Learner Name Mohamed Firouzdeen Fathima Nuzla

Learner Registration 220905002

No.
Study Centre Name Metropolitan College
Qualification Title OTHM Level 3 Foundation Diploma for Higher Education Studies
Unit Reference No. Y/617/3715
Unit Title Foundation Mathematics
Word Count 3190
Submission Date 31/12/2022

Declaration of authenticity:
1. In submitting this assignment I acknowledge that I understand the definition of, and penalties for, cheating,
collusion and plagiarism as set out in the OTHM policy.
2. I declare that the attached submission is my own original work. No significant part of it has been submitted
for any other assignment and I have acknowledged in my notes and bibliography all written and electronic
sources used.
3. I acknowledge that my assignment will be subject to electronic scrutiny for academic honesty.
4. I understand that failure to meet these guidelines may instigate the centre’s malpractice procedures and
risk failure of the unit and / or qualification.
5.

F.Nuzla
_________________ _________________
Learner signature Tutor signature
Date: 31/12/2022 Date:

0
Mathematics
REVISION GUIDE

Nuzla Fairozdeen 1
 Contents
1. The Four Rules of Numeracy ................................................................ 3
2. Numbers in Standard Form ................................................................... 9
3. Comparison of Numbers and Approximate Data ............................... 10
4. Determination of Values for Simple Transaction ............................... 12
5. Solving mathematical problems using a range of methods ................ 14
6. Basic Algebraic Manipulations ........................................................... 16
7. Methods of Data Representation ......................................................... 17
8. Different Types of Data....................................................................... 23
9. Measure of Central Tendency ............................................................. 24
10. Measures of Dispersion ..................................................................... 27
11. Probability ......................................................................................... 29
References ............................................................................................... 35

2
 1. The Four Rules of Numeracy

Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are core to calculation and problem-solving.
Addition Rules
positive + positive = (add) positive
Example:
3+2=5
negative + negative = (add) negative
Example:
−4+ (−7) = −11
negative + positive = (subtract)
Example:
3 + (−15) = −12
Take the sign of the number with the largest absolute value
Example:
−20 + 26 = 6
Note: −(−9) means take the opposite of (−9) = 9

Subtraction Rules

Change all subtraction to addition, take the opposite sign of the next number, and then apply the
addition rules. If the operation and the sign are the same, they function similarly to adding a
(positive) number, resulting in

-¯ works like ++

If the operation and sign are different, they behave similarly to subtracting a (positive) number,
resulting in

+− works like −+

Example:
−5 −(4)
or −5 +(−4) = -9
Example:
−6 −(−14)
−6 + (14) = 8
Example:
−12 + (−7) −(−3) −4 (change all subtraction signs)
−8 + (−9) + (1) + (−4) (do addition and subtraction from left to right)
3
−19 +(3) + (−4)
−16 +(−4) = −20

Multiplication and Division Rules

The rules of multiplication and division are the same. When multiplying pairs of positive and
negative numbers, keep the following rules in mind: When the signs of the numbers match, the
result is a positive number.
(+) × (+), answer is (+)
Example:
5 × 2 = 10
(−) × (−), answer is (+)
Example:
-3 × -4 = -12
(+) ÷ (+), answer is (+)
Example:
100 ÷ 4 = 25
(−) ÷ (−), answer is (+)
Example:
-30 ÷ -3 = 10

When the signs of the numbers differ, the answer is negative.

(+) × (−), the answer is (−)
Example:
6 × 2 = 12
(−) × (+), the answer is (−)
Example:
-10 × 4 = -40
(+) ÷ (−), answer is (−)
50 ÷ -10 = -5
(−) ÷ (+), answer is (−)
-90 ÷ 2 = -45

Fractions

These are numerical quantities that represent values less than one. They are commonly used to
measure parts of a whole and are also known as fractional numbers.
1 1 2
Example: 2 , 4 , 4

4
 1 DENOMINATOR
NUMERATOR

There are 3 types of Fractions

1. Proper fractions: the numerator is lesser than the denominator. The overall value is less
1 2 4
than 1. 2 , 6 , 7
2. Improper fractions: the numerator is greater than the denominator. The overall value is
23 15 9
greater than one. 5 , 8 , 2
3. Mixed fractions: representation of a whole number followed by a fractional number.
4 6 1
25,97,32

Converting a Mixed Fraction into an Improper Fraction

The whole number is multiplied by the denominator and the result is then added to the
numerator. The answer is then placed over the original denominator.
Example:
4
8
5
8 × 5 = 40
40 + 4 = 44
44
5
Converting a Fraction into a Decimal

Dividing the numerator by the denominator.

Example:
5
= 5 ÷ 10 = 0.5
10
Addition and Subtraction of Fractions

When the denominators are the same, we add or subtract the numerator sticking with the same
denominator value.
Example:

5
1 2 3 5 3 2
+5=5 −8=8
5 8

When the denominator values are different, the lowest common denominator should be found
which should be divisible by both denominators.
Example 1:
1 1
+
3 6
1 2
Here the lowest common denominator is 6. So ×2=6
3

2 1 3
+ =
6 6 6
3 1
So, the simplest form of 6 is 2

Example 2:
4 1
−
3 5
4 1
Here the lowest common denominator is 15. So 3 × 5 ×3
5

12 5 7
− =
15 15 15

Multiplication and division of Fraction

To multiply a fraction, the numerators and the denominators are multiplied separately. Then the
new numerator and denominator are written.
Example:
4 3
×
5 7
4 × 3 = 12
5 × 7 = 35
12
=
35

To divide a fraction, the latter fraction is changed into a reciprocal, and the exact operation of
multiplication is applied.
Example:

6
 2 5
3 ÷
7 6
23
First, the mixed number is converted to improper fraction 7 × 3 = 21 + 2 = 23 → 7
23 6
×
7 5
23 × 6 = 138
7 × 5 = 35
138
35
33
When convert into mixed fractions the answer is 3 35

Converting a fraction into a percentage

The numerator is divided by the denominator and the answer is multiplied by 100
Example:
5 ÷ 25 = 0.2
0.2 × 100 = 20%

Addition and subtraction of Decimals

To add or subtract a decimal, the decimal point should be lined-up and the normal whole number
operation to be followed.
Example 1:
56.4 + 2.71 + 831.505
56.400
2.710
+ 831.505 (adding zeros can make it easier)
890.615

Example 2:
345.78 – 45.4
345.78
- 45.40
300.38

Multiplication and Division of decimals

7
Multiply the decimal numbers as whole numbers. Then, total the number of digits above the line
to the right of all decimal points should be counted and the total decimal point should be the
same in the right of the decimal point.

Example:
78.348
× 5.2
407.4096

When dividing the decimals, the devisor’s (the number divided by) decimal must be moved to
the right to change into a whole number. The decimal point of the dividend (the number being
divided) must be moved to the same number of places. Sometimes, zeros must be added to the
dividend.
Example:
75.92 ÷ 1.3
0584
13 7592 = 5.84
since the dividend and the divisor were moved right to 2 decimal places. The answer is also
moved to two decimal places.

Converting fractions into Percentage

Dividing the numerator by the denominator and the result is then multiplied by 100.
Example:
2
= 0.4
5
0.4 × 100 = 40%

8
 2. Numbers in Standard Form

The standard form also known as “Scientific notation” is a convenient way of writing down very
large or very small numbers. Standard form refers to any number that can be written as a decimal
number between 1.0 and 10.0 multiplied by a power of ten.

A very large number such as 4 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 is written as 4 × 1030

A very smaller number such as 0.000000000000000000005 is written as 5 × 10-20

A number

10
a number ×

If there is no sign
here, it is a plus
which is a big If the sign is
number, and the negative, the
This number hidden decimal number is small, and
must always be point must be the decimal point
between 1 and moved to the right must be moved to
10 decimal point to the left
the right

(The power) tells how

many decimal places
must be moved

Example:
81 900 000 000 000 = 8.19 × 1013
0.0004789 = 4.789 × 10-4

9
 3. Comparison of Numbers and Approximate Data

Comparison of Numbers
Numbers are compared using the value of the most significant digit in each of the numbers. The
most significant digit in a number is the number's first non-zero integer. The greater the digit, the
greater the number, unless is negative. Symbols such as <, >, and = (equal) are used for
comparison.

>
Larger Smaller
number number

Example:
250 > 150
25 < 100
30 = 25+5 (since both sides are equal, its represented by this sign)

For negative numbers the more the number becomes, the lesser its value.

Example:

-100 < 10

-9 < -3

Approximation and rounding

An approximation is a process of determining a reasonably accurate value by rounding.

If the rounding numbers are followed by 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 then it is rounded down. If the rounding
numbers are followed up by 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 then it is rounded up.

Example 1:

9658

Rounding to 10 ⟶ 9650

Rounding to 100 ⟶ 9700

Rounding to 1000 ⟶ 10 000

10
Example 2:

5.639

Rounding to the nearest 1 decimal place ⟶ 5.6

Rounding to 2 decimal places ⟶ 5.64

Example 3:

28.54

Rounding to 1 significant figure ⟶ 30

Rounding to 2 significant figures ⟶ 29.5

11
 4. Determination of Values for Simple Transaction

Taxes
This is the amount paid to the government by the people when purchasing any goods and
services. The Formula to calculate tax:
𝒕𝒂𝒙 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆
Tax Amount = (Selling Price × )
𝟏𝟎𝟎

Example:
A bag costs $50, and a sale tax of 5% was charged. What would be the bill amount?
1) Find 5% of 50
5
50 × 100 = 2.5

2) Add the answer to the cost price

$50 + 2.5 = $52.5
Discount
This is the amount deducted when people buy goods and services by the seller. The formula to
calculate discount:
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕
Discount % = × 100
𝑳𝒊𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆

Selling price = List price – Discount

Example:
The list price of a sofa is $4500. There is a 40% discount on it, calculate the selling price.
1) Calculate the discount
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡
40% = × 100
4500

40 × 45 = 1800
2) Deduct the answer by the list price
Selling price = $4500 – 1800
= $2700
Interest
The two types are:
A simple interest is based on the principal amount of a loan or deposit
Compound interest is the interest accumulated every year. The formulas are:
P = Principal amount

12
r = Annual Interest rate
t = year

Simple Interest = p × r × t
Compound Interest = p (1 – r)t – p
Example:
A sum of $40,000 is borrowed and the rate is 7%. What is the simple and compound interest for
2 years?
7
Simple Interest = $40,000 × 100 × 2

= $5600
7
Compound Interest = $40,000 (1 + 100)2 - $40,000

= (40,000 × 1.449) – 40,000

= 45,796 – 40,000
= $5,796
Currency Conversion
Exchange rates are used to convert between currencies in the world.
Exchange rate of Sri Lankan Rupees (LKR) to 1USD = 363LKR
(This means 1 USD is equal to 363 LKR)

USD → LKR (multiply by 363)

LKR → USD (divide by 363)
Example:
Convert 50 USD to LKR
50 × 363 = 18,150 LKR
Convert 35,000 LKR to USD
35,000 ÷ 363 = 96 USD

13
 5. Solving mathematical problems using a range of methods

Whole numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5….

Natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5….
Integers …, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3….
Rational numbers 1 3 2 8
, ,− ,−
2 5 9 5

Real numbers 0.2364, 4.34, −3.6

Indices
The power or indices says how many times the base is to be multiplied. The below number is
read as five to the power two

Power or
2
Base
5 index

Laws of indices:
 When multiplying indices with the same base, the powers are added. (ax × ay = ax+y)
Example:
4a5 × 9a2 = (4×9) (5+2) = 36a7

 When dividing indices with the same base, the powers are subtracted. (ax × ay = ax-y)
Example:
50a6 ÷ 5a4 = (50÷5) (6-4) = 10a2

 When there is a power outside the bracket, the powers are multiplied. (am)y = am×y)
Example:
(12a4)2 = (12×12) (4×2) = 144a8

 Anything raised to the power zero is equal to one. (a0 = 1)

Example:
1250 = 1

 When the index is negative, it is changed into a fractional reciprocal to make it positive.
𝟏
(a-m = a𝒎)
Example:
1 1
(4a)-3 = (4𝑎)3 = 64𝑎3

14
  Rational exponents, where the index is a fraction in which the numerator is the power and
the denominator is the root. The answer is raised to the power of the numerator. Xa/b =
𝒃
( √𝒙)a
Example:
3
272/3 = √9 = 2
32 = 9

Roots
 Roots are the opposite of powers. It is necessary to find out what number of times (n)
would give the number inside the square root.

𝑛
√𝑎 = 𝑥
Root

power

Example:

√25 = 5 (the square root of 25 is 5)

3
√125 = 5 (the cube root of 125 is 5)
Logarithm
The number of times a number is multiplied together to make another number. Simply to find the
power of a number.

Loga y = n
This is read as a logarithm of (y) to the base (a) is equal to (n)
Example:
28 = 256; therefore 8 is the logarithm of 256 to base 2
Or, 3 = log 2 256

15
 6. Basic Algebraic Manipulations

Transposition of a simple formula

 Adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing by doing it on both sides of the formula
 To move or cancel the variable to one side, the "opposite" operation is performed on both
the equation sides.
y = am + t
To solve t in the equation, am must be subtracted from both the sides
y – am = am – am + t
And the final equation is,
y – am = t
Example:
V = u + at (u=10, a=6.2, t=20)
V= 10 + (6.2 × 20)
=10 + 124
V =134

Simple Linear equation

This is solved by following the formula rule given above.
Example:
2x + 5 = 30 (to find the value of x, 5 is subtracted from both sides)
2x + 5 – 5 = 30 -5
2x = 25 (divide both sides by 2)
X = 12.5
Simultaneous Equation
Two or more algebraic equations that share the variables. (Example: a,b,x,y) where the
equations are solved at the same time.
Example:
3a + 2b =19 ⟶ [1]

16
4a + 3b = 27 ⟶ [2]
 Using the elimination method to get rid of one variable.
Multiplying the first equation by 3, we get 9a + 6b = 57
Multiplying the second equation by 2, we get 8a + 6b = 54
The coefficient of b for both equations is now 6.
 Finding the value of one variable.
(9a + 6b) – (8a + 6b) = 57 – 54 [both equations are subtracted to find the value of a)
9a + 6b – 8a – 6b = 3
a=3
 The remaining variable is found through the substitution method.
3a + 2b = 19
(3×3) + 2b = 19
9 + 2b = 19
19−9
b= 2

b=5
 Checking the answer by substituting both values into the original equation.
4a + 3b = 27
(4×3) + (3×5) = 27
12 15 = 27

7. Methods of Data Representation

17
 After collecting the data, researchers should summarize them in tabular form and examine
their salient features. Such an arrangement is known as data presentation. The two types of
data representation methods are:
 Numerical method:
This is organized in alphabetic, serial, ascending, or descending order
Example:
The marks obtained by 10 students for the maths paper in a 10th grade
Index number Marks Index number Marks
0001 45 0006 60
0002 98 0007 76
0003 55 0008 29
0004 12 0009 37
0005 82 0010 80

The ascending order of the marks are:

12, 29, 37, 45, 55, 60, 76, 80, 82, 98
The descending order of the marks is:
98, 82, 80, 76, 60, 55, 45, 37, 29, 12
 Graphical method:
There are many ways to demonstrate data in diagrams such as line charts, bar charts, histograms,
pie charts, etc.
Bar chart
This is a graphical display of data using bars of different heights.

18
 Number of professionals in Town A
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Teachers Engineers Doctors Nurses
Male 34 20 12 19
Female 50 35 25 19

Male Female

Pie chart
These graphs use pie slices to show the relative sizes of data.

Favourite books
Romance
12%

Action
Action
Comic 46% Horror
24%
Comic
Romance

Horror
18%

Favorite books for youngsters

Action Comic Horror Romance

46% 24% 18% 12%

19
Scatter diagram
These graphs show the relationship between two data by points and lines.
Temperature ℃ Coffee sales ($)
14.2 700
18.5 630
30 250
28.9 287
10.5 950
19.6 568
27.5 300
11.8 850

Coffee sales vs Temperature

1000 950

900 850

800
700
700 630
568
600
Sales

500
400
300 287
300 250

200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Temperature

Simple Linear Equation in a graph

This graph is used to show an equation for a straight line.
Example:

20
 2.5
2
2

1.5
1
1

0.5
0
0
x

-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-0.5
-1
-1

-1.5
-2
-2

-2.5
y

X values Y values
-2 -2
-1 -1
0 0
1 1
2 2

21
 Y

3.5

2.5

2
m
1.5

1 b
0.5

0
X

-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

y=x+1

X Y
values values
-1 0
0 1
1 2
2 3

Y = mx + b
b = intercept (the point at the graph touches the y-axis)
m = gradient (the slope the graph creates with positive x values)
𝐲𝟐 – 𝐲𝟏
m=
𝐗𝟐 – 𝐗𝟏

When we substitute the value for the above data, the gradient can be found.
3−2
m= 2−1

=1
Therefore, for the above graph the gradient (m) = 1, and the intercept (b) = 1
So, it is Y = x + 1

22
 8. Different Types of Data

Data is a set of facts such as numbers, words, measurements, observations, or simple descriptions
of things. The two types are:
 Qualitative Data – The data which describes some information that is not expressed
numerically.
Example: skin color, favorite food, blood type, etc.
 Quantitative Data – The data which describes some information containing a
numerical value. This could be further categorized into two:
Discrete data: data containing clear values of exact whole numbers which can be counted.
Example:
Number of children in a class, census list of a town, number of pages in a book, etc.
Continuous data: data containing any value within a range and usually has a fractional or
decimal value. Data can be measured.
Example:
Weight, length, height, temperature, etc.

23
 9. Measure of Central Tendency

This helps in determining the middle, or average, of a dataset. The most common measures of
central tendency are:
 Mode: the most commonly occurring value
 Median: the mid-number in a dataset when the values are arranged from lowest to
highest or vice versa.
 Mean: the sum of all the values divided by the number of values in the dataset. Also
known as arithmetic average.
Example for ungrouped data:
3, 7, 5, 13, 20, 23, 39, 23, 40, 29, 23, 56, 12
In the above data set the most occurring number is the mode = 23
To find the value of the median, the set should be arranged in order from ascending or
descending.
3, 7, 5, 12, 13, 20, 23, 23, 23, 29, 39, 40, 56
Median = 23
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
Mean = 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞𝐬
3+ 7+ 5 + 13+ 20 + 23 + 39 + 23+ 40+ 29 + 23+ 56 + 12
= 13
293
= 13

Mean = 22.5
If the data set has an even number of data, the two mid values should be added and
divided by 2 to get the median.
3, 7, 5, 12, 13, 20, 22, 23, 23, 26, 29, 39, 40, 56
(22 + 23)
Median = = 22.5
2

Example for grouped data:

Age of 20 - 25 25 - 30 30 - 35 35 - 40 40 - 45
Employees

Salary ($) 1500 2500 3200 5000 3000

24
The highest frequency in the above data set is 5000, so the modal class is 35 – 40
𝐟𝐦−𝐟𝟏
Mode = l + [𝟐𝐟𝐦−𝐟𝟏−𝐟𝟐] × h

l = lower limit of modal class = 35

fm = frequency of model class = 5000
f1 = frequency of class before modal class = 3200
f2 = frequency of class after modal class = 3000
h = class width = 5
using the given formula,
5000 − 3200
Mode = 35 + [ ]×5
2 ×5000 − 3200 − 3000

= 35 + (1800/3800) × 5
= 37.5
Mode = 37.5
To find the median, first, we must calculate the cumulative frequency (n).
Age of 20 - 25 25 - 30 30 - 35 35 - 40 40 - 45
Employees

Salary ($) 1500 2500 3200 5000 3000

Cumulative 1500 1500 + 4000 + 7200 + 12,500 +

frequency 2500 = 3200 = 5000 = 3000 =
4000 7200 12,500 15,500

n = 15,500
𝐧
( )−𝐜
𝟐
Median = l + [ ]×h
𝐟

l = lower limit median class

c = cumulative frequency before the median class
f = frequency of the median class
15,500
( )−7200
2
Median = 35 + [ ]×5
5000

= 35 + 0.5

25
 =35.5
Median = 35.5
To find the mean, class marks have to be calculated (xi) = (lower limit + upper limit) /2
Classmarks (xi) Frequency (fi) Xifi
22.5 1500 33,750
27.5 2500 68,750
32.5 3200 104,000
37.5 5000 187,500
42.5 3000 127,500
Total = ∑ 15,200 ∑ 521,500

∑ 𝐱𝐢𝐟𝐢
Mean = ∑ 𝐟𝐢

521,500
= 15,200

= 34.3
Mean = 34.3

26
 10. Measures of Dispersion

This helps in interpreting data var

iability and determining how continuous or discontinuous the data is which indicates how
squeezed or scattered the variable is. they are positive real numbers that help to quantify the
variability of data around a central point. The five measures of dispersion are:
 Range: the difference between the maximum and minimum value within a set of
numbers.
Example:
8, 9, 10, 11, 12
Range = Highest value – the lowest value
= 12 – 8 = 4
Range = 4
 Interquartile range (IQR): this is the difference between the third quartile from the first
(Q3 – Q1). This measures the spread of data from the middle half of the dispersion. There
are four-part as Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4.
𝑖 . (𝑛+1) th
Qi = ( ) (formula to find each quartile)
4

Example:
33, 18, 24, 11, 59, 47, 61, 72
Arrange the dataset in ascending order ⟶ 11, 18, 24, 33, 47, 59, 61, 72
Find the 1st and 3rd quartile:
1 . (8+1) th
Q1 = ( )
4
9
= 4 = 2.25th
3 . (8+1) th
Q3 = ( )
4
24
= = 6th
4

IQR = Q3 – Q1
= 6 – 2.25 = 3.75
The Interquartile range = 3.75

27
  Standard Deviation: This measures a dataset's dispersion proportion to its mean. It is
calculated by finding the mean value and each data point's variance is calculated by
subtracting the mean from the data point's value. Each of the resulting values is then
squared, and the sum is calculated. Then the value of variance is the answer.

∑𝐧
𝐢 =𝟏 (𝐱𝐢 − 𝐱)
𝟐 ∑𝐧
𝐢 =𝟏 (𝐱𝐢 − 𝐱)
𝟐
Standard Deviation = √ (for population), √ (for sample)
𝐧 𝐧−𝟏

Xi = value of the ith point in the data set

𝒙 = the mean value in the data set
n = the number of data points in the data set
Example:
8, 9, 10, 11, 12
8+9+10+11+12
Mean = = 10, n = 5
5

(8−10)2 + (9−10)2 + (10−10)2 + (11−10)2 + (12−10)2

Standard Deviation = √ 5

4+1+0+1+4
=√ 5

10
= √ 5 = √2 = 1.41

Standard Deviation = 1.41

28
 11. Probability

It is the number of ways an event can occur over a total number of possible events. The chances
of these events are predicted using probability. This can range from 0 to 1, where 0 indicates a
possible event and 1 indicates an impossible event. There are many ways of applying probability
in real life, such as:
 Tossing a coin
 Rolling a dice
 Choosing a card from a deck of cards
𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐜𝐚𝐧 𝐨𝐜𝐜𝐮𝐫
Probability (P)= 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔

Example:
Ann has a bag with 7 blue toffees and 3 red toffees. What is the probability of getting a blue
toffee?
7
P(B)= 10

A tree diagram helps to calculate more than one outcome of an event and when the outcome
is not equally likely.
Example:
With the above example, if Ann picks a toffee at random, replaces it, and then picks again at
random from the bag. Draw a tree diagram to represent and calculate the probabilities that
she picks:
a) Two red toffees
b) No red toffees
c) At least one blue toffee
d) One toffee of each color
9
a) RR = 100

49
b) BB = 100

21 21 49 91
c) BR + RB + BB = 100 + 100 + 100 = 100

29
 21 21 42 21
d) BR + RB = 100 + 100 = 100 = 50

The probabilities are calculated along the branches and the total is added down the
column.
All probability should always total 1 (100/100 =1)

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Calculating the expected value of an outcome
The expected value is calculated by multiplying each possible outcome by the chance each
outcome will give and totaling all those values together. The formula is,
EV = ∑ 𝑷(𝑿𝒊) × 𝑿𝒊
X = random variable
P(x) = probability of the random variable
Example:
1
When rolling 6-sided dice, the landing chance on 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 is 6 𝑡ℎ. So, the expected
outcome is:
1 1 1 1 1 1
EV = (6 × 1) + (6 × 2) + (6 × 3) + (6 × 4) + (6 × 5) + (6 × 6)

= 0.2 + 0.3 + 0.5 + 0.7 + 0.8 + 1

= 3.5
If the dice were rolled an infinite amount of times, this will be the average value.

Probabilities and Normal Distribution

The normal distribution, also known as the Gaussian distribution, is a symmetric distribution
from the central value. It appears as a bell curve on a graph. the probability of events distributes
equally in both the positive and negative directions. Both halves have the same number of
observations. The mean, mode, and median are equal. While the standard deviation is 1. The
formula for normal distribution,
1 x−μ 2
1
f(x) = σ e− 2 (σ
)
√2π

σ = standard deviation
μ = mean
x = value of the variable

31
The rule for Normal Distribution (Empirical Rule)
68% of the observation will be within one standard deviation of the mean, 95% will be within
two standard deviations, and 99.7% of the observations will be within three standard deviations.

32
Examples of probability normal distribution are:
 Heights of male/ female population.
 IQ scores of students.
 Blood pressure.
Skewed Data Distribution
The skewed distribution is when one side of the distribution tail is long. When the tail is skewed
to the right side, it is known as a positive skew. Here the probabilities decelerate more slowly for
a higher value. When the tail is skewed to the left side, it is known as a negative skew. The
probabilities decelerate more slowly for a lower value. The data is not equally distributed to both
sides of the median.
Positive Skew
mean > median > mode

Negative Skew
mean < median < mode

33
34
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