CURRENT ELECTRICITY

DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

CURRENT AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE: OHM’S LAW
When free charges move in a conductor, an electric field is created within the
conductor. The electric field inside a conductor is always proportional to the
current density, (current flowing per unit area of the conductor). Thus we can
write

Where is the constant of proportionality called the conductivity of the

conductor. Normally, electric current flows whenever an electric potential
difference exists in a conductor. In a steady state, the current flowing through
the conductor is defined as the quantity of charge, passing through a cross
section of the conductor per unit time. That is,

In the absence of any applied potential difference, the motion of charges

(usually electrons) in a conductor, according to Classical Physics, is random.
But when a potential difference is maintained across the conductor, it sets up an
electric field which causes the electrons to drift in a particular direction. It is
conventional to give the current the same direction as the flow of positive
charge so that the flow of current is opposite the direction of flow of electrons.
Consider a conductor of cross-sectional area , the volume of an element of
length, is . The charge enclosed within this volume is (where
is the number of charges per unit volume and is the charge of each electron).
If a potential difference is maintained across the conductor, it sets up an electric
field which causes the charges to move with a drift velocity vd, so that they
cover the distance after a time interval . Hence we can write
( )
From equation (2), the total current flowing is

The current density set up in the conductor is therefore

Also, the corresponding electric field across the conductor of length is

Hence, from
and
Therefore

Since

1
Then

The quantity is called the resistance, of the conductor.

We can therefore write

Equation (6) expresses the mathematical relationship between the current

flowing through a conductor and the applied voltage. This is known as Ohm’s
law which state that the current flowing through metallic conductor is
proportional to the applied potential difference provided the temperature and
other physical parameters remain constant. Materials such as metals which have
a linear current-voltage relationship over a wide range of voltage are called
ohmic materials. Those such as non-metals and semiconductors which have a
non-linear current-voltage relationship are known as insulators.
Equation (6) also implies that the resistance of an ohmic conductor is
proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the
cross-sectional area. The constant of proportionality which is the reciprocal of
conductivity is called the resistivity, of the conductor. Thus,

The unit of is ohms ( ), so that the unit of ρ is ohm-metre ( ). The

resistivity of any given metal varies linearly with temperature except at very
low temperature. Good electrical conductors have a very low resistivity.

VARIATION OF RESISTANCE WITH TEMPERATURE

Resistance is the amount of opposition given to the flow of an electric current
through a conductor of electricity. Conductors have free electrons which are in
random motions, since the mass of an electron is very small, it has speed even at
room temperatures. When a potential difference is applied across the conductor,
it sets up an electric field which accelerates this free electron along the
conductor. The velocity acquired by the electrons along the conductor is called
drift velocity and is proportional to the applied E-field. The current that flows
through the conductor is proportional to the drift velocity. As the temperature of
the conductor is increased, the random motion of its free electrons increases so
that for constant E-field, the quantity of current flowing is thus diminished. This
implies that the resistance of the conductor is increased.
The dependence of resistance on temperature for metallic conductor can be
expressed in a simple relation:
( )

2
Where and are the resistance of the conductor at 0 oC and θ oC
respectively and is a constant known as the temperature coefficient of
resistance. The temperature coefficient of resistance , is defined as the
fractional increase in resistance per degree centigrade per resistance at 0 oC. For
pure metals, the value of is about while for some alloys, α
could be as low as 1 . The low value of for alloys makes them
suitable for constructing standard resistors. Semiconductors and non-metals
have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance, which implies that their
resistance decreases as temperature increases. This characteristic makes
semiconductors suitable for making temperature sensitive resistors called
thermistors which are used as safeguards against current fluctuations in electric
circuits.
In most practical situation, it is not convenient to determine the resistance at 0 o
C. In such a case, if only the resistances R1 and R2 at temperature and
respectively are known, it is possible to determine , based on these
temperatures. Thus the resistance at is
( )
Similarly, at
( )
From these two equations, we find that

Example 1
A silver wire has a length and cross-sectional area
o
at 20 C. If the conductivity of the silver is ( ) ,
o
calculate, (a) The resistivity of the wire (b) the resistance at 20 C. (c) If a pd of
is maintained over the length of the wire, calculate the current flowing
through the wire. (d) Find the resistance of the wire at 100 oC.
Take the temperature coefficient of resistance .
Solution:
(a) Resistivity is given by
( )

(b) The resistance of the wire at 20oC

( )

(c) The current flowing through the wire is

3
 (d) Step 1. Calculate the resistance at 0 oC from the resistance at 20 oC.

i.e from ( )
Step 2. Calculate the resistance at 100 oC
( ) ( )

Example 2
A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 7 at 20 oC and 20
when inserted in a furnace. If the coefficient of resistance of platinum is
. Calculate the temperature of the furnace.
Solution
step 1. Calculate the resistance at 0 oC from its value at 20 oC.
( )

Step 2. Calculate furnace temperature, from and . Thus

( )

RESISTORS IN SERIES
The Figure 1 shows three passive resistors, and connected in series
with a battery of potential difference . The current I flowing through the
circuit is the same for each resistor. The total electric power consumed is the
sum of the power consumed or used up in the individual resistors forming the
complete circuit.

A B C
I
R1 R2 R3

V1 V2 V3

Figure 1: Three passive resistors, R1, R2 and R3 connected in series

Consequently,

4
From Ohm’s Law

Hence,

Hence, the equivalent resistance of the series combination is the algebraic

sum of the individual resistances. The total resistance in series is thus always
greater than that of the greatest individual resistance.

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
Parallel circuit connections provide more than one path through which current
can flow but which can be converted into an equivalent single-path circuit. The
Figure 2 shows three resistors , and connected in parallel and their
common ends joined to a battery of potential difference .
I2 R2

I2 R2
I

I3 R3
I

Figure 2:Three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel

The potential difference across the ends of the resistors is the same but the
currents through them differ. If is the total current flowing through the circuit
and and the current flowing through R1, R2 and R3 respectively, then
from the conservation of charges

From Ohm’s law, I = where is the total resistance of the circuit. Thus, from
equation (7)

The last equation shows that the three-path circuit can be replaced by a single-
path circuit with an equivalent resistance given by.

5
Therefore, the equivalent resistance of a parallel-circuit connection is smaller
than the least individual resistance.

Example 3
Three resistors and are connected in series and a battery is
connected across the combination. Calculate (a) the equivalent resistance, (b)
the current flowing in each resistor.
Solution.
(a) The equivalent resistance is

(b) The current flowing through the circuit is the same and is

Example 4
Three resistors and are connected in parallel, calculate (a) the
equivalent resistance, (b) the
current flowing in each resistor.
Solution
(a) The equivalent resistance is

(b) The current flowing through the 2 resistance is

The current flowing through the resistance is

The current flowing through the 9 resistance is

Example 5
Calculate the equivalent resistance to the resistors shown in the Figure 3.

6
 𝑅 Ω

𝑅 Ω

𝑅 Ω

𝑅 Ω

Figure 3

Solution.
Step 1.
Find the equivalent resistance of and :

Step 2. Draw the reduced circuit.

𝑅′ Ω 𝑅 Ω

𝑅 Ω

Step 3. Find the equivalent resistance R’’ of the 3 resistors R3 and R4:

Example 6
Calculate the equivalent resistance to the resistors shown in Figure 2.4.

Ω
Ω 𝑓
𝑎 𝑒
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
Ω Ω Ω
Ω
Ω

Figure 4

Solution
( )

( )
Let the equivalent resistance be
Then

7
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE, POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE AND
ENERGY EXCHANGE IN A CIRCUIT
If an electric component contains a voltage source, it is called an active
component. The voltage of the active component when no external circuit is
connected to it is called the electromotive force (EMF) usually denoted by E.
In all practical cases, sources of EMF usually give potential difference which
decreases to some extent when an external circuit draws current from the
source. If is the internal resistance of the voltage source and is the current
generated by the source when short circuited, the potential drop across the
internal resistance is . In the presence of an external resistor of resistance ,
the potential difference across the terminal is

It follows from the last equation that

( )
This is Ohm’s law. The internal resistance in a voltage source therefore has the
same effect on current in the circuit as an additional resistance connected in
series with the source. It follows immediately from equation (15) that when the
internal resistance of the source is negligible compared with the resistance in the
external circuit then,

In general, the terminal voltage of a source is less than it’s EMF.

Sources of EMF include: ( i ) Primary and secondary cells in which current is
produced by two electrodes of dissimilar materials immersed in an electrolyte.
(ii) Dynamos in which current is produced by the relative movement of an
armature coil in a magnetic field. (iii) Thermocouples where current is
generated as a result of temperature difference between the junctions of two
dissimilar metals.
When the internal resistance of a source is very low, the source supplies a fairly
constant voltage over a wide range of current and the source is called a
constant-voltage source. However, if the internal resistance of the source is
larger than that of the external circuit, the current supplied to the external load is
independent of the value of its resistance and the source is called a constant-
current source. Hence, from equation (15)

We already know that electric charges are accelerated from one end of a
conductor to the other whenever a potential difference is maintained across the
conductor. The kinetic energy of these charges is proportional to the potential
difference maintained by the voltage source across the conductor. The energy
supplied by a voltage source is given by

So that after a time interval t and using equation , the energy can be
written in the form
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Work is said to be done whenever energy is transformed from one form to
another. The form of work done depends on the type of electrical device used in
the external circuit. For example, if the device is an electric motor, the work
done is mechanical; if it is an electric bulb, the energy appears as heat ; but if it
is an electrolytic cell, the energy is transformed into chemical energy. The
electric energy used for these different kinds of work is supplied by the voltage
source.
EMF AND POWER
The rate at which electrical energy is utilized is known as electric power. The
unit of electric power is called watts (W). From this definition, it follows from
equation ( 19), that power is given by

Alternatively, using Ohm’s law equation (20) can be written as

Recall that
Then,
These equations assume that the internal resistance of the voltage source is
negligible. For a more general case, if r is the internal resistance of the voltage
source, the total resistance of the circuit is so that the total power
dissipated is
( )
Or
Since ( ) is the EMF (E) of the source, we can write

The total power dissipated usually appears in form of heat across the resistors
(both internal and external). Generally, power generated by the source is equal
to power delivered to the load plus power dissipated as heat. The internal
resistance of a source of EMF can thus be used to determine the voltage drop
and power dissipation within the source.
Example 7
A cell of EMF and internal resistance is connected across a resistor
with resistance of .. What is the current flowing through the circuit.
Solution
Using equation ( ) we obtain

Example 8
An electric generating set has an EMF of and an internal resistance of
.

9
 (a) Compute the current supplied by the generator if the terminal voltage is

(b) Find the power supplied by the generator.

(c) Calculate the power dissipated in the generator.
(d) Find the power generated.
Solution
(a) From equation, ( )

(b) Power supplied

(C) Power dissipated

( )
(d)Total power generated

Alternatively,
Power generated power supplied power dissipated
Power generated
KIRCHOFF’S RULES FOR ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSES
Kirchoff’s first rule is based on the law of conservation of charge and governs
the flow of current at any junction (or Nodal Point) of an electrical circuit. This
law states that in a network circuit carrying steady currents, the sum of currents
flowing into a junction is equal to the sum of the current flowing out of it. Thus,
at junction A in Figure 5,

I2

I1 I3
A

I4

Figure 2.5: Network circuit carrying current

Where it is assumed that the currents flowing into the junction are positive and
those flowing out of it are negative.

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The second rule deals with the potential drop across each resistor in the circuit
and is based on the law of conservation of energy. It states that the sum of
voltage drops in all resistances in a closed circuit is equal to the sum of the
EMFs in that circuit. Thus, for any closed circuit,
∑ ∑
The two rules allow for the calculation of currents flowing through each branch
and/or potential drop across each resistance in a closed circuit. The procedure
employed is as follows:
1) Assign a direction to the current in each branch of the circuit.
2) Identify each closed loop and assign a direction for adding up of the
EMFs and the potential drops around each closed loop noting that all
currents in the chosen direction in any closed loop is positive (otherwise
negative) and all EMFs traversed from the negative to the positive
terminal are positive (otherwise negative). Thus the potential drop IR
across each resistor is positive if the direction of current through the
resistor is positive (otherwise negative).
3) Apply the Kirchoff’s current rule at each junction. If there are n
junctions, n-1 equations can be generated using the current rule.
4) Apply the Kirchoff’s second rule to each closed loop. Thus, if there are n
loops, n equations can be generated.
5) The solutions to the simultaneous equations generated can be obtained
either by substitution method or by applying determinants.

Example 9
Calculate the current flowing in each branch of the network circuit shown in
Figure 6.

R1=1 Ω H R2=1 Ω
G I1 I2 I

I3

E1=12V E2=6V
LOOP 1 LOOP 2

R3=2 Ω

L K J

Figure 6: Network circuit

11
 Solution
There are two circuit junctions (H and K) which provide alternative paths for
the current and three possible closed loops in the entire circuit: GIJLG,
GHKLG and HIJKH. Applying the current rule at junction H or K gives

Also the second law gives

Substituting numerical values into these two equations gives

From equation 1

Substituting into equation 4, we have

Solving simultaneously with equation (5) , i.e.,

we have,

We can now substitute into equation (4) and (5) to obtain

respectively

The negative sign in I2 shows that the assigned direction is wrong.

ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

THE GALVANOMETER
The most fundamental quantities in electricity are the current and potential
difference. Once these two quantities are known, other electrical quantities e.g.
resistance, energy, power can be derived. The basic instrument for measuring
current and potential difference is the galvanometer. When used to measure the
current flowing through an electric circuit, the galvanometer is called an
ammeter but when used to determine the potential drop between two points, it
is called a voltmeter.
When used as an ammeter, the galvanometer is made to have a very low
internal resistance so as not to diminish the current which it is intended to
measure. It is usually placed in series in the circuit. To improve on the
sensitivity of the ammeter, the internal resistance of the meter is reduced by use

12
of shunt (a small resistance placed in parallel with the meter). On the other
hand, when a galvanometer is used as voltmeter, its internal resistance is made
as high as possible (relative to the total resistance in the circuit) so that when
placed across any part of the circuit it does not divert too much current from the
circuit. Usually, it is placed in parallel with the external circuit. To improve the
sensitivity of the voltmeter, a high resistance is added in series with the meter.
This resistance is called a multiplier.

CONVERSION OF METERS
When a galvanometer is calibrated to measure current of an order of 10 -3A, it is
called a milliameter. The sensitivity of any meter can be adjusted to any
required value by the use of either a shunt or a multiplier.
(a) Conversion of a Milliammeter into an Ammeter
Moving coil instruments in the laboratory are usually adapted to measure
larger currents by the use of shunts.
𝐴

0 10mA

𝑅𝑔 Ω

𝐼𝑔
𝑅𝑆

Figure 7: Conversion of a milliameter to an ammeter

The shunt diverts most of the current away from the meter (see Figure 7).
Supposing the milliammeter has a full-scale-deflection (fsd) of 10mA and an
internal resistance of 20 , and is to be adapted to measure a larger current with
full scale deflection of 10A. The value of the shunt R can be determined using
Ohm’s law. The potential difference across the meter and the shunt is the same.
Thus, at full-scale deflection

where Is is the current diverted through the shunt and is given by

Thus

13
The effective resistance of the meter is

The shunt therefore lowers the effective resistance of the meter thereby
minimizing its effect on the circuit.
(b) Conversion of a Milliammeter into a Voltmeter
A milliammeter can be adapted to function as a voltage-measuring instrument.
To achieve this, a very high resistance R known as a multiplier is connected in
series with the meter (see Figure 2.8). If the milliammeter has a full scale
deflection of 10mA and resistance R = 20 , the potential drop across Rg is V =
.
Thus, when the milliammeter reading is 10mA, the potential drop across R is
implying that a – galvanometer can act as a – voltmeter.
If now it is required to measure a potential difference of an order of ,a
multiplier is required. The value of the multiplier required to convert
– instrument can be determined using Ohm’s law. From
the Figure, the total potential drop across the circuit is ( ). For
full scale deflection
( )
Thus

0 10mA

𝑅𝑔 Ω

𝑅𝑚

Figure 8: Conversion of milliameter to Voltmeter

14
Example 10
A galvanometer has a full scale deflection of and a resistance
.. Calculate the value of resistance required to convert it into an
ammeter which measures to .
Solution
The current diverted through the shunt

The voltage across the galvanometer

The resistance of the shunt therefore is

THE POTENTIOMETER
We saw in the preceding section that the effect of the meters on the circuit is
negligible if the voltmeter has a very high resistance ( ) and the ammeter
a very low resistance ( ). When these criteria are not met, the meter
readings could have large errors.

B
A

Figure 9: The potentiometer

Potentiometer is preferred to a galvanometer for a more accurate measurement
of potential difference and current in an electrical circuit. It consists of a wire
(constantan) AB whose length is approximately 100cm mounted on a meter rule
for a more accurate measurement of the balanced length. A cell of EMF E
supplies a constant current I through the wire (See Figure 9).
Since the wire is of uniform cross section, the resistance is proportional to its
length . It thus follows from Ohm’s law that the potential drop across any two
points on the wire should be proportional to .
The potentiometer circuit measures electrical quantities without drawing any
current from the source of the EMF. This null-current measurement helps to
avoid errors introduced by the internal resistance of the voltage source or the
galvanometer in the circuit.

15
POTENTIOMETER FOR COMPARISON OF EMFS
When used for the purpose of comparing the EMFs of two cells E 1 and E2, the
two are connected in turn to the potentiometer circuit as shown in Figure 10.
E

B
A E1 C s D

E2
G

Figure 10:The Potentiometer For Comparison of EMFs

Starting with the cell , a balance point at C is located on the wire by means of
a slider S. A balance point corresponds to a point on the wire at which no
measurable current is detected by the sensitive galvanometer G. Under this
condition, the potential drop across the AC (which corresponds to the length l1)
of the wire equals the EMF, of the cell. Thus

We now replace with and adjust the position of the slider until a new
balance point at D is achieved. In this case the potential drop across AD (which
corresponds to the length ) of the wire is equal to the EMF E2 of the second
cell. Thus

It is now straight- forward to show that

The ratio of the EMFs of the two cells can be calculated from the ratio of their
balanced lengths. The last equation also implies that when one of the EMFs is
known, the other can be calculated. Thus, a potentiometer circuit can also be
used to measure the EMF of a cell.
(a) POTENTIOMETER FOR MEASURING CURRENT
A potentiometer can be used to measure the current flowing through a circuit by
means of the potential difference which it sets across a shunt of known
resistance Rs. The circuit diagram is shown in the figure below.

16
The current to be measured is passed through Rs and the potential drop V across
it is balance on the potentiometer wire AB. The balanced length l is noted. The
shunt is then replaced by a standard cell of EMF Es and balanced on the
potentiometer.
E

B
A Rs C

I Es

Figure 11: Potentiometer Circuit for Measuring Current

If the balance length is ls, then

The current through the shunts is

So that

Since and are known and and can be determined, can be calculated
from the equation (32).

(b) POTENTIOMETER FOR COMPARING TWO RESISTANCES

The potentiometer circuit can be used to compare two resistances and by
comparing the Potential drops and across them respectively. If and
are the corresponding balance lengths for and connected in turn to the
potentiometer circuit, then

it follows that

The ratio of the resistances can be determined from the ratio of their
corresponding balance lengths.

17
(c) POTENTIOMETER FOR MEASURING THE INTERNAL
RESISTANCE OF A CELL
Figure 12 shows a potentiometer circuit for measuring the internal resistance
of the cell .
E

B
A S
r

I R G

Figure 12: Potentiometer Circuit for Measuring Internal Resistance of a

Cell

To achieve this, is balanced on the potentiometer. A known resistance is

connected across the cell and the terminal potential difference is again
balanced on the potentiometer. From Ohm’s law

And the current flowing through is

Hence from (i) and (ii)

( )
Now, if l1 and l2 are the corresponding balance points for E1 and V, then

So that from (iii)

( )

18
Example 11
The balance lengths of a cell of unknown EMF and a cell of EMF
are obtained at the 50cm and 42cm marks respectively on a
potentiometer circuit. Calculate the unknown EMF.
Solution
Under balance condition,

Example 12
The EMF of a cell is balanced across l1 = 240cm of a potentiometer wire. The
cell is then shunted by a resistance . The required balance length is
. Calculate the internal resistance of the cell.
Solution
The internal resistance of the cell is,
( ) ( )

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
The simultaneous measurement of current and voltage-drop across a resistor
enables the value of its resistance to be determined using Ohm’s law. However,
the effect of the galvanometer in the circuit can affect the value of the
resistance. The Wheatstone bridge provides an accurate method of determining
the resistance of an unknown resistor. The circuit is shown in Figure 13. Four
resistors are joined as shown, one of them being an unknown resistor whose
resistance is to be measured and one a standard resistor. Assuming that is the
known resistor, can be varied and adjusted until no current flows in the
galvanometer. In this condition:
p.d across p.d across , also p.d across p.d across . Therefore

and

The arm and are known as the ratio arm of the bridge.

19
 B

I1
R1
R3
I1

1 G 2
A D
R

I2

R4
R2
I2
C

Figure 13: The Wheatstone Bridge

SLIDE-WIRE (METRE) BRIDGE

The metre-bridge is a simple form of wheatstone bridge used in the laboratory
for the measurement of resistance. It consists of wire AB which is one-metre
long and mounted on a graduated wooden board. The wire has a uniform cross-
section as in potentiometer. The end of the wire are connected to heavy brass or
copper strips of negligible resistance which form the two arms AC and BD of
the potentiometer. EF is another strip of heavy brass or copper. The unknown
resistance X and the known resistance R are connected in the terminal of CE
and FD as shown in the Figure 14. The jockey (slider) connected to a sensitive
galvanometer is used to determine the balance point on the metre wire by trial
and error. When the balance point is achieved at H say, the jockey divides the
wire into two parts with resistances RAH and RBH corresponding to lengths l1 and
l2 respectively on the wire. RAH and RBH, X and R thus form the four arms as in
the case of a Wheatstone bridge.
At balance

X R
C D

E F
G

A
B
H

Figure 14: Slide-wire (metre) Bridge

20
Example 14
Four resistances 100 , 200 , 400 and R are connected in this order to form
a Wheatstone bridge circuit. A sensitive galvanometer is connected at the
junctions of the 100 , 200 , 400 and R resistors, while a cell E is
connected to the other pair of junctions. Calculate the value of R required to
balance the bridge.
Solution
step 1.
Draw circuit diagram.

I1
Ω
Ω

I1

1 G 2
R

I2

Ω
R
I2

Step 2

Example 15
In a meter bridge shown below, there is a zero deflection of the galvanometer
when . Calculate the value of the resistance .

R
10Ω

X
Y

L1

21
If l1 = 60cm corresponding to ,then l2 = 100 – 60 = 40cm will correspond to
10 resistor. Since the bridge is balanced,

22