A cell is an electrochemical that produces an electric current while battery is an electrochemical
cell or series of cells that produces an electric current. In principle, any galvanic cell could be used as a battery. An ideal battery would never run down, produce an unchanging voltage, and be capable of withstanding environmental extremes of heat and humidity. One way in which electricity may be generated is by the chemical action between metals and electrolytes. An electrolyte may be described as a liquid that is decomposed by the passage of electricity. There are two basic types of batteries: primary and secondary. The primary cell If two dissimilar metals are immersed in an acid or salt solution, known as an electrolyte, an e.m.f. will be produced; this assembly is known as a cell. The e.m.f. may be used to supply a load, but will only do so for a limited time, as the chemical qualities of the electrolyte deteriorate with use. The chemicals have to be renewed to render the cell useful again. The most common forms of primary cells in use are the Leclanch´e wet cell and the dry cell. Fig. 1 illustrates the component parts of these two types of cell
Fig 1 The depolarizing agent is used to remove hydrogen bubbles from around the carbon rod. These bubbles, which are formed during the chemical action, impair the performance of the cell. Applications The dry cell has an obvious advantage over the wet cell because it is portable and so is commonly used for appliances such as torches, door bells, etc. The wet cell, although almost obsolete, is used in larger bell and indicator circuits and for railway signaling The secondary cell Unlike the primary cell, the secondary cell can be used again after it has discharged all its electrical energy. It can be recharged by supplying it with electrical energy. This reverses the chemical process which took place during discharge. There are two types of secondary cell, the lead–acid and the alkaline cell. The lead–acid cell This cell consists of positive and negative lead electrodes, and an electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid all placed in an acid-resistant container. The electrodes are made of several plates, the positive and negative being insulated from one another by separators of insulating material such as wood or ebonite. Formed plates Repeated charging and discharging of a cell under manufacture causes the plates to be covered in lead compounds, the negative plate with spongy lead and the positive plate with lead peroxide, these being important to the chemical action of the cell. This process is, however, both expensive and time consuming and for smaller types of cell, pasted plates are more popular. Pasted plates These plates are manufactured in the form of a grid, into which a compound of sulphuric acid and red lead is pressed; only a short initial charge is needed for the cell to be ready for use. These plates, however, disintegrate more easily than the formed type. A combination of formed and pasted plates is used in large-capacity cells; the positive plate is formed and the negative plate is pasted. When current is drawn from the cell the active chemicals on the positive plate expand and the plate tends to distort, especially under heavy loads. Some measure of protection against this distortion or buckling, is achieved by arranging for each positive plate to be adjacent to two negative plates (Fig. 2). Fig 2 Action of lead–acid cell When an external load is connected to the terminals of the cell, electrical energy is delivered to the load. During this discharge period, a chemical reaction between the plates and the electrolyte takes place and a layer of lead sulphate is deposited on the plates. However, this process successively weakens the electrolyte until the cell is unable to deliver any more electrical energy. If a d.c. supply is then connected to the cell terminals, and a current is passed through it, the lead sulphate is converted back into sulphuric acid and restores the cell to its original condition. This process is known as charging. Care and maintenance of lead–acid cells Provided that a lead–acid cell is maintained regularly and is cared for, it should last for an indefinite period of time. A weekly check on its condition is to be recommended. Electrolyte level The level of the electrolyte should never be allowed to fall below the tops of the plates. Any loss of electrolyte due to evaporation may be made up by the addition of distilled water. Specific gravity of electrolyte As a cell discharges, the electrolyte becomes weaker and its specific gravity (SG) falls, until the cell can no longer deliver energy. The state of charge of a cell can therefore be measured by the SG of the electrolyte. A hydrometer is used for this purpose. It consists of a glass syringe containing a weighted, graduated float. The syringe has a rubber nozzle for insertion into the electrolyte, and a rubber bulb at the upper end for sucking the liquid into the syringe. General maintenance procedures 1 . When preparing an electrolyte, always add acid to water, never water to acid. 2 Ensure that any maintenance is carried out in a well-ventilated area. 3 Do not permit the use of any naked flame near the cells. 4 Cells which are to be taken out of commission for any time should be fully charged, the electrolyte left in, and a periodic charge given to keep the cell healthy until it is needed again. 5 Never leave a cell in an uncharged state, as a layer of whitish sulphate will form on the plates, which will increase the internal resistance and reduce the capacity of the cell. This process is known as sulphation of the plates. 6 Terminals should be coated with petroleum jelly to prevent corrosion.
Application of lead–acid cells
The most common use for this type of cell is the car battery (a battery is a group of cells). Other applications include standby supplies, alarm and control circuits. The electrolyte of such a battery has a negative temperature coefficient and hence a drop in temperature causes a rise in its resistance, so less current will be delivered. We have all experienced starting problems with vehicles in very cold weather. The nickel–alkaline cell There are two types of alkaline cell, the nickel–iron and the nickel–cadmium. The nickel–iron cell Here the positive plate is made of nickel hydroxide, the negative plate of iron oxide and the electrolyte is potassium hydroxide. The nickel–cadmium cell In this cell both the positive plate and the electrolyte are the same as for the nickel–iron cell; however, the negative plate is cadmium mixed with a small amount of iron. The active chemicals in the plates of alkaline cells are enclosed in thin nickel–steel grids insulated from one another by ebonite rods. The whole assembly is housed in a welded steel container. Care and maintenance of the nickel–alkaline cell Unlike the lead–acid cell the nickel–alkaline needs minimal attention. The open type only needs periodic topping up to compensate for the electrolyte lost by evaporation. The totally enclosed type needs no maintenance. Applications It has limited use owing to its cost and is mainly used in situations where a robust construction is needed, i.e. marine work. Capacity of a cell If a cell delivers, say, 10 A for a period of 10 hours, it is said to have a capacity of 100 ampere hours (A h) at the 10 hour rate; taking any more than 10 A will discharge the cell in less than 10 hours. Efficiency of a cell The efficiency of any system is the ratio of the output to the input. The efficiency of cells is given in two forms: The ampere hour efficiency % = discharge amperes × discharge time × 100 /charging amperes × charging time The watt hour efficiency % = discharge VA × discharging time × 100/ charging VA × charging time. Cell and battery circuits E.m.f. of cell (E, volts) This is the maximum force available (measured in volts) in a cell to produce current flow. Internal resistance When current flows through the cell there is some resistance to its flow (less than 1 in a good cell) and hence a voltage drop across it. P.d. of a cell or terminal (V, volts) This is the voltage measured at the terminals of a cell, and is less than the cell e.m.f. owing to the voltage drop across the internal resistance of the cell (Fig. 3). E = e.m.f. of cell; r = internal resistance of cell; R = resistance of load; I = circuit current; and V = terminal voltage or p.d. across load. Fig 3 V = E – (I × r) and V = I × RL I × RL = E – (I × r) (I × RL) + (I × r) = E I ( RL + r) = E I = E/( RL + r)
The terminal voltage (V) available across the load is clearly the e.m.f. (E) less the voltage drop across the internal resistance (r): V = E – (I × r) This is the same principle as the voltage available across the terminals of a load which is supplied by a long cable. Example If a cell with an e.m.f. of 2 V and an internal resistance of 0.2 is connected across a 0.8 load resistor, calculate the current that will flow (see fig 4).
Fig 4 I = E/( RL + r) = 2/ (0.8 + 0.2) = 2/1 = 2A
Three types of connection of cells
There are three types of cell connections, which are : (i) Cells in series (ii) Cells in parallel (iii) Cells in combination (series parallel) Cells in series If a high p.d. is required, then cells are connected in series and internal resistances are added (Fig. 5).
Fig 5 Cells in parallel For cells in parallel the p.d. is the same as that for one cell, but as the internal resistances are added in parallel their resultant internal resistance is less than for one cell and heavier currents can be drawn.
Fig 6 Cells in series -parallel
Fig 7 Battery charging Cells and batteries are charged by connecting them to a controlled d.c. source. This source may be obtained in several ways; (1) rectified a.c.; (2) motor generator set; (3) rotary converter; and (4) d.c. mains supply. The most commonly used method is rectified a.c. and there are two ways in which this system is used: (1) the constant-voltage method, and (2) the constant-current method. Constant-voltage charging In this method, the charging voltage is held constant throughout the charging process. The charging current is high in the beginning when a battery is in discharged condition (low voltage), and it gradually drops off as the battery picks up charge resulting in back e.m.f. This is the common method of charging used in battery shops and on automotive equipment. The method is, however not very suitable for old badly sulphated batteries which need prolonged charging at a slow rate. In this method the d.c. charging voltage is kept constant at a value just above that of the final value of the battery e.m.f. The charging current is initially high, decreasing as the e.m.f. of the battery approaches that of the supply (Fig. 8).
Fig 8 Constant-current charging In constant-current charging the current is kept constant by varying the d.c. input voltage as the battery e.m.f. increases (Fig. 9). Fig 9 The more popular method, for everyday use, is the constant-voltage method. Cells, batteries and their associated charging equipment are frequently used in installation work such as indicator and call systems in hospitals and hotels, fire alarm and burglar alarm systems, and emergency lighting installations. Precautions should be taken during charging a battery: (i) No metal tools should be used on batteries without switching off the battery charger. (ii) The batteries should be charged in a well – ventilated place, so that the gases and the acid fumes are blown away. (iii) Do not disturb any connections with charger ON, as there is risk of sparking. (iv) If acid or electrolyte gets spattered into the eyes, wash them immediately with large quantity of clean cold water. (v) Ammonia solution should be kept on hand to neutralize that may fall on clothes.
Self-assessment questions 1 Explain the difference between a primary and a secondary cell. 2 Describe two methods of testing the state of charge of a secondary cell. What figures would you expect? 3 How does an alkaline cell differ from a lead–acid cell? What effect does discharging an alkaline cell have on the SG of its electrolyte? 4 (a) What is the difference between the e.m.f. of a cell and its terminal voltage? (b) A cell of e.m.f. 2 V and internal resistance 0.15 delivers a current of 3 A to an external load. Calculate the resistance of the load and the terminal voltage of the cell. 5 State the two common methods of battery charging and explain the difference between them. 6 Why do batteries perform less well at low temperatures?
