Block diagram

• An op-amp is a multi-stage , direct coupled, high gain

differential amplifier.
• An op-amp can be conveniently divided into four main blocks:
– Input stage
– Intermediate stage
– Level shifting stage
– Output stage

Fig. 1: Block diagram of a typical op-amp

 Block diagram
• Input stage: It consists of a dual input, balanced output
differential amplifier. Its function is to amplify the
difference between the two input signals. It provides
high differential gain, high input impedance and low
output impedance.

• Intermediate stage: The overall gain requirement of

an op-amp is very high. Since the input stage alone
cannot provide such a high gain, intermediate stage is
used to provide the required additional voltage gain.
 Block diagram
• Level shifting circuit: Due to direct coupling used
between the first and second stages, the input of level
shifting stage is an amplified signal with some non-zero
dc level. Level shifting stage is used to bring dc level to
zero volts with respect to gnd.

• Output stage: The level shifted signal is then fed to the

output stage where a push-pull amplifier is used that
increases the output voltage swing of the signal and
also increases the current supplying capability of the
op-amp. It also ensures that the output resistance of op-
amp is low.
 Op-amp basics
• The op-amp is designed to sense the difference
between the voltage signals applied at its two
input terminals, multiplied by a number A(called
as gain of op-amp), causing the resulting voltage
A (V1- V2) to appear at its output terminal.

• The main use of an op-amp is to amplify ac and

dc input signals and was initially used for basic
mathematical operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, differentiation and
integration.
 Op-amp basics
• Nowadays , the application of op-amp‟s varies from ac
and dc signal amplification to use in active filters,
oscillators, comparators, voltage regulators,
instrumentation and control systems, pulse generators,
square wave generators and many more electronic
circuits.

• For the design of all these circuits the op-amp‟s are

manufactured with integrated transistors, diodes,
capacitors and resistors, thus making it an extremely
compact, multi tasking, low cost, highly reliable and
temperature stable integrated circuit.
 Op-amp basics
• The schematic symbol of an op-amp is shown below:
1
V1 + 3

V2 - Vout
2

• The above shown symbol is the most widely used op-amp

symbol for all electronic circuits.
 V1 (Volts) – Non-inverting input voltage
 V2 (Volts) – Inverting input voltage
 Vout (Volts) – Output voltage
Where Vout =A (V1- V2)
 Ideal characteristics
Key features of an ideal op-amp:
1. The input impedance of an ideal op-amp is
supposed to be infinite.
• The ideal op-amp is not supposed to draw any input
current , i.e. the signal current into its input terminals
are zero.

2. The output impedance of an ideal op-amp is

supposed to be zero.
• Voltage between output terminal and ground is
independent of the current drawn from output terminal
i.e. output terminal is supposed to act as the output
terminal of an ideal voltage source.
 Ideal characteristics
3. From the output expression i.e. Vout =A (V1- V2), we
conclude that
• Output is in phase (i.e. has the same sign) with V1.
• Output is out of phase (i.e. has the opposite sign) with V2.
• Hence, terminal 1 is called as non-inverting input terminal
and terminal 2 is called as inverting input terminal.

4. Common-mode rejection: Op-amp responds only to the

difference signal (V1- V2) and hence ignores any signal
common to both the inputs i.e. if V1= V2, then the output
will ideally be zero.
• From this we conclude that an ideal op amp has zero common-
mode gain or infinite common-mode rejection.
 Ideal characteristics
5. The ideal op-amp has infinite bandwidth.
• The ideal op-amp has a gain A that remains constant down to
zero frequency and up to infinite frequency.
• That is, ideal op amps will amplify signals of any frequency with
equal gain, and are thus said to have infinite bandwidth.

6. The ideal op-amp should have a gain A whose value

is very large and ideally infinite.

One may ask: If the gain A is infinite, how are we going to use
the op amp?
The answer is very simple: In almost all applications the op amp
will not be used alone in a so-called open-loop configuration.
Rather, we will use other components to apply feedback to close
the loop around the op amp.
 Ideal characteristics
Non-inverting terminal

1
i1=0 +
v1 +- A (V1- V2) 3
+ output
-

i2=0
-
+ 2
v2 - Inverting terminal

Fig.: Equivalent circuit of the ideal op-amp

 Ideal characteristics
Final summary:

Characteristics value
Input impedance Infinite
output impedance Zero
Common-mode rejection ratio Infinite
Bandwidth Infinite
Open-loop gain Infinite
 Important concept
• Output voltage of op-amp is A (V1- V2) where ideally
A should be infinite. So,
Vo
V1  V2  0
A
• That is, if A approaches infinity, the voltage V1
approaches and ideally equals V2.
• We conclude this as the two input terminals are
“tracking each other in potential”. It is also called
that “virtual short circuit” exists between the two
input terminals.
 Important concept
A virtual short circuit means that whatever voltage
is at 2 will automatically appear at 1 because of the
infinite gain A. But terminal 2 happens to be
connected to ground, we speak of terminal 1 as being
a virtual ground— that is, having zero voltage but
not physically connected to ground.

Here the word virtual should be

emphasized, and one should not make the
mistake of physically shorting terminals 1
and 2 together while analyzing a circuit.
Practical op-amp characteristics
Practical op-amp characteristics varies from ideal
op-amp characteristics

Characteristics Ideally practically

Input impedance Infinite ≈106Ω
output impedance Zero In Ω
Common-mode Infinite ≈100 dB
rejection ration
Bandwidth Infinite ≈106 MHz
Open-loop gain Infinite ≈ 106
 Pin diagram
There are 8 pins in a common op-amp IC
• Pin 1 is Offset null. • Pin 5 is offset null.
• Pin 2 is Inverting input terminal. • Pin 6 is the output
• Pin 3 is a non-inverting input voltage.
terminal. • Pin 7 is positive voltage
• Pin 4 is negative voltage supply supply (+VCC)
(VCC) • Pin 8 has no connection
 Inverting amplifier
• Op-amps are not used alone, rather, the op-
amp is connected to passive components in a
feedback circuit.

• There are two such basic circuit configurations

employing an op-amp and two resistors:
– The inverting configuration
– The non-inverting configuration
 Inverting amplifier
Figure below depicts the circuit diagram for inverting
configuration.
R2

R1 2
- 3
Vi + + +
- 1 Vo
-

Fig.: Inverting amplifier

 Inverting amplifier
• It consists of one op-amp and two resistors R1
and R2.
• Resistor R2 is connected from the output
terminal of the op-amp, and back to the
inverting or negative input terminal.
• R2 is seen as applying negative feedback as it
is connected between negative terminal and
output terminal.
 Inverting amplifier

• Terminal 1 is grounded.
• Resistor R1 and is connected between terminal
2 and an input signal source with a voltage vin.
• Overall output of the circuit is taken at the
output terminal i.e. between output terminal
and ground.
 Inverting amplifier
We will now analyze the previous circuit to
determine the closed-loop gain.
• Closed loop gain G, is defined as:
Vo
G
Vi
• From the concept of virtual short circuit, since
terminal 2 is grounded thus, V1 = 0 & V2 = 0.
• On applying ohm‟s law across R1, we get-
Vi  V1 Vi  0 Vi
i1   
R1 R1 R1
 Inverting amplifier
• This current cannot flow through the op-amp
because an ideal op-amp draws zero current.
• It follows that i1 will have to flow through R2
to low-impedance terminal 3. Thus,
Vi
Vo  Vi  i1 R2  0  R2
R1
which is the closed loop gain of the
inverting configuration.
 Inverting amplifier
5 i2=ii=Vi/R1

3 ii=Vi/R1 R2
4
ii R1 0A
+ -
1 0V
Vi + - + +
- 6 Vo=0-ViR2/R1
Vo=-ViR2/R1
-
2 V-= 0V
(virtual ground)

Fig.: Analysis of the inverting configuration

The circled number indicated order of analysis steps.
 Inverting amplifier
Detailed analysis
i1 R2
ii  i  i1
Since, i = 0; ii R1
i -
So, ii  i1 Vi + +
- +
and, i  Vi  V Vo
-
i
R
Due to virtual ground, V  0
Vi
So, ii 
R Vi
Thus, i1  ii 
R Vi R2
and V  0  i R  Vo  
o 1 2
R1
 Inverting amplifier
• Thus, closed-loop gain is ratio of two resistances
R1 and R2 i.e. the closed-loop gain depends
entirely on external passive components.
• The minus sign means that the closed-loop
amplifier provides signal inversion.
• Input resistance of closed-loop inverting amplifier
is simply equal to R1.
Vi Vi
Ri    R1
ii Vi
R1
• Output resistance of closed-loop inverting
amplifier is zero.
Numerical on inverting amplifier
Numerical on inverting amplifier
 Non-Inverting amplifier
• Figure below depicts the circuit diagram for non-
inverting configuration.
R2

R1 2
- 3

+ +
1 Vo
Vi +
- -

Fig.: Non-inverting amplifier

 Non-Inverting amplifier
• It also consists of one op-amp and two
resistors R1 and R2.
• Resistor R2 is connected from the output
terminal of the op-amp, and back to the
inverting or negative input terminal.
• R2 is seen as applying negative feedback as it
is connected between negative terminal and
output terminal.
 Non-Inverting amplifier
• At terminal 1 an input signal source with a
voltage vin is applied.
• Resistor R1 and is connected between terminal
2 and ground.
• Overall output of the circuit is taken at the
output terminal i.e. between output terminal
and ground.
 Non-Inverting amplifier
We will now analyze the previous circuit to
determine the closed-loop gain.

• The current flowing through R1 can be

determined as vi/R1
• Because of the infinite input impedance of the
op-amp, the current vi/R1 will flow through R2.
 Non-Inverting amplifier
• Now the output voltage can be determined
from
 Vi 
Vo  Vi    R2
 R1 
which yields
Vo  R2 
 1  
Vi  R1 
which is the open loop gain of the no-inverting
configuration.
 Non-Inverting amplifier
5 i2=ii=Vi/R1

3 4 R2
ii=Vi/R1 R1 0A
+ -
1 0V
- + +
6 Vo=Vi+ViR2/R1
+
- Vi Vo=Vi(1+R2/R1)
2 V-= Vi -

Fig.: Analysis of the non-inverting configuration

The circled number indicated order of analysis steps.
 Non-Inverting amplifier
Detailed analysis
i1  i  i2 i2 R2
Since, i = 0;
So, i1  i2 i1 R1
and, V  0 -
i1  i
+
R +
Vo
due to virtual short, V  Vi +
- Vi -
so, i  Vi
1
R
Vi
thus, i2  i1 
and R1
Vo  Vi  i2 R2
Vi R2  R2 
 Vo  Vi   Vo  Vi 1  
R1  R1 
 Non-Inverting amplifier
• Thus, the closed-loop gain depends entirely on
external passive components.
• Since the gain of the non-inverting
configuration is positive and hence the name
non-inverting.
• Input resistance of closed-loop non-inverting
amplifier is infinite
• Output resistance of closed-loop non-inverting
amplifier is zero.
Numerical on non-inverting amplifier
Numerical on non-inverting amplifier
 Unity follower
It is called by several names such as unity follower or
unity-gain follower or voltage follower.

-
+ +
Vo=Vi
Vi +
- -

Fig: Unity-gain follower

 Unity follower
• The property of high input impedance is a very
desirable feature of the non-inverting
configuration.
• It enables using this circuit as a buffer amplifier.
• Buffer amplifier is used:
– To connect a source with a high impedance to a low-
impedance load.
– Buffer amplifier does not provide any voltage gain.
– Rather, it is used mainly as an impedance transformer.
 Unity follower
• To obtain the unity-gain amplifier as shown
in previous fig., we may take R1 and R2 of
non-inverting configuration as ∞ and 0
respectively.

• This circuit is commonly referred to as a

voltage follower as the output follows the
input.
 Summing amplifier
It is a very important application of the inverting
configuration.
i1 R1
v1

i2 R2 i Rf
v2 w

i
in -
Rn
vn +
+
Vo
-

Fig.: Summing amplifier

 Summing amplifier

• Rf is the negative feedback path resistance

• v1, v2……vn are number of input signals
applied through corresponding resistors R1,
R2……Rn
• Input signals are being applied to inverting
terminal of op-amp.
 Summing amplifier

• For ideal op-amp, there will be a virtual ground appearing

at its negative input terminal.
• Ohm‟s law tells us that the currents i1, i2……in are given
by:
v1 v2 vn
i1  , i2  ......., in 
R1 R2 Rn
• All these currents sum together to produce the current
i; that is:
i  i1  i2 .....  in
v1 v2 vn
i    ....... 
R1 R2 Rn
 Summing amplifier
• This current will flow through Rf as no current flows into the input
terminals of an ideal op-amp.
• So the output voltage Vout may now be determined by using ohm‟s law:

vout  0  iR f  iR f
 Rf Rf Rf 
vout   v1  v2  .....  vn 
 R1 R2 Rn 
 v1 v2 vn 
vout   R f    .....  
 R1 R2 Rn 
If R1  R2  ...  Rn  Rs

Rf
vout   (v1  v2  ...  vn )
Rs
 Summing amplifier
• That is, the output voltage is a weighted sum
of the input signals v1, v2……vn.
• This circuit is therefore called as a weighted
summer.
• Each summing coefficient may be
independently adjusted by adjusting the
corresponding „feed-in‟ resistor (R1 to Rn ).
 Summing amplifier
• The previous weighted summer has the
constraint that all the summing coefficients are
of the same sign.
• There can be an occasional need for summing
signals with opposite signs.
• Such a function can be implemented using two
op-amps as shown in fig. of next slide.
• Analysis can be done assuming ideal op-amps.
 Summing amplifier
Ra
Rc

R1
v1 - Rb
R2
-
+
v2 w
R3 +
v3 Vo

v4

Fig.: A weighted summer capable of implementing summing

coefficients of both signs.
The output voltage is given by
 Ra   Rc   Ra   Rc   Rc   Rc 
vo  v1      v2      v3    v4  
 R1   Rb   R2   Rb   R3   R4 
Students are encouraged to derive this equation by themselves
Numerical on summing amplifier
 Integrator & differentiator
• The op-amp circuit applications we have studied
thus far utilized resistors in the op-amp feedback
path and in connecting the signal source to the
circuit, that is, in the feed-in path.
• As a result circuit operation has been (ideally)
independent of frequency.
• By allowing the use of capacitors together with
resistors in the feedback and feed-in paths of op-
amp circuits, we open the door to a very wide
range of useful and exciting applications of the op
amp.
 Inverting configuration with general impedances
• Consider the inverting closed-loop configuration with impedances Z1(s) and Z2(s)
replacing resistors R1 and R2 respectively.
• The resulting circuit is shown in fig. below.
• For an ideal op amp, the closed-loop gain or the closed-loop transfer function is:

Z2(s) I2(s)

I1(s) Z1(s)
i
-
Vi(s)
+ + +
- Vo(s)
-
 Integrator
• By placing a capacitor in the feedback path (i.e., in
place of Z2 in previous figure) and a resistor at the
input (in place of Z1), we obtain the circuit of
integrator as shown in figure here.
C

R
-
Vi(t)
+ +
Vo
-

Fig. Integrator circuit diagram

 Integrator
• Let the input be a time-varying function vi(t).
• The virtual ground at the inverting op-amp input causes vi(t) to
appear across R, and thus the current ii(t) will be vi(t) /R.
• This current flows through the capacitor C, causing charge to
accumulate on C.
ii(t) +vc-

C
ii(t) R 0A
-
Vi(t)
+ +
Vo(t)
Vo/Vi=-1/SCR
V-= 0V -
 Integrator
• If we assume that the circuit begins operation
at time t = 0, then at an arbitrary time t the
current ii(t) t
will have deposited on C a charge
equal to  i1( t )dt .
• Thus the capacitor voltage vc(t) will change by
0

t
1
 i ( t )dt .
1
C
• If the initial voltage on C (at t = 0) is denoted
0

Vc, then 1
t
vc ( t )  Vc 
C 0
i ( t )dt
1
 Integrator
• Now the output voltage vo(t)=-vc(t); thus,
t
1
vo ( t )  Vc  
CR 0
vi ( t )dt

• Thus the circuit provides an output voltage that is

proportional to the time-integral of the input, with Vc
being the initial condition of integration and CR the
integrator time-constant.

• There is a negative sign attached to the output voltage,

and thus this integrator circuit is also said to be an
inverting integrator.
 Integrator
Detailed analysis

i1(t) v
+ -
c

C
ii(t) R
i
-
Vi(t)
+ +
Vo(t)
-
 Integrator
The operation of the integrator circuit can be described alternatively in
the frequency domain by substituting Z1(s)=R and Z2(s)=1/SC to
obtain the transfer function:
I1(s) 1/SC

Ii(s) R
i
-
Vi(s)
+ +
Vo(s)
-
 Differentiator
• Interchanging the location of the capacitor and the resistor of
the integrator circuit results in the circuit of differentiator.
• This operational amplifier circuit performs the mathematical
operation of differentiation, that is it “produces a voltage
output which is directly proportional to the input voltage‟s
rate-of-change with respect to time”.
• The input signal to the differentiator is applied to the capacitor.
• The capacitor blocks any DC content so there is no current
flow to the amplifier summing point, X resulting in zero output
voltage.
• The capacitor only allows AC type input voltage changes to
pass through and whose frequency is dependent on the rate of
change of the input signal.
 Differentiator
• Let the input be a time-varying function vi(t).
• The virtual ground at the inverting input terminal of
the op-amp causes vi(t) to appear across C.
• Thus the current ii(t) through C will be C(dvi/dt).
ii(t) R

ii(t) C 0A i(t)=Cdvi(t)/dt
- Vo(t)=CRdvi(t)/dt
Vi(t)
+ +
Vo(t)
Vo/Vi=-SCR
V-= 0V -

Fig. Differentiator circuit diagram

 Differentiator
• This current also flows through the feedback resistor
R providing at the op-amp output a voltage vo(t),
dvi ( t )
vo ( t )  CR
dt
• Thus, the circuit provides an output voltage that is
proportional to the time-derivative of the input.
• The minus sign (–) indicates a 180o phase shift
because the input signal is connected to the inverting
input terminal of the operational amplifier.
• CR is called as the differentiator time-constant.
 Differentiator
Detailed analysis
i1(t) R
ii ( t )  i  i1( t )
Since, i = 0;
ii(t) C
So, ii ( t )  i1( t )
and, ii ( t )  C
dvi ( t )
i
-
Vi(t)
thus, dt + +
dvi ( t ) Vo(t)
i1( t )  ii ( t )  C -
dt
also,
vo ( t )  0  i1( t )R
dvi ( t )
 vo ( t )   RC
dt
 Differentiator
The operation of the integrator circuit can be described
alternatively in the frequency domain by substituting
Z1(s)=1/SC and Z2(s)=R to obtain the transfer function:
I1(s) R

Ii(s) 1/SC
i
-
Vi(s)
+ +
Vo(s)
-
Op-amp Differentiator Waveforms
• If we apply a constantly changing
signal such as a Square-wave,
Triangular or Sine-wave type
signal to the input of a
differentiator amplifier circuit the
resultant output signal will be
changed and whose final shape is
dependent upon the RC time
constant of the Resistor/Capacitor
combination.