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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
33 views12 pages

UNIT4

Uploaded by

joshilantony
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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LEARNING

Learning is the process of converting experience into expertise or knowledge.

Machine learning is the branch of Artificial Intelligence that focuses on developing models
and algorithms that let computers learn from data and improve from previous experience
without being explicitly programmed for every task. In simple words, ML teaches the systems
to think and understand like humans by learning from the data.

Machine learning can be broadly classified into three categories, as mentioned below, based
on the nature of the learning data and interaction between the learner and the environment.
There are four categories of machine learning algorithms as shown below −

 Supervised learning algorithm


 Unsupervised learning algorithm
 Semi-supervised learning algorithm
 Reinforcement learning algorithm

Types of Machine Learning


SUPERVISED LEARNING
Supervised learning is commonly used in real world applications, such as face and speech
recognition, products or movie recommendations, and sales forecasting.
It is defined as when a model gets trained on a “Labelled Dataset”. Labelled datasets have
both input and output parameters. In Supervised Learning algorithms learn to map points
between inputs and correct outputs. It has both training and validation datasets labelled.

EXAMPLE:
Consider a scenario where you have to build an image classifier to differentiate between cats
and dogs. If you feed the datasets of dogs and cats labelled images to the algorithm, the
machine will learn to classify between it’s a dog or a cat from these labelled images. When
we input new dog or cat images that it has never seen before, it will use the learned
algorithms and predict whether it is a dog or a cat. This is how supervised learning works, and
this is particularly an image classification.
Supervised learning can be further classified into two types:

 Regression
 Classification.
Classification
Classification deals with predicting categorical target variables, which represent discrete
classes or labels. For instance, classifying emails as spam or not spam, or predicting whether
a patient has a high risk of heart disease. Classification algorithms learn to map the input
features to one of the predefined classes.
Here are some classification algorithms:
 Logistic Regression
 Support Vector Machine
 Random Forest
 Decision Tree
 K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN)
 Naive Bayes
 Regression
Regression
Regression, on the other hand, deals with predicting continuous target variables, which
represent numerical values. For example, predicting the price of a house based on its size,
location, and amenities, or forecasting the sales of a product. Regression algorithms learn to
map the input features to a continuous numerical value.
Here are some regression algorithms:

 Linear Regression
 Polynomial Regression
 Ridge Regression
 Lasso Regression
 Decision tree
 Random Forest

Advantages of Supervised Machine Learning

 Supervised Learning models can have high accuracy as they are trained on labelled
data.
 The process of decision-making in supervised learning models is often interpretable.
 It can often be used in pre-trained models which saves time and resources when
developing new models from scratch.
Disadvantages of Supervised Machine Learning

 It has limitations in knowing patterns and may struggle with unseen or unexpected
patterns that are not present in the training data.
 It can be time-consuming and costly as it relies on labeled data only.
 It may lead to poor generalizations based on new data.
Applications of Supervised Learning
Supervised learning is used in a wide variety of applications, including:

 Image classification: Identify objects, faces, and other features in images.


 Natural language processing: Extract information from text, such as sentiment,
entities, and relationships.
 Speech recognition: Convert spoken language into text.
 Recommendation systems: Make personalized recommendations to users.
 Predictive analytics: Predict outcomes, such as sales, customer churn, and stock
prices.
 Medical diagnosis: Detect diseases and other medical conditions.
 Fraud detection: Identify fraudulent transactions.
 Autonomous vehicles: Recognize and respond to objects in the environment.
 Email spam detection: Classify emails as spam or not spam.
 Quality control in manufacturing: Inspect products for defects.
 Credit scoring: Assess the risk of a borrower defaulting on a loan.
 Gaming: Recognize characters, analyze player behavior, and create NPCs.
 Customer support: Automate customer support tasks.
 Weather forecasting: Make predictions for temperature, precipitation, and other
meteorological parameters.
 Sports analytics: Analyze player performance, make game predictions, and optimize
strategies.

UNSUPERVISED LEARNING
Unsupervised learning is a type of machine learning technique in which an algorithm discovers
patterns and relationships using unlabeled data. Unlike supervised learning, unsupervised
learning doesn’t involve providing the algorithm with labeled target outputs. The primary goal
of Unsupervised learning is often to discover hidden patterns, similarities, or clusters within
the data, which can then be used for various purposes, such as data exploration, visualization,
dimensionality reduction, and more.

Example: Consider that you have a dataset that contains information about the purchases
you made from the shop. Through clustering, the algorithm can group the same purchasing
behaviour among you and other customers, which reveals potential customers without
predefined labels. This type of information can help businesses get target customers as well
as identify outliers.
There are two main categories of unsupervised learning that are mentioned below:

 Clustering
 Association
Clustering
Clustering is the process of grouping data points into clusters based on their similarity. This
technique is useful for identifying patterns and relationships in data without the need for
labeled examples.
Here are some clustering algorithms:

 K-Means Clustering algorithm


 Mean-shift algorithm
 DBSCAN Algorithm
 Principal Component Analysis
 Independent Component Analysis
Association
Association rule learning is a technique for discovering relationships between items in a
dataset. It identifies rules that indicate the presence of one item implies the presence of
another item with a specific probability.
Here are some association rule learning algorithms:

 Apriori Algorithm
 Eclat
 FP-growth Algorithm
Advantages of Unsupervised Machine Learning

 It helps to discover hidden patterns and various relationships between the data.
 Used for tasks such as customer segmentation, anomaly detection, and data
exploration.
 It does not require labeled data and reduces the effort of data labeling.
Disadvantages of Unsupervised Machine Learning

 Without using labels, it may be difficult to predict the quality of the model’s output.
 Cluster Interpretability may not be clear and may not have meaningful interpretations.
 It has techniques such as autoencoders and dimensionality reduction that can be used
to extract meaningful features from raw data.
Applications of Unsupervised Learning
Here are some common applications of unsupervised learning:

 Clustering: Group similar data points into clusters.


 Anomaly detection: Identify outliers or anomalies in data.
 Dimensionality reduction: Reduce the dimensionality of data while preserving its
essential information.
 Recommendation systems: Suggest products, movies, or content to users based on
their historical behavior or preferences.
 Topic modeling: Discover latent topics within a collection of documents.
 Density estimation: Estimate the probability density function of data.
 Image and video compression: Reduce the amount of storage required for multimedia
content.
 Data preprocessing: Help with data preprocessing tasks such as data cleaning,
imputation of missing values, and data scaling.
 Market basket analysis: Discover associations between products.
 Genomic data analysis: Identify patterns or group genes with similar expression
profiles.
 Image segmentation: Segment images into meaningful regions.
 Community detection in social networks: Identify communities or groups of
individuals with similar interests or connections.
 Customer behavior analysis: Uncover patterns and insights for better marketing and
product recommendations.
 Content recommendation: Classify and tag content to make it easier to recommend
similar items to users.
 Exploratory data analysis (EDA): Explore data and gain insights before defining
specific tasks.

SEMI SUPERVISED LEARNING


Semi Supervised is a machine learning algorithm that works between the supervised and
unsupervised learning so it uses both labelled and unlabelled data. It’s particularly useful
when obtaining labeled data is costly, time-consuming, or resource-intensive. This approach
is useful when the dataset is expensive and time-consuming. Semi-supervised learning is
chosen when labeled data requires skills and relevant resources in order to train or learn from
it.

We use these techniques when we are dealing with data that is a little bit labeled and the rest
large portion of it is unlabeled. We can use the unsupervised techniques to predict labels and
then feed these labels to supervised techniques. This technique is mostly applicable in the
case of image data sets where usually all images are not labeled.
Example: Consider that we are building a language translation model, having labeled
translations for every sentence pair can be resources intensive. It allows the models to learn
from labeled and unlabeled sentence pairs, making them more accurate. This technique has
led to significant improvements in the quality of machine translation services.
Advantages of Semi- Supervised Machine Learning

 It leads to better generalization as compared to supervised learning, as it takes both


labeled and unlabeled data.
 Can be applied to a wide range of data.
Disadvantages of Semi- Supervised Machine Learning

 Semi-supervised methods can be more complex to implement compared to other


approaches.
 It still requires some labeled data that might not always be available or easy to obtain.
 The unlabeled data can impact the model performance accordingly.
Applications of Semi-Supervised Learning
Here are some common applications of semi-supervised learning:

 Image Classification and Object Recognition: Improve the accuracy of models by


combining a small set of labeled images with a larger set of unlabeled images.
 Natural Language Processing (NLP): Enhance the performance of language models
and classifiers by combining a small set of labeled text data with a vast amount of
unlabeled text.
 Speech Recognition: Improve the accuracy of speech recognition by leveraging a
limited amount of transcribed speech data and a more extensive set of unlabeled
audio.
 Recommendation Systems: Improve the accuracy of personalized recommendations
by supplementing a sparse set of user-item interactions (labeled data) with a wealth
of unlabeled user behavior data.
 Healthcare and Medical Imaging: Enhance medical image analysis by utilizing a small
set of labeled medical images alongside a larger set of unlabeled images.

REINFORCEMENT LEARNING
Reinforcement Machine learning algorithm is a learning method that interacts with the
environment by producing actions and discovering errors. Trial, error, and delay are the most
relevant characteristics of reinforcement learning.
In this technique, the model keeps on increasing its performance using Reward Feedback to
learn the behaviour or pattern. These algorithms are specific to a particular problem e.g.
Google Self Driving car, AlphaGo where a bot competes with humans and even itself to get
better and better performers in Go Game. Each time we feed in data, they learn and add the
data to their knowledge which is training data. So, the more it learns the better it gets trained
and hence experienced.
Here are some of most common reinforcement learning algorithms:
Q-learning: Q-learning is a model-free RL algorithm that learns a Q-function, which maps
states to actions. The Q-function estimates the expected reward of taking a particular action
in a given state.
SARSA (State-Action-Reward-State-Action): SARSA is another model-free RL algorithm that
learns a Q-function. However, unlike Q-learning, SARSA updates the Q-function for the action
that was actually taken, rather than the optimal action.
Deep Q-learning: Deep Q-learning is a combination of Q-learning and deep learning. Deep Q-
learning uses a neural network to represent the Q-function, which allows it to learn complex
relationships between states and actions.
Example: Consider that you are training an AI agent to play a game like chess. The agent
explores different moves and receives positive or negative feedback based on the outcome.
Reinforcement Learning also finds applications in which they learn to perform tasks by
interacting with their surroundings.
There are two main types of reinforcement learning:

 Positive reinforcement
 Negative reinforcement

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT

 Rewards the agent for taking a desired action.


 Encourages the agent to repeat the behavior.
Examples: G
 Giving a treat to a dog for sitting.
 Providing a point in a game for a correct answer.
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

 Removes an undesirable stimulus to encourage a desired behavior.


 Discourages the agent from repeating the behavior.
Examples:
 Turning off a loud buzzer when a lever is pressed.
 Avoiding a penalty by completing a task.
Advantages of Reinforcement Machine Learning
 It has autonomous decision-making that is well-suited for tasks and that can learn to
make a sequence of decisions, like robotics and game-playing.
 This technique is preferred to achieve long-term results that are very difficult to
achieve.
 It is used to solve a complex problems that cannot be solved by conventional
techniques.
Disadvantages of Reinforcement Machine Learning
 Training Reinforcement Learning agents can be computationally expensive and time-
consuming.
 Reinforcement learning is not preferable to solving simple problems.
 It needs a lot of data and a lot of computation, which makes it impractical and costly.
Applications of Reinforcement Machine Learning
Some applications of reinforcement learning:

 Game Playing: RL can teach agents to play games, even complex ones.
 Robotics: RL can teach robots to perform tasks autonomously.
 Autonomous Vehicles: RL can help self-driving cars navigate and make decisions.
 Recommendation Systems: RL can enhance recommendation algorithms by learning
user preferences.
 Healthcare: RL can be used to optimize treatment plans and drug discovery.
 Natural Language Processing (NLP): RL can be used in dialogue systems and
chatbots.
 Finance and Trading: RL can be used for algorithmic trading.
 Supply Chain and Inventory Management: RL can be used to optimize supply chain
operations.
 Energy Management: RL can be used to optimize energy consumption.
 Game AI: RL can be used to create more intelligent and adaptive NPCs in video
games.
 Adaptive Personal Assistants: RL can be used to improve personal assistants.
 Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR): RL can be used to create
immersive and interactive experiences.
 Industrial Control: RL can be used to optimize industrial processes.
 Education: RL can be used to create adaptive learning systems.
 Agriculture: RL can be used to optimize agricultural operations.

DECISION TREES
A decision tree in machine learning is a versatile, interpretable algorithm used for
predictive modelling. It structures decisions based on input data, making it suitable for both
classification and regression tasks. This article delves into the components, terminologies,
construction, and advantages of decision trees, exploring their applications and learning
algorithms.
A decision tree is a type of supervised learning algorithm that is commonly used in
machine learning to model and predict outcomes based on input data. It is a tree-like
structure where each internal node tests on attribute, each branch corresponds to attribute
value and each leaf node represents the final decision or prediction. The decision tree
algorithm falls under the category of supervised learning. They can be used to solve both
regression and classification problems.
Decision Tree Terminologies
There are specialized terms associated with decision trees that denote various components
and facets of the tree structure and decision-making procedure. :

 Root Node: A decision tree’s root node, which represents the original choice or
feature from which the tree branches, is the highest node.
 Internal Nodes (Decision Nodes): Nodes in the tree whose choices are determined by
the values of particular attributes. There are branches on these nodes that go to other
nodes.
 Leaf Nodes (Terminal Nodes): The branches’ termini, when choices or forecasts are
decided upon. There are no more branches on leaf nodes.
 Branches (Edges): Links between nodes that show how decisions are made in
response to particular circumstances.
 Splitting: The process of dividing a node into two or more sub-nodes based on a
decision criterion. It involves selecting a feature and a threshold to create subsets of
data.
 Parent Node: A node that is split into child nodes. The original node from which a split
originates.
 Child Node: Nodes created as a result of a split from a parent node.
 Decision Criterion: The rule or condition used to determine how the data should be
split at a decision node. It involves comparing feature values against a threshold.
 Pruning: The process of removing branches or nodes from a decision tree to improve
its generalisation and prevent overfitting.
The process of forming a decision tree involves recursively partitioning the data based on the
values of different attributes. The algorithm selects the best attribute to split the data at each
internal node, based on certain criteria such as information gain or Gini impurity. This splitting
process continues until a stopping criterion is met, such as reaching a maximum depth or
having a minimum number of instances in a leaf node.

Application of Decision trees:

 Decision trees are so versatile in simulating intricate decision-making processes,


because of their interpretability and versatility.
 Their portrayal of complex choice scenarios that take into account a variety of causes
and outcomes is made possible by their hierarchical structure.
 They provide comprehensible insights into the decision logic, decision trees are
especially helpful for tasks involving categorisation and regression.
 They are proficient with both numerical and categorical data, and they can easily
adapt to a variety of datasets thanks to their autonomous feature selection capability.
 Decision trees also provide simple visualization, which helps to comprehend and
elucidate the underlying decision processes in a model.
Decision Tree Approach
Decision tree uses the tree representation to solve the problem in which each leaf node
corresponds to a class label and attributes are represented on the internal node of the tree.
We can represent any boolean function on discrete attributes using the decision tree.

Some assumptions that we made while using the decision tree:

 At the beginning, we consider the whole training set as the root.


 Feature values are preferred to be categorical. If the values are continuous then they
are discretized prior to building the model.
 On the basis of attribute values, records are distributed recursively.
 We use statistical methods for ordering attributes as root or the internal node.

As you can see from the above image the Decision Tree works on the Sum of Product form
which is also known as Disjunctive Normal Form. In the above image, we are predicting the
use of computer in the daily life of people. In the Decision Tree, the major challenge is the
identification of the attribute for the root node at each level. This process is known as
attribute selection.
We have two popular attribute selection measures:

 Information Gain
 Gini Index

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