported at some places in Andhra Pradesh.

Processing: Edible part is kernel. Extraction of this edible kernel from hard shell is called as
‘Processing’. Processing is done manually in India. Mechanically in other countries. There
are 5000 units of Cashewnut processing in India. Quilon in Kerala has the largest number of
processing units. In A.P, Vetapalem, Palasa and Mori are the important places of Cashewnut
processing.

Steps in Cashewnut processing:

1. Roasting:
It is done for easy shelling to loosen kernel inside. Different methods of roasting are
i) Open pan method: perforated open pan is used for roasting the nuts. The nuts will
catch fire after some time. Water is sprinkled and nuts are thrown to ground and covered
with soil. In this method CNSL is not recoverable.
ii) Drum roasting method: Rotating metal drum is heated from below. Nuts catch fire
within 3 to 5 minutes. A temperature of 100 to 120 0 C is always maintained inside the
drum. Burning nuts are released at the other end and fire is put off by sprinkling water and ash.
Rate of shelling and out turn of whole kernels are very high in this method. In this method also
CNSL is not recoverable.
iii) Oil bath roasting method: nuts are held in wire trays. They are passed through at a
bath of heated CNSL at 190 to 200 degrees Celsius. Nuts take a long time of 1 to 3 minutes for
passing through the medium. Cells of shells get ruptured, they release CNSL. Nuts are cooled.
50% of the CNSL is recoverable. Uniform roasting is ensured it eliminates charring of kernels.
2. Shelling:
Breaking roasted nuts to extract kernel is called “shelling”. Nuts are broken with
wooden mallet. After cracking, the kernels are extracted with wire needle. Whole and
clean kernels are to be extracted care fully. Shelling percentage vary from 15 – 30
percent.
3. Drying:
Extracted kernels are held in wire mesh trays, dried in hot chambers at 80 to 90 0 C for 6 – 7
hours to loosen testa.
4. Peeling: Thin reddish brown or pinkish outer skin of kernel is called testa. Removal
of testa is known as peeling. Peeling is done by hand.
5.Grading:
Nuts are sorted out into different grades such as wholes, splits, brokens etc. Grading is
based on the number of kernels per pound or kg is called count. Kernels are graded as
wholes, splits, broken pieces. Grading is also done manually. There are 25 grades. 1. 210
count – Zambo wholes (best quality) 240 count 3. 280 count – American quality 4. 320 count –
standard quality 5. splits 6. pieces 7. Baby pieces 8. Broken bits.
6. Sweating:
The dried kernels are brittle and are liable for breaking. The kernels are conditioned in humid
chambes with 80% humidity for 5-6 hours. Humidity is maintained by air coolers. Kernels
absorb moisture.
7.Packing:
Packing is done by vita pack method. After filling kernels tins are vaccumised and filled
with CO 2 and sealed. Packed in 4 gallon tins (25 pounds).

Lecture 16: Production technology of Oilpalm and Cocoa – botanical name – family –origin-
economic part – importance – botany – varieties –climate – soil – propagation and plating –
irrigation – intercultivation – harvesting – yield – processing cacao – botanical name – family –
origin – importance – botany – varieties – forester, criollo and other types – climate – soil –
propagation – preparation of land – planting – irrigation – weeding – mulching – pruning –
intercropping – cover cropping – manuring – harvesting – yield –processing - uses
Botanical name: Elaysis guineanssis
Family : Palmae
Origin : West Africa
Plant part : Nut and mesocarp
Commonly also known as African oil palm, Red oil palm

Importance: Gives important vegetable oil.These are the highest oil yielding palms.On an
average, yields 2.5-4 t/ha. Coconut yields 0.6-1.6 t/ha only. Extensively cultivated in
Malaysia, Indonesia and Srilanka

Botany :
Flowers are the florets. Palm is a monoecious. Male and female flowers are separate but present
on same plant. The individual flowers in female spadix arranged spirally on the axis and each
spikelets protected by fine wax. Female flowers emit pleasant fragrance which attract
insects helped in pollination. Male inflorescence born on a large peduncle and contain long
finger like spikelets. Each spikelet bears 1100-1200 small flowers. Oil palm is a cross
pollinated plant. The main agent for cross pollination is wind and insect Eleidobius
kamarunicus The fruit bunches net is 14-30 kg. Fruits are oval in size 2.5-5 cm long. They are
dark green with violet tinge, ripening fruits turn orange or yellow colour. Fruits ripen in about 6-
9 months after pollination. Fruit is a sessile drupe. Fruit consists of exocarp, mesocarp and
endocarp i.e., shell. These are enclosing the kernel.

Climate :

Oil palm is considered as a tropical plant. It requires rainy tropical climate. Grows well in areas
having mean annual temperature of 20-35 0 C. The mean annual rainfall ranging from
100-1000mm. this rainfall must be well distributed with atleast 100 mm of rainfall/month. It
can also withstand rainfall of 900 mm. It can withstand drought for 2-3 months. Hot humid
equatorial climate without long dry period is best. It requires plenty of sun shine hours.
There should be frequent change of sunshine and rain. It comes up well from the
elevation of 450 to 900 m MSL.

Soil :

Variety of soils are suitable for the cultivation of oil palm. Deep loamy soils rich in humus are
suitable. Forest soils with loam and clay content in sub soils are suitable. Lateritic sandy and
pure clayey soils are not suitable. Waterlogging soils are not suitable. Oilpalm can tolerate
salinity upto 0.5%.

Land preparation : At the beginning f rainy season, land preparation is started. Clear all the
vegetation and plough the and thoroughly.

Digging and filling of pits : Pits are dug out during summer season with the size of
60x60x60 cm following the spacing of 9 m is triangular system of planting. Pith left
for weathering for 2-3 weeks. Pith filled with top soil, mixed with manures and fertilizers
and then watered to settle down.

Planting :

Planting can be done during rainy season. Polybag is cut and seedling is separated from the
poly bag intact with all of earth and root system. Seedling planted in the centre of pH.
Collar region of plant should not buried into the soil. Care to be taken that collar region is
level to land surface. Deep planting is avoided. After planting, it is watered and seedling is
protected and mulching can be done in basins. After establishment of seedling, manure and
fertilization can be done.

Manuring :
Regular manuring programme is very essential

FYM 25-10 kg/palm depending on age and type of soil This fertilizer dosage can be
applied in 2 splits Doses : I split @ June-July II split @ Sept-Oct.

A broad band/trench can be made around the palm underneath the spread of the leaves fertilizers
applied in trenches and covered with soil and watered immediately

Leaf pruning :

It is done during the dry months. Prune dead, dried out and diseased leaves. Male
inflorescences must be cut. It must be practiced to avoid shade by overcrowding leaves;
uniform ripening of bunches of crown. It also avoids the obstruction at the time of
harvesting.

Cropping :

Production of fruit bunches start at the age of 3-6 years but peak bearing is observed when
attain 8 years age. It will continue bearing upto 40 years or more. The fertility period is
upto 60 years. The palm lives for about 100 years.

Harvesting :Fruits harvested after full ripening.

Harvesting indices: Change of fruit colour from red to orange

Dropping of fruits from bunches

After harvesting the bunches shifted to processing units within 24 hours.

Yield : In A.P. the average yield is 20-25 t/ha – fresh fruit bunches. The oil yield is 4-6 tons. Oil
palm gives 2 distinct vegetable/edible oils. Oil yields from mesocarp of fruit is 20%. Oil yields
from kernel of the fruit/seed is 26%. Total of 46% comes from the oil palm

Botanical name: Theobroma cacao

Family : Sterculiaceae
Origin : Tropical south America
Plant part : Beans
Importance:

The roasted product of the dried beans is called as Cacao nibs which are used for the
manufacture of various products. When cacao nibs are ground, the resulting product is called
chocolate liquor or mass. It has around 55% fat. The fat that is pressed from chocolate liquor
is termed as cacao butter. It is mainly used for the manufacture of chocolates, in
pharmaceutical preparations and soap making. After pressing out the fat the resultant product
with reduced fat content (around 22%) is called cacao powder. For preparation of
chocolates cacao power is mixed with cacao butter and sugar with a definite ratio. Milk
chocolates are prepared by adding milk to the above mixture.

Varieties: Commercially cacao has two major varieties, Criollo and Forestero which differ
in many aspects as follows:

Other commercially cultivated types of cacao include

i. Trinitario from Trinidad which is said to be a hybrid between Criollo and Forestero
with highly variable pod characters.

Climate:

Cacao is a crop of humid tropics requiring well distributed rain fall.A minimum of 90 to
100 mm rainfall per month with an annual precipitation of 1500 to 2000 mm is ideal.
However, it can also be grown in other regions by supplementing rainfall with irrigation
during dry periods. However, for successful cultivation the dry months should not exceed 3
to 4 months. This limits the distributions of cacao to within 20 0 latitude on either side of the
equator. Cacao tolerates a minimum temperature of 15 0 C and a maximum of 40 0 C,
but temperature around 25 0 C is considered as optimum. It can be grown in place from sea level
up to an elevation.

Soil:

Cacao grows on a wide range of soils but loose soils which allow root penetration and
movement of air and moisture are ideal. It should retain moisture in the soil during dry season
as cacao requires regular supply of moisture for proper growth. Though cacao can be grown
in soils with pH range from 4.5 – 8.0 it thrives better in neutral soil.

Planting material: Cacao can be propagated from seeds or vegetatively from buds and
cuttings. However, vegetative propagation is used only for experimental studies. Seed pods may
be collected from trees yielding 80 or more pods per year with pod weight 350-400 g. fresh
beans from such pods should be used for sowing, as cacao seeds lose their viability soon after
they are taken out of pods. Before sowing, the seeds are rubbed with dry sand or wood ash to
remove mucilage. The beans are planted with their pointed end upwards, either in plastic bags
(25 x 15 cm size, 150 gauge) or in raised beds. If sown I beds young seedlings are usually
transplanted into polythene bags after about two weeks of germination. The seedlings are ready
for transplantation to the field after about 3 to 4 months or they attain a height of 30 cm. Cacao
can be also propagated vegetatively through cuttings, soft wood grafting, forkert method of
budding etc., but there are limitations at present for adopting vegetative propagation on
commercial scale.

Establishing plantation:

Cacao, whose natural environment is the lower storeys of the forest, requires shade when
young and also to a lesser extent when grown up. Young cacao plants grow best with 45 per cent
full sun light.Therefore, it can be grown well in the partially shaded conditions prevailing
in the arecanut and coconut gardens in our country or as a pure plantation in forest
lands by thinning and regulating the shade suitably.It is planted at a distance of 2.5 – 3.0 m both
between and within rows, either in the beginning of the monsoon, in May – June or at the end of
the south west monsoon, in September. Cacao under arecanuts and coconuts is the
cropping systems which can be adopted advantageously in kerala, Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu. In arecanut gardens where the spacing is 2.7 m x 2.7 m cacao is inter planted in alternate
rows at a spacing of 5.4 m 2.7 m. In coconut gardens, it can be planted 2.7 m apart in a single
row.Under the double hedge system, cacao is planted in two rows adopting a spacing of 2.7 m
within the row and 2.5 m between rows of coconut planted at a normal spacing of 7.5 m x 7.5 m .

Manuring and irrigation: An annual application of 100 g N, 40 g Phosphate and 140 g of K per
tree per year in two split doses is recommended. During the first year of planting, the plants may
be given one third of the above dose, while in the second and third year and above, two third and
full dose of fertilizers are applied respectively. The fertilizer is applied in two splits, the first
dose in March – April and the second dose in September – October. Fertilizers may be applied
uniformly around the base of the tree up to a radius of 75 cm and forked and incorporated into
the soil. Cacao plants require continuous supply of moisture for optimum growth and yield.
During summer the plants will have to be irrigated at weekly intervals. If adequate water supply
is not ensured in summer months, the yield will be reduced and under mixed cropping systems, if
there is severe drought the yield of both the crops may be affected.

Pruning:
 The cacao trees should be pruned regularly to develop a good shape. Cacao grows in a series
of storeys. The chupon or vertical growth of the seedlings terminates at the jorquette,
where four or five fan branches develop. Further chupon develops just below the jorquette
and continues its vertical growth till another jorquette forms and so on. When the first jorquette
develops at a height of about 1.5 m, the canopy will form at a height convenient for
harvesting and other operations. Hence, all the fan branches arising from the main step are
nipped off up to a height of about 1.0 to 1.5 m or cut in the initial years of their growth. It is
desirable to limit the height of the tree at that level by periodical removal of chupon growth.
A second jorquette may be allowed to develop, if the first one formed was very close to the
ground. Generally, 3- 5 fan branches are developed at each jorquette. When more fan branches
develop on or two weaker ones may be removed. The branches badly affected by pests and
diseases also should be removed.

Harvesting: Cacao flowers from the second year of planting the pods take about 140 to 160
days to mature and ripen. Each pod will have 25 to 45 beans embedded in white pulp
(mucilage). Generally cacao gives two main crops in a year i.e. September – January and
April – June, off season crops may be seen almost all through the year, especially under irrigated
conditions. Only ripe pods have to be harvested without damaging the flower cushion, at regular
intervals of 10 to 15 days. The pods are harvested by cutting the stalk with the help of a knife.
The harvested pods should be kept for a minimum period of two to three days before opening for
fermentation. For breaking the pods cross wise, wooden billet may be used and the placenta
should be removed together with husk and the beans are collected for fermentation. A pod will
have about 30 to 45 seeds covered with pulp or mucilage.

Processing:

1. Fermentation:

The beans should be fermented to develop chocolate flavour, reduce bitterness, loose
viability, remove the mucilage coating and to enable the cotyledons to expand.
Fermentation is done immediately after collecting the beans from the pods. There are two
popular methods of fermentation using either trays or boxes.

i. Box method: In this traditional method, boxes of various shapes and sizes are used. The
smallest one has the measurements of 60 cm x 60 cm x 60 cm and will hold about 150 kg wet
beans. The bottom of the box has a number of holes of 1 cm diameter spaced at about 10 cm
apart. Three such boxes are arranged in a row so that beans can be transferred from one box
to the other. The beans are placed in the top most and covered with banana leaves or gunny
bags. After 2 days, the bean should be uncovered and transferred into the second box and then
to the third box after another 2 days. On the sixth day, fermentation is completed and
beans can be taken out for drying.
ii.Tray method: This method is used only for fermenting forestero cacao beans. The
normal size of the tray is 90 cm 60 cm x 12 cm with a capacity to hold about 40 kg wet beans.
The bottom of the tray is either slotted or drilled to make 1 c holes on a 4 cm square pattern. A
minimum of 4 trays are needed for successful fermentation. All the trays are filled with beans.
The top most tray is covered with banana leaves or sacks. The fermentation is faster here and is
completed in about 4 to 5 days. This method is more convenient for large growers as the trays
can be easily handles and no mixing is required and the period of fermentation is less.

iii. Basket method: Bamboo or cane basket of suitable size having one or two layers of
banana leaves at bottom to drain the sweating is filled with the beans and the surface is covered
with banana leaves. After one day the basket is covered with thick gunny sacks. The beans are
mixed thoroughly on the third and fifth days and covered with gunny sacks. The fermentation
will be completed at the end of the sixth day and the beans are withdrawn for drying.

2.Drying: After the fermentation, the beans can be dried by sundrying or artificial
drying as the fermented cacao beans have considerable moisture (55%). Sun drying is good
as it gives superior quality produce when compared to artificial drying. The fermented beans are
spread in a thin layer over a bamboo mat or cement floor and dried for 5 to 6 days. The beans are
to be stirred from time to time for uniform drying. The moisture content of well dried beans
is around 6 to 7 per cent. During the monsoon period, artificial drying has to be adopted.
Electric ovens or conventional type drier could be used. The duration of artificial drying varies
from 48 to 72 hours at 60 to 70 degrees Celsius. The drying of beans at high
temperature should avoided as it results in low quality end product. Slow drying in the initial
stage has given better quality beans. Well dried beans when shaken should give a metallic sound.

3. Grading and Storage:

The flat, shriveled, broken and other extraneous materials are removed. The cleaned beans are
packed in fresh polythene –lined (150-200 guage) gunny bags. The bags are kept on a raised
plat form of wooden planks. The beans should not be stored in rooms where spices, pesticides
and fertilizers are stored as they may absorb the odour from these materials.