M ASENO U NIVERSITY

S CHOOL OF M ATHEMATICS , S TATISTICS AND A CTUARIAL

S CIENCES

MMA 206: Algebraic Structures

Lecturer: Level and Prog.:

Dr. Owino Okoth Second Year,
+254 725 911 646 Second Semester,
[email protected] BSc, BA, BEd

These lecture notes were lastly modified on: June 18, 2018
About the course

Class Hours
Lectures: Mondays 6.15-8.15 p.m in TB2 and Fridays 11.30-1.30 p.m M4

Pre-requisite
MMA 109: Foundations of pure mathematics, MMA 103: Linear Algebra I, MMA 100:
Basic Mathematics

Objectives
To introduce the learner to abstract algebra.

Expected learning outcomes

By the end of the course, the learner should be able to:

• Give the following. Definitions of binary operations, associative, commutative,

identity element, inverses, cancellation. Proofs of uniqueness of identity element,
and of inverse.

• Explain the following. Group, order of a group, multiplication table for a group,
subgroups and subgroup tests, cyclic subgroups, order of an element, Klein four
group.

• Describe these examples: groups of units of rings, groups of symmetries of equilat-

eral triangle and square.

• Define cosets of a group and state Lagrange’s Theorem. Explain normal subgroup

2
 • Explain the following: ring, types of rings, subrings and subring tests, ideals, unit,
zero-divisor, divisibility in integral domains

• Explain the following: fields, subfields, modules and vector spaces

Course Description
We shall cover the following topics:

1. Introduction; Binary operations, Definition and various examples of algebraic struc-

tures.

2. Groups; Definition of a group, Examples of groups, Properties of groups, Subgroup

and cyclic groups, Dihedral groups, Permutation groups, Symmetric groups, Nor-
mal subgroups, Quotient groups, Product groups, cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem

3. Rings; Definition of a ring, examples of rings, Properties of rings, units, zero-divisors,

Subrings, ideals, integral domains

4. Fields; Definition of a field, examples of fields, Properties of fields, Euclidean do-

mains

5. Vector spaces; A vector space as an algebraic structure, Modules as a generalization

of vector spaces

Mode of delivery
Lectures, class demonstrations, oral presentations by the students, group discussions and
Tutorials: practical exercises.

Instructional Material/Equipment:
Include course notes, black and white board, chalk, white-board marker, duster, computer
and projector.

3
Course assessment
The course will be assessed in two parts: Coursework (continuous assessment tests)
which will normally contribute 30% of the total mark. Written end of semester exami-
nation shall normally contribute 70% of the total mark.

Recommended reference materials

1. Herstein, I. N. (1990). Abstract Algebra, Second edition, Macmillan Publishing com-
pany, New York.

2. Bhattacharya, P. B., Jain, S. K, and Nagpaul, S. R (1986). Basic Abstract Algebra, Cam-
bridge University Press, New York.

3. Denton, T (2016). Introduction to Algebraic Structures.

Mathematics
This is a prelude to Kevin Houston’s excellent book, How to think like a mathematician: A
companion to undergraduate mathematics.

Mathematics is the most powerful tool we have. It controls our world. We

can use it to put men on the moon. We use it to calculate how much insulin
a diabetic should take. It is hard to get right. And yet. And yet ... And yet
people who use or like mathematics are considered geeks or nerds. And yet
mathematics is considered useless by most people - throughout history chil-
dren at school have whined ’When am I ever going to use this?’ Why would
anyone want to become a mathematician? As mentioned earlier mathematics
is a very powerful tool. Jobs that use mathematics are often well-paid and
people do tend to be impressed. There are a number of responses from non-
mathematicians when meeting a mathematician, the most common being ’I
hated maths at school. I wasn’t any good at it’, but another common response
is ’You must be really clever.’

So cheer up and do mathematics. You are clever.

4
Contents

1 Introduction 7

2 Groups 10
2.1 Definition of a group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Further examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Nonexamples of groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Some simple remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3 Subgroups 17
3.1 Some terminologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2 Definition and test for subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3 Examples of subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.4 Normal subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.5 Cyclic groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

4 Permutation groups 25
4.1 Dihedral group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

5 Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem 29

5.1 Cosets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2 Lagrange’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

6 Rings 31
6.1 Examples and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.2 Integral Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

7 Fields 37
7.1 Definition and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7.2 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
7.3 Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

5
Contents

7.4 Properties of fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

8 Vector spaces 41

6
Chapter 1

Introduction

This is the first course in abstract algebra. Algebra is about operations on sets. Operations
are ways of combining elements in a set. The rules under which the operations behave on
a set S are called axioms. You have met many operations; for example:

• addition and multiplication of numbers;

• modular arithmetic;

• addition and multiplication of polynomials;

• addition and multiplication of matrices;

• union and intersection of sets;

• composition of permutations.

The name ”algebra” comes from the title of the book Hisab al-jabr w’al-muqabala by Abu
Ja’far Muhammad bin Musa Al-Khwarizmi, a Persian mathematician who lived in Bagh-
dad early in the Islamic era (and whose name has given us the word ’algorithm’ for a
procedure to carry out some operation). Al-Khwarizmi was interested in solving various
algebraic equations (especially quadratics), and his method involves applying a transfor-
mation to the equation to put it into a standard form for which the solution method is
known.
We will be concerned, not so much with solving particular equations, but general
questions about the kinds of systems in which Al-Khwarizmi’s methods might apply.
Some questions we might ask include:

(a) We form C by adjoining to R an element i satisfying i2 = ´1, and then assert that the
”usual laws” apply in C. How can we be sure that this is possible? What happens if
we try to add more such elements?

7
1. Introduction

(b) What is modular arithmetic? What exactly are the objects, and how are the opera-
tions on them defined? Does it satisfy the ”usual laws”?

(c) What are polynomials? Do they satisfy the ”usual laws”? What about matrices?

(d) Do union and intersection of sets behave like addition and multiplication of num-
bers? What about composition of permutations?

(e) What are the ”usual laws”? What consequences do they have?

We discuss some types of operations:

A mapping ‹ : S ˆ S ÝÑ S is called a binary operation, on the set S. Binary operations
are always represented by ‹, ˝, +, ˆ. Addition and multiplication on Z (set of integers)
and R (set of real numbers) are always binary.
If X and Y are subsets of a set Ω, then X X Y, X Y Y and X ´ Y are also subsets of Ω.
Hence union, intersection and set difference are binary operations.
More generally, for any positive integer n, a mapping f : Sn ÝÑ S where Sn = S ˆ
S ˆ S ˆ ¨ ¨ ¨ ˆ S (n-factors) is called an n-ary operation. When n = 1, the mapping is called
unary operation on S.

Definition 1.0.1. A binary operation ‹ : S ˆ S ÝÑ S on the set S is

(i) commutative if x ‹ y = y ‹ x for all x, y P S.

(ii) associative if ( x ‹ y) ‹ z = x ‹ (y ‹ z) for all x, y, z P S.

(iii) If ˝ is another binary operation, then ‹ is left distributive if x ‹ (y ˝ z) = ( x ‹ y) ˝ ( x ‹ z)

for all x, y, z P S. The operation ‹ is right distributive if ( x ˝ y) ‹ z = ( x ‹ z) ˝ (y ‹ z).

If a binary operation is both left and right distributive then we say that it is distributive
over the set, say S.

Exercise 1.0.2. Attempt these questions

1. Determine if the binary operation ‹ on R is associative and commutative in each of

the following cases.

(a) x ‹ y = x2 y
(b) x ‹ y = min( x, y)
(c) x ‹ y = x y + y x
(d) x ‹ y = x2 + y2
(e) x ‹ y = 1

8
 2. Let S be a set having an operation ‹ which assigns an element a ‹ b of S for any
a, b P S. Let us assume that the following two rules hold:

(a) If a, b are any objects in S, then a ‹ b = a.

(b) If a, b are any objects in S, then a ‹ b = b ‹ a.

Show that S can have at most one object.

3. Let S be the set of all integers. For a, b in S define a ‹ b = a ´ b. Verify the following

(a) a ‹ b ‰ b ‹ a unless a = b.
(b) ( a ‹ b) ‹ c ‰ a ‹ (b ‹ c) in general. Under what conditions on a, b, c is ( a ‹ b) ‹ c =
a ‹ ( b ‹ c )?
(c) The integer 0 has the property that a ‹ 0 = a for every a P S.
(d) For a in S, a ´ a = 0.

4. Let S consist of the two elements  and N. We define the operation ‹ on S by sub-
jecting  and N to the following conditions:

(i)  ‹ N = N = N ‹ .
(ii)  ‹  = .
(iii) N ‹ N = .

Verify by explicit calculation that if a, b are any elements of S (i.e., a, b and c can be
any of N or ), then:

(a) a ‹ b is in S.
(b) ( a ‹ b) ‹ c = a ‹ (b ‹ c).
(c) a ‹ b = b ‹ a.
(d) There is a particular a in S such that a ‹ b = b ‹ a = b for all b in S.
(e) Given b in S, then b ‹ b = a, where a is the particular element in Part (d).

We now define an algebraic structure.

An algebraic structure/system is a non-empty set (called carrier set or underlying set)
with one or more binary operations defined on it. Examples of algebraic structures in-
clude semigroups, groups, rings, modules, fields, and lattices.
For the rest of the course, we will be discussing these algebraic structures, but we wont
dig deep into them as they will be covered at length in MMA 304: Group Theory I, MMA
401: Rings and Modules, MMA 407: Field Theory, MMA 416: Galois Theory and MMA
417: Group Theory II.

9
Chapter 2

Groups

We now encounter some of the simplest algebraic structures.

2.1 Definition of a group

Definition 2.1.1 (Group). A group is a pair ( G, ‹) consisting of a nonempty set G and a
binary operation ‹ : G ˆ G ÝÑ G satisfying the following axioms:

1. Closure: a ‹ b P G for all a, b P G.

2. Associativity: For any a, b, c P G, we have ( a ‹ b) ‹ c = a ‹ (b ‹ c).

3. Identity: There exists an element e P G such that for any a P G we have e ‹ a =

a ‹ e = a.

4. Inverses: For any element a P G there exists b P G such that a ‹ b = b ‹ a = e. (We

write this element b as a´1 and call it the inverse of a in G)

A group is defined purely by the rules that it follows! This is our first example of an
algebraic structure; all the others that we meet will follow a similar template: A set with
some operation(s) that follow some particular rules.
For example, consider the integers Z with the operation of addition. To check that the
integers form a group, we need to check four things:

1. Addition takes two integers and gives another integer back. (Here we’re checking
the requirement that the operation is one from G ˆ G ÝÑ G. Notice that the output
of the operation is always in G! This is called closure of the operation.)

2. Addition of integers is associative.

10
 2.2. Further examples

3. There’s an identity element, 0, where for any integer n, we have n + 0 = 0 + n = n.

4. Every integer n has an inverse, ´n, with n + (´n) = (´n) + n = 0.

Thus, the integers - with the operation of addition - form a group.

On the other hand, the set of integers with the operation of multiplication do not form
a group. Multiplication does indeed take two integers and return another integer, and
there is an identity 1 , and multiplication is associative. But not every element has an
inverse that is also an integer. For example, the multiplicative inverse of 2 is 21 , but this
isn’t an integer! Thus, integers with multiplication do not form a group.

Remark 2.1.2. An important note about inverses: An inverse means, roughly, that we can
go back to where we started after applying an operation. Algebraically, this means we
can cancel elements. When we have something like gh = gk, we can multiply both sides
on the left by g´1 to get h = k. We have to be careful to multiply on the same side on both
sides, since groups aren’t always commutative! If gh = kg, it doesn’t necessarily tell us
that h = k!

Remark 2.1.3. For several applications the notions of group is too restrictive, i.e. we asked
for too many axioms. One can weaken the notion in two ways. Suppose for this again
that G is a set together with a binary operation ’‹’ on G.

• If the pair ( G, ‹) satisfies only the first two axioms, we call ( G, ‹) a semigroup.

• If the pair ( G, ‹) satisfies only the first three axioms, we call ( G, ‹) a monoid.

2.2 Further examples

1. Let Q be the set of rational numbers and let the operation ‹ on Q be the ordinary
addition of rational numbers. Then Q is a group under ‹.

2. Let Q1 be the set of all nonzero rational numbers and let the operation ‹ on Q1 be the
ordinary multiplication of rational numbers. Then Q is a group under ‹.

3. The subset t1, ´1, i, ´iu of the complex numbers is a group under complex multi-
plication. Note that ´1 is its own inverse, whereas the inverse of i is ´i, and vice
versa.

4. For any integer a, define a%n to be the remainder of a when divided by n. For
example, 5%3 = 2, because the remainder of 5 when divided by 3 is 2. (You should
check that for any integer k, (kn)%n = 0.) This operation is usually called ’modulus’

11
2. Groups

or ’mod.’ So 12%5 is read ’twelve modulo 5’ or ’twelve mod 5.’ (And is equal, of
course, to two!)
Let Zn be the set of numbers t0, 1, 2, . . . , n ´ 1u (which contains n elements). We
define an operation +n on these numbers by the following rule: For any a, b P
Zn , a +n b = ( a + b)%n. For example, Z5 is the set t0, 1, 2, 3, 4u. Here, for exam-
ple, 4 +5 3 = (4 + 3)%5 = 7%5 = 2. You should write down an addition table for
Z5 .
Usually, we don’t write +n for the addition. From now on, whenever you see an
expression like 4+3, you will have to be mindful of the context! If we consider 4 and
3 as plain old integers, the answer is 7. If they are integers mod 5, then the answer
is 2!
The pair (Zn , +n ) is a group.

5. The set t1, 2, . . . , n ´ 1u is a group under multiplication modulo n if and only if n is

prime.

6. The set of all 2 ˆ 2 matrices with real entries is a group under component-wise ad-
dition.

Exercise 2.2.1. Write out tables for n = 5 and n = 6 for:

(i) addition in Zn ,

(ii) multiplication in Zn

Definition 2.2.2. A group G is said to be a finite group if it has a finite number of elements.
The number of elements in G is called the order of G and is denoted by |G|.

In the examples considered above, the property that for all elements a, b P G we have
a ‹ b = b ‹ a holds. This need not be true in a group.

Definition 2.2.3. A group G is said to be abelian if it a ‹ b = b ‹ a for all a, b P G.

7. (Z, +), (Q, +) and (R, +) are abelian groups with the usual addition as operation.
In each of the cases the number zero is the identity, and for a number g the negative
´g is the inverse element.

8. (Q t0u, ¨) and (R t0u, ¨) with the usual multiplication as operation are also abelian
groups. The number one is in each case the identity, and for a number g the inverse
is just 1g .

12
 2.3. Nonexamples of groups

9. In contrast to the last example (Z t0u, ¨) is only an abelian monoid with the number
one as identity. The inverse axiom is not fulfilled, since only the integers g = 1 and
g = ´1 have inverses in Z t0u.

10. (N, +) is also only an abelian monoid with the number zero as neutral element,
since g ą 0 has no inverse in N.

11. The simplest group is a group containing only one element, G = teu, with the group
operation defined by e ‹ e = e.

A group that is not abelian is called nonabelian. Now we give an example of a nonabelian
group.

12. Consider the set M2,2 of invertible 2 ˆ 2 matrices with real entries. The set together
with usual matrix multiplication is a group. Closure and associativity clearly follow.
The identity is !
1 0
0 1
and since all the matrices are invertible then there are inverses. Now, since matrix
multiplication is not commutative, then the group is not abelian.

Since we have presented a dozen of examples, further examples of abelian/nonabelian

groups will be handled in the next sections. We switch our attention to nonexamples.

2.3 Nonexamples of groups

In the sequel, we consider some few nonexamples of groups.

1. Let G be the set of all integers, and let ‹ be the ordinary product of integers in G.
Since a ‹ b = ab, for a, b P G we clearly have that G is closed and associative relative
to ‹. Furthermore, the number 1 serves as the unit element, since a ‹ 1 = a1 =
a = 1a = 1 ‹ a for every a P G. To show that G is a group we have to show that
all elements in G have inverses in G. But this isn’t so . Clearly we cannot find an
integer b such that 0 ‹ b = 0b = 1, since 0b = 0 for all b. But even other integers fail
to have inverses in G. For instance, we cannot find an integer b such that 5 ‹ b = 1
(for this will require that b = 15 , and 15 is not an integer).

2. Let G be the set of all nonzero real numbers and define, for a, b P G, a ‹ b = a2 b;
thus 4 ‹ 5 = 42 (5) = 80. Which of the group axioms hold in G under this operation
‹ and which fail to hold? Certainly, G is closed under ‹. Is G associative? If so,

13
2. Groups

( a ‹ b) ‹ c = a ‹ (b ‹ c), that is, is ( a ‹ b)2 c = a2 (b ‹ c), and so ( a2 b)2 c = a2 (b2 c), which
boils down to a2 = 1, which holds only for a = ˘1. So, in general, the associative
law does not hold in G relative to ‹. We similarly can verify that G does not have an
identity. Thus even discussing inverses does not make sense.

3. The set S of positive irrational numbers together with 1 under multiplication satis-
fies three properties given in the definition of a group but is not a group. Indeed,
? ?
2 ¨ 2 = 2, so S is not closed under multiplication.

4. The set t0, 1, 2, 3u is not a group under multiplication modulo 4. Although 1 and 3
have inverses, the elements 0 and 2 do not.

5. The set of integers under subtraction is not a group, since the operation is not asso-
ciative.

6. Let G be the set of all positive integers, under ‹ where a ‹ b = ab, the ordinary prod-
uct of integers. Then one can easily verify that G fails to be a group only because it
fails to have inverses for some (in fact, most) of its elements relative to ‹.

Exercise 2.3.1. Try these questions

1. Determine if the following sets G with the operation indicated form a group. If not,
point out which of the group axioms fail.

(a) G = set of all integers, a ‹ b = a ´ b.

(b) G = set of all integers, a ‹ b = a + b + ab.
(c) G = set of nonnegative integers, a ‹ b = a + b.
(d) G = set of all rational integers ‰ ´1, a ‹ b = a + b + ab.
(e) G = set of all rational integers with denominator divisible by 5 (written so that
numerator and denominator are relatively prime), a ‹ b = a + b.
(f) G a set having more than one element, a ‹ b = a for all a, b P G.

2. If G is an abelian group, prove that ( a ‹ b)n = an ‹ bn for all integers n.

3. If G is a group in which a2 = e for all a P G, show that G is abelian.

4. If G is any group and a, b, c P G, show that if a ‹ b = a ‹ c, then b = c, and if

b ‹ a = c ‹ a, then b = c.

5. Express ( a ‹ b)´1 in terms of a´1 and b´1 .

14
 2.4. Some simple remarks

6. Using the result in Number 5., prove that a group G in which a = a´1 for every
a P G must be abelian.

7. In any group G, prove that ( a´1 )´1 = a for all a P G.

8. Prove that the matrices

! ! ! !
1 0 1 0 ´1 0 ´1 0
, , , and
0 1 0 ´1 0 1 0 ´1

for a multiplicative group. (This group is known as the Klein four-group.)

9. Show that any group of order 4 or less is abelian.

2.4 Some simple remarks

We give some properties that follow from group axioms.

Lemma 2.4.1. If G is a group, then:

(a) Its identity element is unique.

(b) Every a P G has a unique inverse a´1 P G.

(c) If a P G then ( a´1 )´1 = a.

(d) For a, b P G, we have ( ab)´1 = b´1 a´1 .

Proof.

(a) We begin by proving part (a). The idea is that we assume that there are two identities
and then show that the identities are the same, i.e., if e, e1 P G are identities then
e = e1 . Now e ‹ e1 = e1 since e is an identity element. Similarly, e ‹ e1 = e. Thus
e = e ‹ e1 = e1 .

(b) Instead of proving part (b), we prove even a stronger result (listed in Lemma 2.4.2
below), which will have part (b) as an immediate corollary. We claim that in a group
G if ab = ac, then b = c. To see this, we have, for a P G, an element u P G such that
ua = e. Thus from ab = ac, we have

u( ab) = u( ac),

so, by the associative law, (ua)b = (ua)c, that is, eb = ec. Hence b = eb = ec = c,
and our result is established. A similar argument shows that if ba = ca, then b = c.

15
2. Groups

However, we cannot conclude from ab = ca that b = c; in any abelian group, yes,

but in general, no.
Now to get part (b), suppose that b, c P G act as inverses for a; then ab = e = ac,
so by cancellation b = c and we see that the inverse of a is unique. We shall always
write it as a´1 .

(c) By definition a´1 ( a´1 )´1 = e. But a´1 a = e, so by cancellation in a´1 ( a´1 )´1 = e =
a´1 a we get ( a´1 )´1 = a.

(d) We calculate

( ab)(b´1 a´1 ) = (( ab)b´1 ) a´1 ( associative law)

= ( a(bb´1 )) a´1 ( associative law)
´1
= ( ae) a
= aa´1
= e.

Similarly, (b´1 a´1 )( ab) = e. Hence, by definition, ( ab)´1 = b´1 a´1 .

Here is the lemma we promised in the proof of the Lemma 2.4.1 above.
Lemma 2.4.2. In any group G, if a, b, c P G and
(a) ab = ac, then b = c.

(b) ba = ca, then b = c.

Definition 2.4.3. Let G be a group. An element n P G is called annihilator if n ‹ p = n for
all p P G.
Note that if ‹ is multiplication, the annihilator is 0.
Lemma 2.4.4. Let G be a group. If n and p are annihilators in G, then n = p.
Proof. If x = p for all x P G, then n ‹ p = n. Further p ‹ x = x ‹ p = p by definition. If we
substitute n for x we have p ‹ n = n ‹ p = p. Hence, p = n ‹ p = n. Therefore p = n.
Exercise 2.4.5. Let X = t1, 2, 3u and (P ( X ), ‹) be the power set of X with ‹ either union
or intersection.
(i) Show that (P ( X ), ‹) is not a group.

(ii) Find the identity and annihilator of (P ( X ), ‹) where ‹ is union.

(iii) Find the identity and annihilator of (P ( X ), ‹) where ‹ is intersection.

16
Chapter 3

Subgroups

3.1 Some terminologies

Definition 3.1.1. A group G is said to be a finite group if it has a finite number of elements.
The number of elements in G is called the order of G and is denoted by |G|.
Thus, the group Z of integers under addition has infinite order, whereas the group
U (10) = t1, 3, 7, 9u under multiplication modulo 10 has order 4.
Definition 3.1.2. The order of an element g in a group G is the smallest positive integer n
such that gn = e. (In additive notation, this would be ng = 0.) If no such integer exists,
we say that g has infinite order. The order of an element g is denoted by |g|.
So, to find the order of a group element g, you need only compute the sequence of
products g, g2 , g3 , . . . , until you reach the identity for the first time. The exponent of this
product (or coefficient if the operation is addition) is the order of g. If the identity never
appears in the sequence, then g has infinite order.
Example 3.1.3. Consider the group U (15) = t1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14u under multiplication
modulo 15. The order of the element 7, say, we compute the sequence 71 = 7, 72 =
4, 73 = 13, 74 = 1, so |7| = 4. To find the order of 11, we compute 111 = 11, 112 = 1, so
|11| = 2. Similar computations show that |1| = 1, |2| = 4, |4| = 2, |8| = 4, |13| = 4, |14| = 2.
[Here is a trick that makes these calculations easier. Rather than compute the sequence
131 , 132 , 133 , 134 , we may observe that 13 = ´2 mod 15, so that 132 = (´2)2 = 4, 133 =
´2 ¨ 4 = ´8, 134 = (´2)(´8) = 1.]
Example 3.1.4. Consider the group Z10 under addition modulo 10. Since 1 ¨ 2 = 2, 2 ¨
2 = 4, 3 ¨ 2 = 6, 4 ¨ 2 = 8, 5 ¨ 2 = 0, we know that |2| = 5. Similar computations show
that |0| = 1, |7| = 10, |5| = 2, |6| = 5. (Here 2 ¨ 2 is an abbreviation for 2 + 2, 3 ¨ 2 is an
abbreviation for 2 + 2 + 2, etc.)

17
3. Subgroups

Example 3.1.5. Consider the group Z under ordinary addition. Here every nonzero ele-
ment has infinite order, since the sequence a, 2a, 3a, . . . never includes 0 when a ‰ 0.

3.2 Definition and test for subgroups

Definition 3.2.1. Let G be a group, and H a subset of G. Then H is a subgroup of G if H is
itself a group using the same operation as G. We write H ď G.

Ostensibly, to check that a subset H is a subgroup, we would need to check all four
properties of the group. That is, closure (i.e., the operation gives a map H ˆ H ÝÑ H;
products of things in H are always in H), identity, the existence of inverses, and associa-
tivity.
In fact, since H has the same operation as G, we know that the operation in H is
associative (since G is a group). Furthermore, if the operation is closed and inverses exist,
then we know that for any h P H, hh´1 = e must be in H. So really we only need to check
two things:

1. Closure: gh P H for all g, h P H, and

2. Inverses: h´1 P H for all h P H.

Some important things to notice:

1. The group G is always a subgroup of itself! (G is a subset of itself, which is a group

with the same operation as G.)

2. The subset containing just the identity element is also a subgroup! This is called the
trivial subgroup. A subgroup that is not is not a trivial subgroup is called a nontrivial
subgroup.

Example 3.2.2. The set of integers forms a subgroup of the set of real numbers under
normal addition. So we write Z ď R.

Theorem 3.2.3 (Subgroup test). Let G be a group. The nonempty subset H of G is a subgroup
of G if and only if either of the following holds:

(i) for all a, b P H, we have ab P H and a´1 P H.

(ii) for all a, b P H, we have ab´1 P H.

18
 3.3. Examples of subgroups

Proof. If H is a subgroup of G then (i) and (ii) clearly follows.

Conversely, suppose H satisfies the first condition (i) then for any a P H, we have that
a´1 P H. Hence aa´1 = e P H. Therefore H is a subgroup. Next suppose H satisfies (ii).
Let a, b P H such that bb´1 = e P H. Hence b´1 = eb´1 . Therefore ab = a(b´1 )´1 P H.
Hence H is a subgroup of G.

3.3 Examples of subgroups

For any element a from a group, we let xay denote the set tan |n P Zu. In particular, observe
that the exponents of a include all negative integers as well as 0 and the positive integers
(a0 is defined to be the identity).

Theorem 3.3.1. Let G be a group, and let a be any element of G. Then, xay is a subgroup of G.

Proof. Since a P xay, xay is not empty. Let an , am P xay. Then, an ( am )´1 = an´m P xay; so, by
Theorem 3.2.3, xay is a subgroup of G.

The subgroup xay is called the cyclic subgroup of G generated by a. In the case that
G = xay, we say that G is cyclic and a is a generator of G. (A cyclic group may have
many generators.) Notice that although the list . . . , a´2 , a´1 , a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . has infinitely
many entries, the set tan |n P Zu might have only finitely many elements. Also note that,
since ai a j = ai+ j = a j+i = a j ai , every cyclic group is Abelian.

Example 3.3.2. In U (10) = t1, 3, 7, 9u, x3y = t3, 9, 7, 1u = U (10), for 31 = 3, 32 = 9, 33 =

7, 34 = 1, 35 = 34 ¨ 3 = 1 ¨ 3, 36 = 34 ¨ 32 = 9, . . . ; 3´1 = 7 (since 3 ¨ 7 = 1), 3´2 =
9, 3´3 = 3, 3´4 = 1, 3´5 = 3´4 ¨ 3´1 = 1 ¨ 7, 3´6 = 3´4 ¨ 3´2 = 1 ¨ 9 = 9, . . .

Example 3.3.3. In Z10 , x2y = t2, 4, 6, 8, 0u. Remember, an means na when the operation is
addition.

Example 3.3.4. In Z, x´1y = Z. Here each entry in the list

. . . , ´2(´1), ´1(´1), 0(´1), 1(´1), 2(´1), . . .

represents a distinct group element.

For any element a of a group G, it is useful to think of xay as the smallest subgroup
of G containing a. This notion can be extended to any collection S of elements from a
group G by defining xSy as the subgroup of G with the property that xSy contains S and
if H is any subgroup of G containing S, then H also contains xSy Thus, xSy is the smallest
subgroup of G that contains S. The set xSy is called the subgroup generated by S.
You can verify the results of the example below.

19
3. Subgroups

Example 3.3.5. In Z20 , x8, 14y = t0, 2, 4, ¨, 18u = x2y; in Z, x8, 13y = Z; in C˚ , the group
of nonzero complex numbers under multiplication, x1, iy = t1, ´1, i, ´iu = xiy; in C, the
group of complex numbers under addition, x1, iy = ta + bi|a, b P Zu (This group is called
?
the ”Gaussian integers”); in R, the group of real numbers under addition, x2, π, 2y =
?
t2a + bπ + c 2|a, b, c P Zu; in a group in which a, b, c, and d commute, xa, b, c, dy =
taq br cs dt |q, r, s, t P Zu.

Theorem 3.3.6. Let G be a group. For any a P G let C ( a) = tg P G|ga = agu. Then C ( a) is a
subgroup of G.

Proof. We first show that closure holds: If g, h P C ( a), then ga = ag and ha = ah, thus
( gh) a = g(ha) = g( ah) = ( ga)h = ( ag)h = a( gh), hence gh P C ( a). Next we show the
existence of inverses: If g P C ( a), then from ga = ag we have g´1 ( ga) g´1 = g´1 ( ag) g´1 ,
which simplifies to ag´1 = g´1 a. Thus g´1 P C ( a). So C ( a) is a subgroup of G.

We call C ( a) the centralizer of a in G.

Theorem 3.3.7. Let G be a group. Let Z ( G ) = ta P G|ax = xa for all x P Gu. Then Z ( G ) is a
subgroup of G.

Proof. Clearly, e P Z ( G ), so Z ( G ) is nonempty. Now, suppose a, b P Z ( G ). Then ( ab) x =

a(bx ) = a( xb) = ( ax )b = ( xa)b = x ( ab) for all x in G; and, therefore, ab P Z ( G ).
Next, assume that a P Z ( G ). Then we have ax = xa for all x in G. What we want is
a x = xa´1 for all x in G. Now,
´1

a´1 ( ax ) a´1 = a´1 ( xa) a´1 ,

( a´1 a) xa´1 = a´1 x ( aa´1 ),
exa´1 = a´1 xe,
xa´1 = a´1 x.

This shows that a´1 P Z ( G ) whenever a is.

We call Z ( G ) the centre of G.

Theorem 3.3.8. Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G. For any g P G, let g´1 Hg =
tg´1 hg|h P Hu. Then g´1 Hg is a subgroup of G.

Proof. If x = g´1 h1 g and y = g´1 h2 g where h1 , h2 P H then xy = ( g´1 h1 g)( g´1 h2 g) =

g´1 (h1 h2 ) g, and since H is a subgroup of G, h1 h2 P H; therefore, g´1 (h1 h2 ) g P g´1 Hg,
which says that xy P g´1 Hg. Thus g´1 Hg is closed. Also, if x = g´1 hg P g´1 Hg, then as
easily verified, x´1 = ( g´1 hg)´1 = g´1 h´1 g P g´1 Hg. Therefore, g´1 Hg is a subgroup of
G.

20
 3.4. Normal subgroups

Exercise 3.3.9. Attempt these questions

1. Prove that in any group, an element and its inverse have the same order.

2. In the group Z12 , find |a|, |b|, and |a + b| for each case.

(a) a = 6, b = 2
(b) a = 3, b = 8
(c) a = 5, b = 4

Do you see any relationship between |a|, |b|, and |a + b|?

3. If a, b, and c are group elements and |a| = 6, |b| = 7, express ( a4 c´2 b4 )´1 without
using negative exponents.

4. If H and K are subgroups of G, show that H X K is a subgroup of G.

5. In the group Z,

(a) x8, 14y

(b) x8, 13y
(c) x6, 15y
(d) xm, ny
(e) x12, 18, 45y

In each part, find an integer k such that the subgroup is xky.

6. If H is a subgroup of G, then by the centralizer C ( H ) of H we mean the set

tx P G|xh = hx for all h P Hu. Prove that C ( H ) is a subgroup of G.

7. If a and b are group elements and ab ‰ ba, prove that aba ‰ e.

8. Show that if a is an element of a group G, then |a| ď |G|.

3.4 Normal subgroups

Let H be a subgroup of G, i.e, H ď G. We say that H is a normal subgroup of G if there
exists h P H, g P G such that g´1 hg P H. We call g´1 hg a conjugation of h P H by g P G.

Lemma 3.4.1. Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal.

21
3. Subgroups

Proof. Let G be an abelian group and H ď G. For all h P H and g P G, we have g´1 hg =
hg´1 g = he = h P H.

Remark 3.4.2. We denote a normal subgroup by H D G. If the normal subgroup is proper then
we have H B G.

Let X be a nonempty subset of a group G, not necessarily a normal subgroup of G. By

mf
a word in G we mean any element in G which can be expressed in the form u1m1 u2m2 ¨ ¨ ¨ u f
where f is any positive integer, u1 , u2 , . . . , u f are any elements of X (not necessarily dis-
tinct) and m1 , m2 , . . . , m f are any integers.

3.5 Cyclic groups

A group G is called cyclic, if there exists an element x P G such that G = txi : i P Zu.
The element x is called the generator of G and we write G = xxy. The elements of G =
xGy are of the form t. . . , x´2 , x´1 , x0 = e, x, x2 , . . .u. The operation ‹ for cyclic group is
multiplication.

Lemma 3.5.1. Every cyclic group is abelian.

Proof. We verify that the axioms of abelian group are satisfied.

1. Closure: Let a, b P Z, then x a ‹ x b = x a+b P G for some x P G.

2. Associative: Let a, b, c P Z, then

x a ‹ ( x b ‹ x c ) = x a ‹ ( x b+c ) = x a+b+c = ( x a+b ) ‹ x c = ( x a ‹ x b ) ‹ x c

for some x P G.

3. Identity: Let a P Z, then

x a ‹ x 0 = x a +0 = x 0+ a = x 0 ‹ x a = x a .

Hence the identity is x0 = 1 for some x P G.

4. Inverse: Let a P Z, the inverse of x a is x´a since x a ‹ x´a = x a´a = x0 = 1 for all
a P Z, and some x P G.

5. Commutative: Let a, b P Z, then x a ‹ x b = x a+b = x b+a = x b ‹ x a . If both a and b are

negatives then x´a ‹ x´b = x´a´b = x´b´a = x´b ‹ x´a .

22
 3.5. Cyclic groups

Example 3.5.2. The subgroup mZ is cyclic and is generated by m or ´m. If m = 2, then

2Z = t. . . , ´4, ´2, 0, 2, 4, 6, . . .u. If m = 3, then 2Z = t. . . , ´6, ´3, 0, 3, 6, 9, . . .u.

Example 3.5.3. The set Zn = t0, 1, . . . , n ´ 1u for n ě 1 is a cyclic group under addition
modulo n. Again, 1 and ´1 = n ´ 1 are generators.

Unlike Z, which has only two generators, Zn may have many generators (depending
on which n we are given).

Example 3.5.4. Z8 = x1y = x3y = x5y = x7y. To verify, for instance, that Z8 = x3y, we note
that x3y = t3, 3 + 3, 3 + 3 + 3, . . .u is the set t3, 6, 1, 4, 7, 2, 5, 0u = Z8 . Thus, 3 is a generator
of Z8 . On the other hand, 2 is not a generator, since x2y = t0, 2, 4, 6u ‰ Z8 .

With those examples under our belt, we tackle this property of cyclic groups.

Theorem 3.5.5. Let G be a cyclic group. Suppose that m is the order of x, for some x P G, and let
a, b be integers, then x a = x b if and only if a ” b mod m.

Proof. Let q be an integer, x qm = ( x m )q = eq = e. Given that a ” b mod m, there exists an

integer q such that a = b + qm. Now,

x a = x b+qm = x b ‹ x qm = x b ‹ ( x m )q = x b ‹ e = x b .

This implies that x a = x b .

Conversely, if x a = x b , then by an earlier discussion x p = e, where p = a ´ b. Sup-
pose p = qm + s, where s is the residue of p mod m and can assume any of the values
0, 1, 2, . . . , m ´ 1, then

e = x p = x qm+s = ( x m )q ‹ x s = e ‹ x s = x s .

If s ą 0, then this contradicts the fact that m is the smallest positive integer such that
x m = e. Hence s = 0. So we have, p = qm = a ´ b. Thus a ´ b = qm implying that a ” b
mod m.

Corollary 3.5.6. For any group element x, |x| = |xxy|.

Corollary 3.5.7. Let G be a group and let a be an element of order n in G. If x k = e, then n

divides k.

Proof. Since x k = e = x0 , we know by Theorem 3.5.5 that n divides k ´ 0.

Exercise 3.5.8.

1. If A and B are subgroups of G, show that A X B is a subgroup of G.

23
3. Subgroups

2. What is the cyclic subgroup of Z generated by -1 under +.

3. If G is an abelian group and if H = ta P G|a2 = eu, show that H is a subgroup of G.

4. Give an example of a nonabelian group for which the H in Number 3 is not a sub-
group.

5. If G is cyclic, show that every subgroup of G is cyclic.

6. Show that a P Z ( G ) if and only if C ( a) = G.

24
Chapter 4

Permutation groups

Definition 4.0.9. A permutation of a set A is a function from A to A that is both one-to-one

and onto. A permutation group of a set A is a set of permutations of A that forms a group
under function composition.

Unlike in calculus, where most functions are defined on infinite sets and are given by
formulas, in algebra, permutations of finite sets are usually given by an explicit listing
of each element of the domain and its corresponding functional value. For example, we
define a permutation a of the set t1, 2, 3, 4u by specifying

α(1) = 2, α(2) = 3, α(3) = 1, α(4) = 4.

A more convenient way to express this correspondence is to write a in array form as

!
1 2 3 4
α= .
2 3 1 4

Here α( j) is placed directly below j for each j.

Composition of permutations expressed in array notation is carried out from right to
left by going from top to bottom, then again from top to bottom. For example, let
! !
1 2 3 1 2 3
α= and β =
3 1 2 2 1 3
then  
1 2 3
 
Ó Ó Ó !
  1 2 3
α˝β = 
2 1 3= .
  1 3 2
Ó Ó Ó
1 3 2
We are now ready to give some examples of permutation groups.

25
4. Permutation groups

Example 4.0.10. Let us consider S3 . We list all the permutations of t1, 2, 3u.
! ! !
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
I= , α= , β=
1 2 3 1 3 2 3 1 2
! ! !
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
γ= , σ= , κ=
3 2 1 2 1 3 2 3 1
We note here that the operations of the elements of S3 are compositions, e.g.,
   
1 2 3 1 2 3
   
Ó Ó Ó ! Ó Ó Ó !
  1 2 3   1 2 3
I˝I = 1 2 3 = 1 2 3 = I,
 α˝β =  3 1 2 = 2 1 3 = σ

   
Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó
1 2 3 2 1 3
 
1 2 3
 
Ó Ó Ó !
  1 2 3
β˝α =  1 3 2 = 3 2 1 = γ

 
Ó Ó Ó
3 2 1
The operation table for S3 is
˝ I α β γ σ κ
I I α β γ σ κ
α α I σ κ β γ
β β γ κ σ α I
γ γ β α I κ σ
σ σ κ γ β I α
κ κ σ I α γ β
It can be verified that S3 is a group. However, it is not an abelian group since composition
of permutations is not commutative, e.g., α ˝ β ‰ β ˝ α.
Example 4.0.11 (Symmetric group, Sn ). Let A = t1, 2, . . . , nu. The set of all permutations
of A is called the symmetric group of degree n and is denoted by Sn . Elements of Sn have the
form !
1 2 3¨¨¨ n
α=
α (1) α (2) α (3) ¨ ¨ ¨ α ( n )
It is easy to compute the order of Sn . There are n choices of α(1). Once α(1) has been
determined, there are n ´ 1 possibilities for α(2) [since α is one-to-one, we must have
α(1) ´ α(2)]. After choosing α(2), there are exactly n ´ 2 possibilities for α(3). Continuing
along in this fashion, we see that Sn has n(n ´ 1) ¨ ¨ ¨ 3 ¨ 2 ¨ 1 = n! elements.

26
 4.1. Dihedral group

4.1 Dihedral group

All the symmetries of a regular n-gon form a group called the dihedral group of degree n
and has order 2n.
Example 4.1.1 (Dihedral group of degree 3, D3 ). Consider an equilateral triangle with the
coordinates numbered, 1, 2, 3 in anticlockwise direction. There are six symmetries for this
triangle.
(i) I- identity; same as anticlockwise rotation about 360˝ .

(ii) r- Anticlockwise rotation about 120˝ .

(iii) r2 - Anticlockwise rotation about 240˝ .

(iv) f 1 - Flip about a line passing through point 1 which is perpendicular to the line pass-
ing through points 2 and 3.

(v) f 2 - Flip about a line passing through point 2 which is perpendicular to the line pass-
ing through points 1 and 3.

(vi) f 3 - Flip about a line passing through point 3 which is perpendicular to the line pass-
ing through points 1 and 2.
We represent these symmetries as:
! ! !
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
I= , r= , r2 =
1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2
! ! !
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
f1 = , f2 = , f3 =
1 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 3
We can compose these symmetries as
   
1 2 3 1 2 3
   
Ó Ó Ó ! Ó Ó Ó !
1 2 3 1 2 3
= r2
   
I˝I = 1 2 3 = 1 2 3 = I,
 r˝r = 
2 3 1 =
  

 3 1 2
Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó
1 2 3 3 1 2
   
1 2 3 1 2 3
   
Ó Ó Ó ! Ó Ó Ó !
1 2 3 1 2 3
r2 ˝ f 3 =  = r2 .
   
2 1 3 = 1 3 2 = f 1 , f2 ˝ f1 = 
1 3 2 =

    3 1 2
Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó
1 3 2 3 1 2

27
4. Permutation groups

You can continue in similar fashion to obtain

˝ I r r2 f1 f2 f3
I I r r2 f1 f2 f3
r r r2 I f3 f1 f2
r2 r2 I r f2 f3 f1
f1 f1 f2 f3 I r r2
f2 f2 f3 f1 r2 I r
f3 f3 f1 f2 r r2 I
We note that D3 is group since all the properties are satisfied.
(i) Closure: This is clear from the table above.

(ii) Associativity: This can also be verified, e.g.,

f 2 ˝ (r 2 ˝ f 3 ) = f 2 ˝ f 1 = r 2
( f 2 ˝ r2 ) ˝ f 3 = f 1 ˝ f 3 = r2 .

(iii) Identity: Its clear; I

(iv) The inverses are as follows:

element inverse
I I
r r2
r2 r
f1 f1
f2 f2
f3 f3
Exercise 4.1.2.

1. Let S3 be the symmetric group of degree 3. Find all the subgroups of S3 .

2. In S3 , find C ( a) for each a P S3 .

3. Show that H = tI, r, r2 u is a subgroup of D3 .

4. Draw the table for D4 and hence show that it is a group. Find all the subgroups of
D4 .

5. Draw the table for D5 and hence show that it is a group.

6. Given Z7 ´ t0u = t1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6u with the operation ˆ (multiplication mod 7.)

Check whether or not (Z7 ´ t0u, ˆ) is a group.

28
Chapter 5

Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem

In this chapter, we’ll prove Lagrange’s Theorem, a very beautiful statement about the size
of the subgroups of a finite group. But to do so, we’ll need to learn about cosets.

5.1 Cosets
Definition 5.1.1 (Cosets). Let G be a group and let H be a nonempty subset of G. For
any a P G, the set tah|h P Hu is denoted by aH. Analogously, Ha = tha|h P Hu and
aHa´1 = taha´1 |h P Hu. When H is a subgroup of G, the set aH is called the left coset of
H in G containing a, whereas Ha is called the right coset of H in G containing a. In this
case, the element a is called the coset representative of aH (or Ha). We use |aH| to denote
the number of elements in the set aH, and |Ha| to denote the number of elements in Ha.

Example 5.1.2. To find the cosets of H = t1, 15u in

G = U (32) = t1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31u,

we begin with H = t1, 15u. We can find a second coset by choosing any element not in
H, say 3, as a coset representative. This gives the coset 3H = t3, 13u. We find our next
coset by choosing a representative not already appearing in the two previously chosen
cosets, say 5. This gives us the coset 5H = t5, 11u. We continue to form cosets by picking
elements from U (32) that have not yet appeared in the previous cosets as representatives
of the cosets until we have accounted for every element of U (32). We then have the
complete list of all distinct cosets of H.

We are now ready to prove a theorem that has been around for more than 200 years –
longer than group theory itself!

29
5. Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem

5.2 Lagrange’s Theorem

Theorem 5.2.1 (Lagrange’s Theorem). Let H be a subgroup of a finite group G. Then |H|
divides |G|.

Proof. Notice that every element of the group G shows up in some coset of H : since
e P H, we have g P gH for every g. Therefore, every element of the group shows up in
exactly one coset of H. Also notice that every coset of H has the same number of elements
as H. (If the size of gH were less than |H|, there would be have to be two different
elements h1 , h2 P H with gh1 = gh2 . But cancelling the g’s gives h1 = h2 , a contradiction.)
Then the cosets of H break up G evenly into subsets of size |H|. Thus, |H| divides |G|, as
desired.

Exercise 5.2.2. Find all of the subgroups of the permutation group S3 and the dihedral
group D4 .

Exercise 5.2.3. Find a subgroup of the permutation group S4 with twelve elements. What
are it’s cosets?

A special name and notation have been adopted for the number of left (or right) cosets
of a subgroup in a group. The index of a subgroup H in G is the number of distinct left
cosets of H in G. This number is denoted by |G : H|. As an immediate consequence of
the proof of Lagrange’s Theorem, we have the following useful formula for the number
of distinct left (or right) cosets of H in G.

Corollary 5.2.4. If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then |G : H| = |G|/|H|.

Corollary 5.2.5. In a finite group, the order of each element of the group divides the order of the
group.

Corollary 5.2.6. A group of prime order is cyclic.

Proof. Suppose that G has prime order. Let a P G and a ‰ e. Then, |xay| divides |G| and
|xay| ‰ 1. Thus, |xay| = |G| and the corollary follows.

Corollary 5.2.7. Let G be a finite group, and let a P G. Then, a|G| = e.

Proof. By Corollary 5.2.5, |G| = |a|k for some positive integer k. Thus, a|G| = a|a|k = ek =
e.

30
Chapter 6

Rings

We’ll now start looking at algebraic structures with more than one operation. Typically,
these structures will have rules governing the different operations, and additional rules
for how the operations interact. We’ll begin by looking at rings, which have two opera-
tions, usually written as addition and multiplication, related by the distributive property.
There are many reasons to study ring theory, often having to do with generalizing the
properties that we observe in many of the rings we deal with in day-to-day life, like the
integers and the rational numbers. By making precise the algebraic structures that (for
example) the integers satisfy, we can figure out what makes our favourite facts about the
integers true, and easily see where those same facts hold true.

6.1 Examples and Properties

Definition 6.1.1 (Ring). A ring R is a set with two binary operations, + and ¨, satisfying:

(1) ( R, +) is an abelian group,

(2) R is closed under multiplication, and ( ab)c = a(bc) for all a, b, c P R,

(3) a(b + c) = ab + ac and ( a + b)c = ac + bc for all a, b, c P R.

Definition 6.1.2. Let R be a ring, and r, s, t P R. Then R is:

1. Associative if the multiplication operation is associative: r ¨ (s ¨ t) = (r ¨ s) ¨ t,

2. A ring with unity if there is a multiplicative identity 1, such that 1 ¨ r = r = r ¨ 1,

3. Commutative if the operation ¨ is commutative: r ¨ s = s ¨ r.

Example 6.1.3 (Examples of rings).

31
6. Rings

1. Integers. The integers are a commutative group under addition, and have the dis-
tributive property. Additionally, the integers are associative and commutative un-
der multiplication, and have a multiplicative identity, 1. Thus, the integers are an
commutative associative ring with unity.

2. Rational Numbers, Real Numbers, Complex Numbers. All of these familiar number
systems are examples of commutative associative rings with unity.

3. Integers modulo n, Zn . The multiplication operation works just as the addition op-
eration does: do the normal multiplication, and then divide by n and keep the re-
mainder: a ¨ b = ( ab). This is an associative and commutative operation, and there
is a multiplicative identity.

4. Matrices. Recall that matrix addition is just entry-by-entry, and that the multipli-
cation of matrices adds and multiplies the entries according to a certain rule: if M
ř
and N are matrices, then ( MN )i,j = k Mi,k Nk,j . Since this only uses addition and
multiplication, we can thus form matrices with entries in any ring R, since R has
notions of addition and multiplication. The set of all m ˆ n matrices with entries in
R is denoted Mmˆn ( R).
! !
0 2 0 3
As an example, consider the matrices M = and N = with entries
1 3 2 4
! !
0 0 3 4
from Z5 . Then M + N = , and M ¨ N = .
3 2 4 1

5. Polynomials. Polynomials can be added and multiplied so long as we know how

to add and multiply the coefficients. We let R[ x ] denote the ring of polynomials
with coefficients from the ring R and variable x with exponent ě 0. For example, if
R = Z2 , we have ( x + 1)( x + 1) = x2 + 1.
Polynomials in many variables also form rings. We usually just write R[ x, y] or
R[ x, y, z] if we’re using two or three variables, or more generally, R[ x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ] for
more variables.

6. Rings of Functions. Many spaces of functions have a ring structure. For example, if
we consider differentiable functions R ÝÑ R, we can add and multiply functions:
( f + g)( x ) = f ( x ) + g( x ) and ( f ¨ g)( x ) = f ( x ) g( x ). Sums and products of differ-
entiable functions are also differentiable, so they are closed. The functions form an
additive group, and there’s a multiplicative identity: the constant function defined
by 1( x ) = 1.

32
 6.1. Examples and Properties

Example 6.1.4 (Examples of rings).

1. Z, R, Q, C

2. 2Z- even numbers. Note that 1 R 2Z.

3. Matn ( R) = tn ˆ n ´ matrices with real entries u

In general AB ‰ BA. A ring R is called commutative if ab = ba for all a, b P R.

4. Fix m, a positive integer. Consider the remainders modulo m : 0, 1, . . . , m ´ 1.

Notation. Write n for the set of all integers which have the same remainder as n
when divided by m. This is the same as tn + mk|k P Zu. Also, n1 + n2 = n1 + n2 ,
and n1 ¨ n2 = n1 n2 . The classes 0, 1, . . . , m ´ 1 are called residues modulo m. The set
t0, 1, . . . , m ´ 1u is denoted by Zm or by Z/m or by Z/mZ.

5. The set of polynomials in x with coefficients in Q (or in R or C)

ta0 + a1 x + ¨ ¨ ¨ + an x n |ai P Qu = Q[ x ]

with usual addition and multiplication. If an ‰ 0 then n is the degree of the polyno-
mial.

Definition 6.1.5 (Subring). A subring of a ring R is a subset which is a ring under the same
addition and multiplication.

Remark 6.1.6. We have two trivial subrings in R, i.e., t0u, R.

Proposition 6.1.7. Let S be a non-empty subset of a ring R. Then S is a subring of R if and only
if, for any a, b P S we have a ´ b P S and ab P S.

Proof. We first show that if a ´ b P S and ab P S, then S is a subring of R. Now if a ´ b P S,

then ( R, +) is additive group. Also if ab P S, then ( R, ¨) is a semigroup. The distributive
law on both sides hold in ( R, +, ¨).
Conversely, from the definition of a subring, S is only a subring of R if a ´ b P S and
ab P S.
?
Example 6.1.8. Show that the set X = tx1 + x2 ´1|x1 , x2 P Zu is a subring of C.
? ?
Proof. Let x1 + x2 ´1, y1 + y2 ´1 P X. Now,
? ? ?
( x1 + x2 ´1) ´ (y1 + y2 ´1) = ( x1 + y1 ) + ( x2 ´ y2 ) ´1 P X

33
6. Rings

and
? ? ? ?
( x1 + x2 ´1)(y1 + y2 ´1) = x1 y1 ´ x2 y2 + x1 y2 ´1 + x2 y1 ´1
?
= ( x1 y1 ´ x2 y2 ) + ( x1 y2 + x2 y1 ) ´1 P X.

Hence X is a subring of C.
?
The ring Z[´1] = tx1 + x2 ´1|x1 , x2 P Zu is called the ring of Gaussian integers.

Proposition 6.1.9. Let R be a ring. Then for every r, s, t P R.

(i) r0 = 0 = 0r

(ii) (´r )s = ´(rs) = r (´s)

(iii) (r ´ s)t = rt ´ st, r (s ´ t) = rs ´ rt.

Proof.

(i) We have

r0 = r (0 + 0) (0 is an additive identity)
= r0 + r0. (distributivity property)

Now, adding ´r0 to both sides we obtain

r0 + (´r0) = (r0 + r0) + (´r0) (existence of inverses)

0 = r0 + (r0 + (´r0)) (0 is the additive identity, associativity law)
0 = r0 + 0 (0 is the additive identity)
0 = r0. (0 is the additive identity)

Similarly, 0r = 0.

(ii) We have
0 = r0 = r (s + (´s)) = rs + r (´s).

Adding ´(rs) to both sides we get ´(rs) = r (´s).

Similarly,
0 = 0s = (r + (´r ))s = rs + (´r )s.

Adding ´(rs) to both sides we obtain ´(rs) = (´r )s.

Therefore, (´r )s = ´(rs) = r (´s).

34
 6.2. Integral Domains

(iii) We have

r (s ´ t) = r (s + (´t)) = rs + r (´t) = rs ´ rt.

Similarly,

(r ´ s)t = (r + (´s))t = rt + (´s)t = rt ´ st.

Definition 6.1.10. An element a ‰ 0 of a ring R is called a zero divisor if there exists

b ‰ 0 P R such that ab = 0.

Example 6.1.11. For example, consider residues mod 4 : 0, 1, 2, 3. Take 2 ˆ 2 = 2 ˆ 2 =

4 = 0. Hence 2 is a zero divisor in Z4 .

6.2 Integral Domains

Definition 6.2.1 (Integral domain). A ring R is called an integral domain if

(1) R is commutative, i.e., ab = ba for all a, b P R,

(2) R has an identity under multiplication (written as 1),

(3) R has no zero divisors,

(4) 0 ‰ 1.

Note: If 0 = 1, then x ¨ 1 = x and so x = x ¨ 1 = x ¨ 0 = 0. Hence if 0 = 1 then R = t0u.

The sets Z and Q[ x ] are integral domains.
? ?
Example 6.2.2. Show that the ring of Gaussian integers Z[ d] = ta + b d|a, b P Z, d is square freeu
is an integral domain.

Proof. Axioms (1), (2) and (4) are satisfied. We show that there are no zero divisors. Sup-
? ?
pose that there are zero divisors a + b d and c + f d such that
? ?
( a + b d)(c + f d) = 0.

Then
?
( ac + b f d + ( a f + bc) d) = 0.
This implies that ac + b f d = 0 and a f + bc = 0. Solving the two equations, we obtain d =
c2
. This is a contradiction since d is square free. Therefore there are no zero divisors.
f2

35
6. Rings

Proposition 6.2.3. Every integral domain R satisfies the cancellation property - if ax = ay and
a ‰ 0 then x = y for all x, y, a P R.

Proof. If ax = ay then a( x ´ y) = 0. Since R has no zero divisors and a ‰ 0, we conclude

that x ´ y = 0, so that x = y.

36
Chapter 7

Fields

Let’s consider the problem of division. To get at a notion of division in general rings, let’s
recap what we know about division for familiar number systems.

7.1 Definition and Examples

Definition 7.1.1. For numbers x, y, we say that y divides x if there exists a number z such
that yx = z if x = zy. We call z the quotient of x by y.

We can try to offload the problem of division to a problem of finding multiplicative

inverses. If y has a multiplicative inverse, then division by y is easy: we can set z = xy´1 ,
so that zy = xy´1 y = x. If every element other than 0 has a multiplicative inverse, then
the ring R is called a field. You should already know three examples of fields: Z, R, and
C. Part of the reason for the importance of fields is that most of the basic facts in linear
algebra work for any field.

Definition 7.1.2. A field F is a commutative ring in which every element other than 0 has
a multiplicative inverse.

Since the field must already be a commutative, associative ring with unity, we see
that the set Fzt0u is a group! Then another way to define a field is as a ring that is a
commutative group under addition, and where Fzt0u is a commutative group as well.
? ?
Example 7.1.3. Show that the ring of Gaussian integers Z[ d] = ta + b d|a, b P Z, d is square freeu
is not a field.

This is not a field since 1

2 P Z[ d ].
? ?
Example 7.1.4. Show that the ring of Gaussian integers Q[ d] = ta + b d|a, b P Q, d is square freeu
is a field.

37
7. Fields

Assume that x ‰ 0, y ‰ 0 :
?
1 x´y d
? = ? ?
x+y d ( x + y d)( x ´ y d)
?
x´y d
= 2
x ´ y2 d
Note that x2 ´ y2 d ‰ 0 since d is not a square of a rational number.
Definition 7.1.5. A subset S of a field F is a subfield if S is a field with the same addition
and multiplication.
To check that S is a subfield, it is enough to check that for any a, b P S, a + b, ´a and
ab P S, and for any a P S, a ‰ 0, a´1 P S.

7.2 Units
Let R be an integral domain.
Definition 7.2.1. Element u P R is a unit (or an invertible element) if uv = 1 for some v P R,
i.e. there exists u´1 P R.
Example 7.2.2. The units in Z are ˘1.
If R is a ring, we denote by R˚ the set of units of R. In general, R˚ is not the same as
Rzt0u.
Example 7.2.3.

1. Z˚ = t˘1u.

2. An integral domain F is a field if and only if F˚ = Fzt0u.

3. Z[i ]˚ = t1, ´1, i, ´iu : Suppose that a + bi P Z[i ]˚ is a unit, so ( a + bi )(c + di ) = 1

for some c, d P Z. Then also ( a ´ bi )(c ´ di ) = 1. So

( a + bi )(c + di )( a ´ bi )(c ´ di ) = 1
( a2 + b2 )(c2 + d2 ) = 1
hence a2 + b2 = 1, so clearly a + bi P t1, ´1, i, ´iu.
Proposition 7.2.4. Let R be an integral domain. For x P R, x cannot be both invertible and a
zero-divisor.
Proof. Suppose that x is invertible and a zero-divisor, and let y ‰ 0 with xy = 0. Then
y = 1y = ( x´1 x )y = x´1 ( xy) = x´1 0 = 0, a contradiction.

38
 7.3. Ideals

7.3 Ideals
Definition 7.3.1. Let R be a commutative ring and I Ă R be its subring. Then I Ă R is
called an ideal if for any r P R and x P I we have rx P I.

Example 7.3.2.

1. The ring nZ (multiples of a fixed integer n) is an ideal of Z.

2. If R is any commutative ring and a P R, then aR Ă R is an ideal.

3. Let R = Z[ x ], the ring of polynomials with integer coefficients. Let I be the set of
polynomials a0 + a1 x + ¨ ¨ ¨ + an x n such that a0 is even. This is clearly an ideal, since
for ( a0 + a1 x + ¨ ¨ ¨ + an x n ) P I,

( a0 + ¨ ¨ ¨ + an x n )(b0 + ¨ ¨ ¨ + bm x m ) = a0 b0 + ¨ ¨ ¨

and a0 b0 is even for any b0 P Z.

4. Let R be a field. Claim: Rings t0u and R are the only ideals in the field R.

Proof. Suppose I Ă R is a nonzero ideal. Then there exists x P I, x ‰ 0. Since R is

a field, x´1 P R. But I is an ideal, so 1 = x´1 x P I. Let r be any element of R, then
r = r ¨ 1 P I. Hence I = R.

7.4 Properties of fields

Definition 7.4.1. The smallest positive integer n such that

+1+¨¨¨+1 = 0
1loooooooomoooooooon
n times

is called the characteristic of the field F. If there is no such n, then F has characteristic 0.
Denote the characteristic of F by char ( F ).

For a P F and n P N, we denote by (n ˆ a) the sum

(n ˆ a) = loooooooomoooooooon
a + a + ¨ ¨ ¨ + a.
n times

Example 7.4.2. The characteristic of the field Z p is p (p is prime). We also have char (Q) =
0.

39
7. Fields

A field is called a finite field if it has a finite number of elements. Otherwise the field is
infinite. The field Z5 , is finite.

Proposition 7.4.3. Let F be a field. Then (with p a prime number)

1. char ( F ) = 0 or char ( F ) = p,

2. if char ( F ) = 0, then if x P F, x ‰ 0, then (k ˆ x ) for k P Nzt0u is never zero,

3. if char ( F ) = p, then ( p ˆ x ) = 0 for any x P F.

Proof.

1. Let n ą 0, n P Z, be the characteristic of F. Then (n ˆ 1) = 0. If n is not prime, then

n = ab for a, b P Z, 0 ă a, b ă n, and so 0 = ( a ˆ 1)(b ˆ 1). But then ( a ˆ 1) = 0 or
(b ˆ 1) = 0. This is a contradiction since a, b ă n.

2. If char ( F ) = 0 and (n ˆ x ) = x (n ˆ 1) = 0 then x = 0 or (n ˆ 1) = 0, so x = 0.

3. If char ( F ) = p, p prime, then for any x P F, ( p ˆ x ) = ( p ˆ 1) x = 0x = 0.

40
Chapter 8

Vector spaces

In this chapter, we’ll examine vector spaces as algebraic structures. Vector spaces are mas-
sively important because these are algebraic structures where the tools of linear algebra
are available. Linear algebra is, in some ways, the branch of mathematics which is best
developed: when a problem in science is converted into a linear algebra problem, we have
a pretty good chance of being able to solve it. This is why, for example, the technique of
linearization which comes up in differential equations and modelling is so important.
In fact, viewing vector spaces as algebraic structures does two things for us.

(1) This viewpoint helps us identify more situations as linear algebra situations, allow-
ing us to use our linear algebra tools in a broader set of circumstances, and

(2) Abstracting allows us to better identify precisely what tools we are using when we
prove statements in linear algebra, so we can identify exactly which situations those
tools are applicable in. As with rings, there are more than one kind of vector space,
and some vector spaces are more ’friendly’ than others.

So let’s see the definition.

Definition 8.0.4. A vector space is a set V and a field F with two operations, addition
+ : V ˆ V ÝÑ V and scalar multiplication ¨ : F ˆ V ÝÑ V, satisfying the following
axioms.

1. V under addition is an abelian group.

2. (Distributivity I) For any c P F and v, w P V, we have c(v + w) = cv + cw.

3. (Distributivity II) For any c, d P F and v P V, we have (c + d)v = cv + dv.

4. (Associativity) For any c, d P F and v P V, we have (cd)v = c(dv).

41
8. Vector spaces

The elements of the set V are called vectors.

As is traditional, we list some examples. Note that the vector space is a set and a field:
usually, the choice of field is derived from context, but we’ll be specific if the context
is non-obvious. Often, we say that ’V is a vector space over F’ to mean that V is the
commutative group and F is the field.

1. F n is the vector space whose underlying set is lists of n elements of F, with coordinate-
wise addition and F acting by scalar multiplication. This gives rise to the familiar
spaces Rn and Cn . But we also know about finite fields now: Znp where p is prime is
also a vector space.

2. The set of polynomials F [ x ] in a single variable is a vector space over F.

3. Let Mn,m ( F ) denote the set of n ˆ m matrices with entries in F. Then Mn,m ( F ) is a
vector space over F.

A vector space is an algebraic structure since it is a nonempty set with two binary opera-
tions defined on it such that the operations satisfy some axioms.

Exercise 8.0.5.

1. For each of the above examples of vector spaces, write some example elements and
give examples of addition and scalar multiplication in that vector space.

2. Prove that each of these examples (above) is a vector space.

42