S J P N Trust's

ECE Dept.
Hirasugar Institute of Technology, Nidasoshi. CS
Inculcating Values, Promoting Prosperity IV Sem
Approved by AICTE, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka and Affiliated to VTU Belagavi 2017-18

Department of Electronics & Communication Engg.

Course : Control Systems Sem.: 4th (2017-18)

Course Coordinator:
S.S.Malaj
Module 3
ROOT LOCUS TECHNIQUE-INTRODUCTION
Possibility of unstable operation is inherent in all feedback control systems
because of the very nature of the feedback itself.

An unstable system cannot perform the control task required of it.

While analyzing a given system the very first investigation that needs to be
made is
----whether the system stable.determination of stability of system ,is necessary
but not sufficient ,for a stable system with low damping is still undesirable.

In an analysis problem one must, therefore proceed to determine not only the
absolute stability of a system but also its relative stability.

Relative stability is directly related to the location of the closed –loop poles of
a system.

Consider now a design problem in which the designer is required to achieve

the desired performance for a system by adjusting the location of its closed
loop poles in the s –plane by varying one or more system parameters.
Rouths’s criterion obviously does not help much in such problems.

For determining the location of the closed poles :

one may resort to the classical techniques of factoring the characteristic
polynomial & determining its roots,since the closed loop poles are the roots
of the characteristic equation.

This technique is very laborious when the degree of the characteristic

polynomial is three or higher.

Repeated calculations are required as a system parameter is varied for

adjustments.
A simple technique known as the ROOT LOCUS TECHNIQUE,for
finding the roots of the characteristic equation .

Introduced by W.R.Evans is extensively used in control engineering

practice.

Technique provides a graphical method of ploting the locus of the roots

in the s-plane as a given system parameter is varied over the complete
range of values.

Roots corresponding to a particular value of the system parameter can

then be located on the locus or the value of the parameter for a desired
root location can be determined from the locus.

Root locus is a powerful technique as it brings into focus the complete

dynamic response of the system.

Graphical technique an approximate root locus sketch can be made

quickly & the designer can easily visualize the effects of varying various
system parameters on root locations.
 The root locus also provides a measure of sensitivity of roots to the variation
in the parameter being considered. .

Basic Concept of Root Locus

The characteristic equation of a closed loop system is given as
1+G(s)H(s) =0

For Root locus ,gain ‘K’ is assumed to be a variable parameter & is part of forward
path of the closed loop system.

Consider the system shown G(s)=KG’(s) K—Gain of the amplifier in forward

path or system gain.

The characteristic equation becomes 1+G(s)H(s)=0 i.e 1+KG’(s)H(s)=0. K—

variable parameter.

Closed loop poles i.e roots of above equation are now dependent on values of ‘K’.

If now Gain’K’ is varied from -∞ to +∞ ,for each separate value of ‘K’ we will get
separate set of locations of the roots of the characteristic equation.If all such
locations are joined ,resulting locus is called Root Locus.
If all such locations are joined, resulting locus is called Root locus as,the
locus of the closed loop poles obtained when system gain ‘K’ is varied from
-∞ to + ∞ is called Root Locus.

K varied from 0 to + ∞ plot is called Direct Root Locus.

K varied from - ∞ to + 0 plot is called Inverse Root Locus.

Angle & Magnitude Condition :
The characteristic equation for a general closed loop system is
1+G(s)H(s)=0
i.e G(s)H(s)=-1

As s - plane is complex we can write above equation as,

G(s)H(s)= -1+j0.

All s-values can be expressed as ‘σ+jω’ i.e G(s) H(s) term is also complex
one.

So for any value of ‘s’ if it has to be on the root locus ,it must satisfy above
equation.
Construction Rules of Root Loci of 1+G(s)H(s)=0 ,G(s)H(s) is known in
pole zero form with n—number of open loop poles,m—number of open
loop zeros.

Rule 1: The root locus is symmetrical about the real axis.

Rule 2: As K increases from zero to infinity,each branch of the root locus

originates from an open loop pole with k=0 & terminates either on an open loop
zero or on infinity with k=∞.the number of branches terminating on infinity
equals the number of open loop poles minus zeros.Branch direction always
remains from open loop poles towards open loop zeros.

Rule 3: A point on the real axis lies on the locus if the number of open loop poles
plus zeros on the real axis to the right of this points is odd.

Rule 4: The (n-m) branches of the root locus which tend to infinity ,do so along
straight line asymptotes whose angles are given by
φA = (2q+1)180deg/n-m; q=0.1.2,…..,(n-m-1).
Rule 5: The asymptotes cross the real axis ata point known as
centroid,determined by the relationship:(sum of real parts of poles-sum
of real parts of zeros)/(number of poles-number of zeros).

Rule 6: The breakaway points (points at which multiple roots of the

characteristic equation occur) of the root locus are the solutions of
dK/ds=0.

Breakaway points on the real axis:

Method 1: An analytical approach:requires the determination of the roots
of the equation dK/ds=0 to evaluate the breakaway points.

Method 2: Graphical approach: more practical method for determining

the breakaway points.

Rule 7:The angle of departure from an open loop pole is given by

Φp=±180 deg(2q+1)+ Φ ;q=0,1,2 Φ is net angle
contribution ,at this pole ,of all other open loop poles &
zeros.
Angle of arrival at an open loop zeros is given by
Φz=±180 deg(2q+1)- Φ ; q=0,1,2 Φ is net angle
contribution ,at this zero,of all other open loop poles &
zeros.
Rule 8: The intersection of root locus branches with the
imaginary axis can be determined by use of Routh
Criterion.
Rule 9: The open loop gain K in pole zero form at any
point So on the root locus is given by
K= Product of Phasor lengths* from So to open loop poles
Product of phasor lengths* from So to open loop zeros.
General Predictions about existence of breakaway points.
If there are adjacently placed poles/zero on the real
axis & the real axis between them is a part of the root
locus then there exists minimum one breakaway point
in between adjacently placed poles/zeros.

General steps to solve the problem on Root Locus:

1. Get the general information about number of open loop
poles,zeros,number of branches etc from G(s)H(s).
2. Draw the pole-zero plot.Identify sections of real axis for
the existence of the root locus.And predict minimum
number of breakaway points by using general
predictions.
3. Calculate angles of asymptotes.
4. Determine the centroid.Sketch a separate sketch for
step 3 & 4.
Calculate the breakaway points .If breakaway points are
complex conjugaates ,then use angle condition to check
them for their validity as a breakaway points.
6. Calculate the intersection points of root locus with the
imaginary axis.
7.Calculate the angles of departures or arrivals if applicable.
8.Combine steps 1 to 7 & draw the final sketch on the root
locus.
9.Predict the stability & performance of the given system by
using Root Locus.
NOTE:
Complex conjugate roots should not be considered while
counting the poles & zeros to the right side .
To decide valid breakaway points: substitute breakaway point
value to the equation of K to get value of K.If K is +ve that
breakaway point is valid for root locus.
If no complex poles,then angle of departure is not required.
Module-3
Stability Analysis
Stability in a system: Implies that small changes in the system i/p,
in initial conditions or in system parameters do not result in large
changes in system o/p.
--Is a very important characteristic of the transient performance of a
system.
--Every working system is designed to be stable --almost.
Within the boundaries of parameter variations permitted by stability
considerations,--then seek to improve system performance.
A linear time invariant system is stable if the following two
notions of system stability is satisfied.
i) When the system is excited by a bounded input,the o/p
is bounded.
ii) In the absence of the i/p,o/p tends towards zero irrespective of initial
conditions. Stability concept is known as Asymptotic stability.
Concern of notion:
II nd notion concerns a free system relative to its transient behaviour.
I st notion concerns a system under the influence of an i/p .
If a system is subjected to an unbounded input & produces an
unbounded response ,nothing can be said about its stability.
--But if it is subjected to a bounded i/p & produces an unbounded
response ,it is by defn unstable.
---The o/p of an unstable system may increase to a certain extent & then
system may break down or become nonlinear after the o/p exceeds
a certain magnitude,--linear mathematical model no longer applies.

The two notions of stability defined above are essentially equivalent in

linear time invariant systems.

------simple & powerful tools are available to determine the stability of
such systems.
-------For nonlinear systems ,b’coz of possible existence of multiple
equilibrium states & other anomalies ,concept of stability is difficult
,even to define.
-------Free stable nonlinear system,-no guarantee that o/p will be
bounded whenever i/p is bounded.

If o/p is bounded for a particular bounded i/p ,it may not be bounded for
other bounded i/p’s.

Many of the important results obtained thus far concern the stability of the
nonlinear system in the sense of second notion above,when the system
has no i/p.
 Observations made from the table
All the roots which have non zero real parts [ case I,ii,iii & iv],contribute
response terms with a multiplying factor of eσi.
If s < 0 (i.e,the roots have negative real parts ),response terms vanish as t
∞ & if σ >0(i.e the roots have positive real parts),the response terms
increase without bound.

Roots on the jw axis with multiplicity two or higher[ case vi & viii] also
contribute terms which increase without bound as t ∞.

Single root at origin [case (vii)] or non –multiple root pairs [case v] on the jw
axis contribute response terms which are constant amplitude or constant
amplitude oscillation.
 Observations made from the table
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS REGARDING SYSTEM STABILITY FROM THE
OBSERVATIONS:

1.If all the roots of the characteristic equation have negative real parts
,then the impulse response is bounded & eventually decreases to zero.
therefore,ʃ 0 to ∞ g(τ)dτ is finite & the system is bounded-input,bounded
–output stable.

2.If any root of the characteristic equation has a +ve real part,g(t) is
unbounded & ʃ 0 to ∞ g(τ) dτ is infinite.the system is therefore unstable.

3) If the characteristic equation has repeated roots on the jw axis ,g(t) is

unbounded & ʃ 0 to ∞ g(τ) dτ is infinite. The system is therefore unstable.

4) If one or more nonrepeated roots of the characteristic equation are on the jw

axis,then g(t) is bounded but ʃ 0 to ∞ g(τ) dτ is infinite.The system is therefore
unstable.
Module-4
BODE PLOT:
Logarithmic Plot which consists of two graphs:
One giving the logarithm of | G(jw) | & other phase angle
of G(jw).

Both plotted against frequency in logarithmic scale.

Magnitude Plot:Magnitude expressed in logarithmic values

against logarithmic values of frequency.

Phase angle plot:Phase angle in degrees against

logarithmic values of frequency.

Magnitude Plot: Find 20log | G(jw) | --unit as decibel.

 Steps to sketch bode plot:
i) Express given G(s)H(s) into time constant form.

ii) Draw a line of 20 Log K dB.

iii) Draw a line of appropriate slope representing poles or zeros at the origin
passing through intersection point of ω=1 & 0 db.

iv) Shift this intersection point on 20 Log K line & draw parallel line to the line
drawn in step 3.This is addition of constant K &
& number of poles or zeros at the origin.

v) Change the slope of this line at various corner frequencies by appropriate

value i.e depending upon which factor is occuring at corner frequency.
For a simple pole,slope must be changed by -20db/decade,for a simple zero
by +20 db/decade.
Change the slope of line obtained in step 5 by respective value & draw line
with resultant slope.continue this line till it intersects next corner frequency
line.change the slope & continue.
Apply necessary correction for quadratic factor.
vi) Prepare the phase angle table & obtain
the table of ω & resultant phase angle φR
by actual calculation.Plot these points &
draw smooth curve obtaining necessary
phase angle plot.
To Remember: At every corner frequency
slope of resultant line must change.
Frequency Response Specifications
Basic objective of control system design----Performance Specifications.

Specifications are the constraints or limitations put on the mathematical

functions describing the system characteristics.

--Bandwidth: Defined as the range of frequencies over which the system

will respond satisfactorily.Range of frequencies in which magnitude
response is almost flat in nature.

--Cutoff frequency: Frequency at which magnitude of the closed loop

response is 3db down from its zero frequency value.

-----Cutoff rate: slope of the resultant magnitude curve near the cutoff
frequency is called cutoff rate.

-----Resonant peak: Max value of magnitude of the closed loop frequency

response.Measure of relative stability of the system.

----Resonant frequency: Frequency at which resonant peak occurs in the

closed loop frequency response.
Gain cross over frequency: (ωgc):Frequency at which magnitude of
G(jω)H(jω) is unity.
Frequency at which magnitude of G(jω)H(jω) is 0 db is ωgc.

Phase cross over frequency:(ωpc) : Frequency at which phase angle

of G(jω)H(jω) is -180 deg .

Gain Margin: Gain margin is defined as the margin in gain allowable

by which gain can be increased till system reaches on the verge of
instability.

+ve gain margin---system is stable.

-ve gain margin---system is unstable.
Module 5
Digital Control Systems
• In control systems dealt so far—signal at every point in the system is a
continuous function of time.

• Controller elements are such that the controller produces continuous time
signals from continuous time input signals.—Analog controller.

• As complexity of a control system increases—arises severe demands of

flexibility ,adaptability & optimally & even demands to account for
economic control function complexity.

• Constructing a complex control function may even become technically

infeasible,if one is restricted to use only analog elements.
• Use of a digital computer as a compensator (controller) device has
grown during the past two decades as the price of digital computers
has reduced & their reliability has improved drastically.

• Powerful but inexpensive computers called microcomputers –16 bit

or 32 bit word have readily available.

• Computers can be equipped with sufficiently large memories to

handle a large amount of data in a complex control process.

• Speed has increased & today systems with speed as high as

300MHz are readily available.
• Besides these general purpose computers, many specific control
systems use embedded microcontroller ( 8 or 16 bit depending upon
complexity of the built in chip )as their heart.

• A digital controller in which either a special purpose computer or a

general purpose computer forms the heart ,is therefore choice for
complex control systems.

• A general purpose computer if used lends itself to time-shared use

for other control functions in the plant or process.

• Digital controllers used in digital control systems have the inherent

characteristics that they accept data as short duration pulses and
produce a similar kind of output as control signal.
• Typical system with digital controller diagram

A sampler & ADC is needed at the computer input. The

sampler converts the continuous time error signal into a
sequence of pulses which are then expressed in
numerical code.
Numerically coded o/p data of digital computer are
decoded into continuous time signal by DAC & hold ckt.
This continuous time signal then controls the plant.This
overall system is hybrid in which the signal is in sampled
form in the digital controller & in continuous form in rest
of system.
System of this kind is referred to as a sampled data control
system.
• Even in relatively simple control schemes, sampling may be
warranted from other considerations.

• Sampling is a necessity wherever a high degree of accuracy is a

prerequisite. Is the case in most automated machine tools.

• Eg—if it is required to move the table of a drilling machine within an

accuracy of 0.01mm over a distance of 1 m.resolution of 1 in
100,000 is needed which is impossible to measure using an analog
type,o/p transducer say a potentiometer.

• Sampled data technique is most appropriate for control systems

requiring long distances data transmission.
• Circumstances that lead to the use of sampled data control systems
are summarized below

• 1.For using digital computer(or MP) as part of the control loop.

• 2. For time sharing of control components.

• 3.Whenever a transmission channel forms part of the control loop.

• Whenever the o/p of a control component is essentially in discrete
form

Sampling implies that the signal at the o/p end of the sampler is
available in form of short duration pulses each followed by a skip
period when no signal is available so that the control system
essentially operates open loop during the skip period.
• Uniform periodic sampling is illustrated in fig.

• If the sampling rate is too low,significant information contained in the

i/p signal may be missed in the o/p.

• Minimum sampling rate has a definite relationship with the highest

significant signal frequency.

• Assuming sample width (time) as fixed,other forms of sampling are:

• Multi-order sampling: A particular sampling pattern is repeated

periodically.

• Multiple rate sampling : Two simultaneous sampling operations with

different time periods are carried out on the signal to produce the
sampled o/p.
• Random Sampling: Sampling instants are random with a particular
kind of distribution.

The mathematical model of a sampled –data control system is

essentially in the form of difference equations.

Analysis & design of sampled data systems with linear elements

may be effectively carried out by use of z transform.
 State Variable Analysis & Design:
several methods of analysis & design of feedback systems ----root locus &
frequency response methods.

Methods require---physical system be modelled in the form of a transfer

function.

Transfer function ---simple & powerful analysis,design techniques ,suffer

from certain drawbacks.---TF defined under zero initial conditions.
---limitation of TF---
TF model is only applicable to linear time invariant systems—SISO
systems—cumbersome in MIMO systems.

It reveals only the system o/p for a given i/p---provides no information

regarding internal state of system.
----situations: o/p of a system is stable & some of the elements may have
tendency to exceed their specified ratings.
Sometimes necessary & advantages to provide a feedback .
 Proportional to some internal variables of system.
• Classsical methods based on TF model are trial & error procedures. Difficult
to visualize& organize
.
• More general mathematical representation of a system which along with the
o/p, yields information about the state of the system
variables at some predetermined points along the flow of signals.
• Approach---state variable approach---direct time domain approach ----basis
for modern control theory & system optimization.

• Powerful technique for the analysis & design of linear & nonlinear time
invariant or time varying MIMO systems.

• Laplace transform is needed for continuous time & z transform is needed for
discrete time systems.

• Note: state variable approach can completely replace classical approach is

incorrect.
• B’coz classical approaches provide the control engineer with a deep
physical insight into the system & greatly aid the preliminary system
design .

• A complex system is approximated by a more manageable model.