Analog & Digital Control Basics

S. Raghava Chari B.E

To-days high capacity capital intensive single engineers and technicians to interact well with
stream plants rely heavily on Automatic each other, troubleshoot and solves problems
controls for safe and economical operation. intelligently. This article attempts to explain the
Clear understanding of control concepts will concepts in simple easy to understand
help operation, maintenance, and process language
.
Introduction: Often we hear the words ‘Analog’
and ‘Digital Control’. Today’s microprocessor
based control systems use a combination of the
two to achieve best results. Still let us study and
understand each of them individually.

Analog Signals: Let us take the simplest

example of a spring with the tip coinciding with
the zero of a scale marked in mm. Let us say 1Kg
load on the spring deflects it by an mm, 2Kg by
2mm and so on. The deflection of the spring is
analogous i.e. similar or corresponding to the
load. Such signals have the name analog signals.
In other words a continuously varying output from
a sensor in relation to the sensed value e.g. the
4mA at 0 Level and 20mA at 100% level output of
a level transmitter is is called analog signal.

Logic Signals LS: LS also known as Digital

Signals exist in two discrete (distinct) states such
as ON or OFF, TRUE or FALSE, OPEN or
CLOSED. Success of today’s computer and
digital control system is from the development of
logic signals. Logic loops provide permissives,
interlocks, trips, continuous control and other
types of protection or sequencing signals of
process equipment, e.g. permits a pump start
only if the tank level is at least 20% and suction
valve is open.

Control System Components:

Sensors, Transmitters and Transducers:

Sensors measure process variables such as
level, temperature or pressure. Flow elements
like orifice plates, temperature devices, like
thermocouple, and taps taken at process vessels
are some examples of sensors. The sensor uses
some property of the measured variable and
enables the built in or remote transmitter to
create an analog or a logic signal for use in the
control system. For example a temperature
transmitter accepts mV output generated by a
thermocouple in relation to temperature and
outputs 4-20mA for use by control systems. A
transducer is a device that accepts signal in one
form and converts it into another form, e.g. a
pressure transducer senses process pressure
and gives proportional 4-20mA current output –
an international standard analog signal. Often
both the terms are used interchangeably.

Controllers: Controllers receive signals from

sensors or transducers and generate an output
signal to operate final control elements. More
follows.
 Final Control Elements: Final control elements
CV are devices that adjust a variable known as
O manipulated variable – fuel oil flow to a furnace -
so as to bring the process variable – furnace
4-20mA Output temp - back to set point. Examples of final control
elements are valves, devices that switch an
electrical heater on or off etc. More discussion
A H follows.
MSA
Analog Control Loops: Fig-1 shows analog flow
C FT
control loop. The orifice plate producing
4-20mA α Flow differential pressure is flow sensor; the device
across the orifice sending 4-20mA current signal
Typical Analog Control Loop (Flow) Fig-1 proportional to flow is the transmitter or
transducer. The 4-20mA – an international
standard – signal is known as measured value or
CV process variable PV signal. The controller either
field or control room mounted receives the PV
signal compares it with set point SP fed to it by
LT an operator, and sends a 4-20mA signal to the
final control element to operate it so as to
Feedforward

LC maintain PV at SP. Outputs from other controller

Signal

can also act as set point instead of operator fed

set point, as we will see during our progress. The
entire system consisting of sensor, transducer,
Controller and Final Control Element constitute
the control loop. In this example since all signals
are analog signals the loop has the name Analog
FT Control Loop.

Analog Control with Feedforward Signal Fig-2

FT
Steam Steam Flow
Feedforward Ratio Signal

PT SPC FFC RR
SP

SP
OFT OV
Boiler

V
AFC
Fuel Oil
CV
AFT
Air

Split Range Signal

BF Gas
GFT
GV

Analog Ratio, Cascade and Split Range

Control Fig-3
More on Controllers: The controller C (fig-1) Derivative or differential setting of a
accepts PV signal from the transducer at its input controller changes the speed of travel of final
section or often called ports. Its comparison control element in relation to the speed of offset
element compares the PV and SP and generates occurence. Table-1 below summarizes the
an error signal. The processor inside the 3-modes of control.
controller develops an output signal; processing
to develop the output signal may include PID Hand-Auto Station of Controllers: The
(proportional/ integral/derivative) and other controller output passes to the final control
control strategies to suit the nature and response element FCE via a Hand-Auto Station HAS (fig-1)
of the process for changes in feeds e.g. slow that may be built in as a part of the controller or
process variable changes require slow response may exist as a separate module. Usually HAS
from the controller and vice versa. has a knob with a dial marked ‘Hand’ at one end
and ‘Auto’ at the other end. Positioning the knob
Few Words on PID Control: The alphabet P in Auto position sets the controller in Auto mode
denotes proportional, I Integral or reset and D and Hand position in Hand or Manual mode. The
derivative or rate action of a controller. controller output reaches FCE in case the HAS is
Proportional action of the controller changes the in Auto mode. In case HAS is in Hand Mode, the
output in direct proportion to the difference station blocks the controller output and sends an
between PV and SP known as deviation or offset. operator generated output to FCE. The PV signal
still reaches the controller as before for the
Table-1 Summary of Control Modes operator to read. But as long as the HAS in Hand
Mode changes in PV does not change FCE
CM-Control Mode, Proportional. I-Integral, position until an operator interferes.
D-Derivative
CM Applications Analog Actuators: FCE need actuators to
actuate it e.g. a control valve needs a diaphragm
Where sustained deviations are
P or piston actuator to position the plug along its
acceptable
travel to allow required quantity to flow. Many
Where deviations are unacceptable, and types actuators e.g. piston, diaphragm, hydraulic
process response is moderate to fast. cylinder, pneumatic cylinder, electric motor
I
Most process controls come under this solenoid coils etc. are available to actuate FCE
category. like valves, dampers, motors, fluid couplings,
magnetic couplings, or other similar devices to
As above, but the process response to
make the needed changes in the process. As the
change in manipulated variable is too low
name implies these actuators work using analog
D e.g. a slab reheating furnace of a steel
signals from controllers or HAS.
mill. Hence, not common in process
controls.
Open Loop Controller: the two broad divisions
of Analog Control Loops are ‘open’ and ‘closed’
Proportional Band PB is the magnitude of travel loop control. Open loop controllers do not monitor
per 100% deviation e.g. if a valve travels by 1% the PV continuously till it reaches the set point.
of its full travel for 100% deviation PB is 100 and For example a bread toaster does not monitor the
if travel is 100% for 1% deviation PB is 1. The crispness of the toast to switch off the toaster. It
reciprocal of PB is called ‘gain’. Deeper study of just switches it off at a fixed temp. Crispness of
control technology tells us that sustained offset one type of bread may be OK at a setting but not
will prevail in case of load changes in the case of another type denser and moister at the same
controllers with P-mode only. Let us accept it setting. Open loop control is used for very simple
without going into the complex details. plant applications only.
Integral or Reset action repeats the
action of P-mode till the offset vanishes or till the Closed Loop Controller CLC: CLC the most
valve travels to the end position known as widely used controller in process plants comes in
controller saturation. Since Integral action two models viz. “On-Off” and “Modulating or
repeats the action of PB with respect to time, its Continuous Control.
unit is Repeats / Minute R. Inverse of R is known
as Integral Action i.e. the time taken in minutes to ON-OFF Control Loops: the FCE of an ON-OFF
repeat the action of P mode. . Control Loop assumes two positions only e.g. a
valve is fully closed or fully open. On-Off control (steam flow) that could affect the controlled
is acceptable for processes where the capacity of variable (Steam Pressure).
the system or process is lot larger compared to
the energy in flow, as in the case of window air Control Configurations: Three common control
conditioner. At lower than set temp the configurations viz. Ratio Control, Cascade
thermostat breaks contacts and stops the Control and Split Range Control meet most
compressor that causes the cooling. At higher process control application needs.
than set room temp it makes and starts the
compressor to cool the room. Providing a Dead Ratio Control: Ratio Control enables accurate
Band in the thermostat setting e.g. to make at flow rate of one product in proportion to that of
temp above 240C and break below 190C prevents another e.g. combustion air flow to a furnace in
too frequent switching on and off the air proportion to fuel oil flow for complete
conditioner and its motor burnouts. ON-OFF combustion to save on fuel and to avoid too
control though meets the simple needs like air much excess air to avoid wastefully loosing heat
conditioning is inadequate for most process in chimney effluent, another fuel saving measure.
controls as the energy inputs are much large In fig-3, output of Fuel Oil Flow Transmitter OFT
compared to capacity. So controllers capable of is the set point for the ratio setter RS. Operator
Precise Continuous Regulation are must for most sets the ratio of fuel oil flow to combustion air
process controls, for safety, efficiency, man flow in RS. RS generates an output signal
power reduction and product quality assurance. according to the ratio set. RS output is the set
point for the air flow controller. Air flow controller
Feedback: Most process controllers are of the adjusts the damper till the air flow is at the
continuous or modulating type as in fig-3. chosen ratio to the fuel flow. The fuel flow rate is
Suppose the tank level (fig-2) falls below set called the Master or Primary Variable and the Air
point due to increased drawl at the tank outlet. Flow rate the Slave or Secondary Variable. Fig-3
Level Sensor LE reads the new value; Level shows the ratio control between fuel oil and air.
Transmitter LT sends the new value to the level Similar ratio controller exists for controlling the
controller LC; LC outputs a signal to the level ratio between gas flow and combustion air flow
control valve to open valve LV at the inlet pipe to for it. Fig-3 omits it to avoid clutter.
increase the water flow so as to bring the level
back to the SP. Travel of LV stops as soon as Cascade Control: In Cascade Control the output
level reaches SP. LC continuously receives level of one controller is the set point of the second
signal for precise control. This is a simple controller. In the example of the boiler of fig-3 the
example of analog continuous regulation. Tank output of steam pressure controller SPC is the
level signal is known as the feedback signal to set point for the fuel flow controller FFC. In case
the control loop. Thanks to feedback the of a rise in steam pressure its output drops i.e.
controller holds the level precisely at set point reduces fuel flow set point and reduces fuel flow.
with no operator intervention. Any variations of fuel flow due to reasons
like another boiler cutting in, or increased filter
Feedforward: In spite of feedback minor fouling etc. reduces fuel oil flow to the boiler and
deviations from set point may exist for some time in turn steam pressure. In the absence of
due to reaction time of the process. Let us cascade control and SPC directly manipulating
consider steam pressure control from a boiler fuel flow it can act only after steam pressure has
(fig-3). In case of a sudden trip of a large turbine really dropped i.e. after some time lag. The
consuming large quantities of steam the header steam pressure would be lower than set point
pressure would rise rapidly and a simple during this period. In the cascade control
pressure controller SPC would bring back the arrangement shown FFC maintains constant fuel
pressure to normal value by reducing the firing flow and thus does not allow the steam pressure
after severe cycling and considerable time lag as to vary on account of problems in fuel circuit.
it can act only after pressure change. By However any steam pressure variation on
feeding the signal of steam flow also to SPC as in account of increased or decreased steam drawl
fig-3 it responds as soon as steam flow changes from the boiler is controlled by SPC using steam
occur instead of waiting for its effect viz. pressure flow signal as feed forward as explained before.
change. This is known as feedforward. So feed
forward is the signal of the process variable
 Inputs
Logic Control Loops: The controller element in
Inputs Output
1 Output 1 a logic loop operates in a similar manner as an

Pump Status Indicating Logic

Running fig-7
OR 2 AND analog loop controller. However, the signals are
2
Digital Signals. Digital signals for process control
3 3
systems are of two types called “1” and “0”.
OR Gate Fig-4 AND Gate Fig-5 Signal “1” means that the state is TRUE and “0”
the state FALSE. For example one can set a
Digital Level Switch of a tank to give output of “1”
Inputs Output
or ‘true’ at levels > 5m and 0 or ‘false’ at levels
NOT NOT Gate Fig-6
T F <5m. Logic system controllers combine these
digital devices into complete control systems for

Not Running fig-8

logical functions such as: start permissives,
Output tripping of equipment, continuous control and
Inputs
AND many other functions.
T T
PR Logic Controller Components: One must learn
Output the functions of Logic Components and their
Inputs symbols to interpret logic system drawings.
T NOT Numerous logic components are available to
F
PNR meet the very complex requirements of
microprocessor based control systems. We will
Output describe the essential components only called
Inputs
AND ‘gates’ often used for process control. The ‘gates’
F F are OR, AND, and NOT. The ‘Logic Gate’ either
PR allows a signal to pass or does not, just like a
Output security guard of a plant gate either allows a
Inputs visitor to pass or does not at the gate. Thus the
F NOT
T device got the name gate. One main feature
PNR gate is it accepts potential free contacts and
draws negligible currents via the contact for
operation. So simple non-explosion proof field
Split Range Control: In Split Range Control switches are adequate a real cost saver.
configuration the controller output controls
several control valves usually two as in the OR Gates An OR gate fig-4 outputs a ‘TRUE’
example of the gas and oil fired boiler (fig-3); signal if one are more of the input it receives is
Blast Furnace gas is an in-house generated low ‘TRUE’, i.e. output is ‘TRUE’ if signal-1 or 2 or 3
cost byproduct fuel, while fuel oil is expensive or any is ‘TRUE’. A common application of OR
bought out fuel. So the control scheme should gate is for machine protection, e.g. a pump must
maximize gas usage and supplement fuel oil as trip in case of low lube oil pressure or low suction
needed. Split range operation achieves this. In pressure or low seal flush flow etc. The pump
fig-3 the control valve GV on gas line starts to trips due to one or more of the causes. Hence,
open at 4mA signal and fully opens at 12-ma i.e. the gate has the name OR gate.
50% of controller output span, while control valve
FOV on fuel oil line functions between 12-20mA. AND Gate: An AND gate fig-5 outputs a ‘TRUE’
Thus in case of need for increased firing to signal only if all the input it receives is true, i.e.
maintain steam pressure first the gas valve output is ‘TRUE’ if signal-1 and 2 and 3 and all
opens more; if the steam pressure returns to are ‘TRUE’. In case of fewer signals than input it
normal with SPC output of say 11mA controller is customary to short the free terminals to
output stays there. FOV remains closed saving simulate made contacts. A common application
oil. Only if the output of SPC exceeds 12mA due
to increased fuel requirement of the boiler FOV
commences to open, and continues to open
according to SPC output till steam pressure
stabilizes.
of AND gate is start permissive e.g. feed-3 can Table-2
cut in only if feed-1 and feed-2 and feed-3 are Truth Table
Micro for Pump
Processor Status Logic Circuit
Cubicle
already cut in. Hence, the gate has the name PC M
T-‘TRUE, F-FALSE, PR – Pump Running, PNR – Pump
AND gate. It is easy to understand the functions Not Running, G-Glowing; NG-Not Glowing.
constructing a truth table as explained in the next MP-1 MP-2
Gate Signal Lamps
paragraph. Pump
Input Output
Condition PR PNR
I/O AND NOT AND NOT
NOT Gate: The output signal of a NOT gate fig- Card Engineer
6 also known as “inverter,” is just the opposite of Running T T T F G Console
NG
Bank
the input, i.e. if input is ‘TRUE’ output is ‘FALSE’ Not Running F F F T NG G
and vice versa. A NOT gate is useful where
signal reversal is necessary e.g. one contact
‘pump runs’ can serve two purposes i.e. indicates Operator
‘Pump Running’ and ‘Pump Not Running’. Fig-7 Display
shows pump running condition and fig-8 not
running condition. Table-1 the ‘Truth Table’
explains the inputs, outputs and results.

Interfaces between Control Systems: A Operator Console

process plant may have to use different control in Control Room
systems e.g. pneumatic with signals of
20-100KPa, hydraulic 0-20MPa, current 4-20,
S
and voltage 0-10V and digital. A transducer CTR
converts one form into another for using in the Control
circuit. MCC
Room
Field Grey Lines Represent
Typical Distributed Control System DCS: The Digital Signals. Other
DCS of the eighties (fig-9) uses analog 4-20mA electrical lines analog
field transmitters FT for process variables like FJB signals.
temp, pressure, flow etc. Twisted two wire pair
cable TWC from each transmitter reach the field
junction box FJB located near of cluster of EPP
several field transmitting instruments FTI. A multi- TWC
core cable MCC from each FJB conveys the PA
signals to the cubicle junction terminal row CTR. PT
Leads from CTR convey signals from FTI to the DP
T
Input / Output cards and output signals from I/O TC
cards to FCE in the field. Walls separate the
cubicle from the control area of the control room CV
Proces
as operators have to do nothing in it. Only s
engineers and maintenance technicians need
access it. Typical DCS of the Eighties Fig-9
Each input output card can accept eight
inputs and eight outputs. A microprocessor MP signal input into digital signals, which alone the
duplicated for redundancy accepts signals from Microprocessor MP can accept.
each input card one signal after another MP accepts these signals and using a PI
according to the set signal sampling rate. MP or PID algorithm programmed for each loop
processes and conditions the signal. Examples of outputs 4-20mA signals to the FCE via the I/O
conditioning include: converting Electrical cards, compares it with programmed set point
Resistance Signals e.g. inputs from Resistance and outputs a signal to the FCE using PID
Thermometer RTD or thermistors or strain algorithm programmed for each loop. Algorithm is
gauges etc, mV from Thermocouples including a computer program of a logical sequence of
cold junction compensation and 4-20mA outputs steps for solving a problem. FCE are mostly
from field from field pressure, flow and other Pneumatic Diaphragm or Pneumatic Piston
transmitters. The I/O cards render the analog Operated Control Valves. In case of pneumatic
Valve Positioner an I/P – Current to Pneumatic
converter – is necessary to render the current the system has diagnostic capabilities to warn
signals into pneumatic. Electro Pneumatic Valve operators of malfunctioning field instruments,
Positioners EPP accepts 4-20mA current signals microprocessor and other components.
directly to operate pneumatic actuators.
Second Generation DCS: The first generation
Special Algorithms: MP can process signals DCS though decidedly superior to pneumatic
from the I/O cards for ratio control, mass flow instruments has scope for improvement.
computation of gas flows etc. using programmed Dedicated wires from and to each FTI is very
algorithms Taking the example of mass flow cumbersome and expensive. In addition reading
computation, MP using the programmed all and controlling all PV by means of a single MP
algorithm solves the equation FC= √K{(hr*Pr) / Tr} creates a feeling uneasiness though MP is
and feeds mass flow rate to as PV for loops duplicated and they change over from defective
needing more accuracy. In the equation K - a to good one automatically.
constant for the loop, it depends on pressure These factors led to the development of
temp and density values assumed for orifice second generation DCS abbreviated as SGDCS.
computation; h-differential pressure across the Main goal of SGDCS was to take advantage of
orifice; P-absolute pressure; T-absolute temp; the ‘Smart Transmitters’ which debuted in the
Subscript ‘r’ denotes read values. The control 90s. One can easily configure those using
parlance term ‘Argument’ represents the handheld calibrators without the lengthy walk to
variables used by the algorithm. the field. So a communication protocol such as
HART – highway addressable remote
Address of each component of a control transmitter -1 appeared. HART superimposes
Loop: Naturally the question would arise how MP digital signals over the existing field wiring of the
recognizes individual component of a system to analog instruments for remote configuration and
effect proper control. Each component has an other benefits of ‘Smart Transmitters’. See
address assigned to it when the system is Author’s article “Know Your DCS Communication
programmed using the engineer console. Protocols”. Ability to upgrade to ‘Smart
Explanation of this and details of microprocessor Transmitters’ using the existing field wiring is the
working is highly complex and best left to main advantage of HART protocol. Still extensive
computer wizards. Suffice it to know by means of field wiring and dependency on a single MP in
addresses MP recognizes each component and many situations are the weak points of HART.
sends appropriate signals to it. It enables
operators to read out values of a specific tag nr Current Trends: A new transmission protocol
by punching a few keys of the keyboard in his called Fieldbus is a totally digital system. The
console. field transmitters have a chip that can do PID
control. So the control is truly distributed each
Advantages of DCS over Pneumatic Systems: loop being controlled locally. Thus the
Signal Transmission distances are very low in dependence on a single microprocessor is gone.
Pneumatic Systems. As air is compressible there A single pair of wire called Fieldbus accepts
is considerable time lag in the field signals signals from all FTI, sends commands to all FCE,
reaching the control room. Complex control loops and also operator fed information like change in
are very difficult to build due to the need for set point, PID settings etc. The author’s article
interconnecting the numerous dedicated ‘Know your communication Protocols’ gives more
components. In the case of DCS many details.
components could be easily built as Printed
Circuit Boards PCB with built in interconnections.
All the information is available on a monitor M to
the operator by the flick of a switch or by
punching a few keys unlike the pneumatic system
panel full of several rows of instruments and the
panel extending the full length of the hall.
Walking the length of the panel easily tires the
operators; in addition they could easily mistake
one instrument for the other and cause a process
upset by wrong operation unless they very
carefully watch the tag number labels. In addition