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Chapter 01 - The Equity Method of Accounting for Investments – Hoyle, Schaefer, Doupnik, Fundamentals 7e
CHAPTER 1
THE EQUITY METHOD OF ACCOUNTING FOR INVESTMENTS
Chapter Outline
I. Four methods are principally used to account for an investment in equity securities along
with a fair value option.
A. Fair value method: applied by an investor when only a small percentage of a company’s
voting stock is held.
1. The investor recognizes income when the investee declares a dividend.
2. Portfolios are reported at fair value. If fair values are unavailable, investment is
reported at cost.
B. Cost Method: applied to investments without a readily determinable fair value. When the
fair value of an investment in equity securities is not readily determinable, and the
investment provides neither significant influence nor control, the investment may be
measured at cost. The investment remains at cost unless
1. A demonstrable impairment occurs for the investment, or
2. An observable price change occurs for identical or similar investments of the same
issuer.
The investor typically recognizes its share of investee dividends declared as dividend
income.
C. Consolidation: when one firm controls another (e.g., when a parent has a majority
interest in the voting stock of a subsidiary or control through variable interests, their
financial statements are consolidated and reported for the combined entity.
D. Equity method: applied when the investor has the ability to exercise significant influence
over operating and financial policies of the investee.
3. Ability to significantly influence investee is indicated by several factors including
representation on the board of directors, participation in policy-making, etc.
4. GAAP guidelines presume the equity method is applicable if 20 to 50 percent of the
outstanding voting stock of the investee is held by the investor.
Current financial reporting standards allow firms to elect to use fair value for any new
investment in equity shares including those where the equity method would otherwise apply.
However, the option, once taken, is irrevocable. The investor recognizes both investee
dividends and changes in fair value over time as income.
II. Accounting for an investment: the equity method

A. The investor adjusts the investment account to reflect all changes in the equity of the
investee company.
B. The investor accrues investee income when it is reported in the investee’s financial
statements.
C. Dividends declared by the investee create a reduction in the carrying amount of the
Investment account. This book assumes all investee dividends are declared and paid
in the same reporting period.
1-2
Copyright © 2021 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved.
No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 01 - The Equity Method of Accounting for Investments – Hoyle, Schaefer, Doupnik, Advanced Accounting,
14e
III. Special accounting procedures used in the application of the equity method
A. Reporting a change to the equity method when the ability to significantly influence an
investee is achieved through a series of acquisitions.
1. Initial purchase(s) will be accounted for by means of the fair value method (or at
cost) until the ability to significantly influence is attained.
2. When the ability to exercise significant influence occurs following a series of stock
purchases, the investor applies the equity method prospectively. The total fair value
at the date significant influence is attained is compared to the investee’s book value
to determine future excess fair value amortizations.
B. Investee income from other than continuing operations
1. The investor recognizes its share of investee reported other comprehensive income
(OCI) through the investment account and the investor’s own OCI.
2. Income items such as discontinued operations that are reported separately by the
investee should be shown in the same manner by the investor. The materiality of
these other investee income elements (as it affects the investor) continues to be a
criterion for separate disclosure.
C. Investee losses
1. Losses reported by the investee create corresponding losses for the investor.
2. A permanent decline in the fair value of an investee’s stock should be recognized
immediately by the investor as an impairment loss.
3. Investee losses can possibly reduce the carrying value of the investment account to
a zero balance. At that point, the equity method ceases to be applicable and the
fair-value method is subsequently used.
D. Reporting the sale of an equity investment
1. The investor applies the equity method until the disposal date to establish a proper
book value.
2. Following the sale, the equity method continues to be appropriate if enough shares
are still held to maintain the investor’s ability to significantly influence the investee.
If that ability has been lost, the fair-value method is subsequently used.
IV. Excess investment cost over book value acquired

A. The price an investor pays for equity securities often differs significantly from the
investee’s underlying book value primarily because the historical cost based
accounting model does not keep track of changes in a firm’s fair value.
B. Payments made in excess of underlying book value can sometimes be identified with
specific investee accounts such as inventory or equipment.
C. An extra acquisition price can also be assigned to anticipated benefits that are
expected to be derived from the investment. In accounting, these amounts are
presumed to reflect an intangible asset referred to as goodwill. Goodwill is calculated
as any excess payment that is not attributable to specific identifiable assets and
liabilities of the investee. Because goodwill is an indefinite-lived asset, it is not
amortized.
1-3
V. Deferral of intra-entity gross profit in inventory

A. The investor’s share of intra-entity profits in ending inventory are not recognized until
the transferred goods are either consumed or until they are resold to unrelated parties.
B. Downstream sales of inventory
1. “Downstream” refers to transfers made by the investor to the investee.
2. Intra-entity gross profits from sales are initially deferred under the equity method and
then recognized as income at the time of the inventory’s eventual disposal.
3. The amount of gross profit to be deferred is the investor’s ownership percentage
multiplied by the markup on the merchandise remaining at the end of the year.
C. Upstream sales of inventory
1. “Upstream” refers to transfers made by the investee to the investor.
2. Under the equity method, the deferral process for intra-entity gross profits is identical
for upstream and downstream transfers. The procedures are separately identified
in Chapter One because the handling does vary within the consolidation process.
Answers to Discussion Questions

The textbook includes discussion questions to stimulate student thought and discussion. These
questions are also designed to allow students to consider relevant issues that might otherwise be
overlooked. Some of these questions may be addressed by the instructor in class to motivate
student discussion. Students should be encouraged to begin by defining the issue(s) in each case.
Next, authoritative accounting literature (FASB ASC) or other relevant literature can be consulted
as a preliminary step in arriving at logical actions. Frequently, the FASB Accounting Standards
Codification will provide the necessary support.
Unfortunately, in accounting, definitive resolutions to financial reporting questions are not always
available. Students often seem to believe that all accounting issues have been resolved in the past
so that accounting education is only a matter of learning to apply historically prescribed procedures.
However, in actual practice, the only real answer is often the one that provides the fairest
representation of the firm’s transactions. If an authoritative solution is not available, students should
be directed to list all of the issues involved and the consequences of possible alternative actions.
The various factors presented can be weighed to produce a viable solution.
The discussion questions are designed to help students develop research and critical thinking skills
in addressing issues that go beyond the purely mechanical elements of accounting.
Did the Cost Method Invite Manipulation?

The cost method of accounting for investments often caused a lack of objectivity in reported income
figures. With a large block of the investee’s voting shares, an investor could influence the amount
and timing of the investee’s dividend declarations. Thus, when enjoying a good earnings year, an
investor might influence the investee to withhold declaring a dividend until needed in a subsequent
year. Alternatively, if the investor judged that its current year earnings “needed a boost,” it might
influence the investee to declare a current year dividend. The equity method effectively removes
managers’ ability to increase current income (or defer income to future periods) through their
influence over the timing and amounts of investee dividend declarations.
At first glance it may seem that the fair value method allows managers to manipulate income
because investee dividends are recorded as income by the investor. However, dividends paid
1-4
14e
typically are accompanied by a decrease in fair value (also recognized in income), thus leaving
reported net income unaffected.
Does the Equity Method Really Apply Here?

The discussion in the case between the two accountants is limited to the reason for the investment
acquisition and the current percentage of ownership. Instead, they should be examining the actual
interaction that currently exists between the two companies. Although the ability to exercise
significant influence over operating and financial policies appears to be a rather vague criterion,
ASC 323 "Investments—Equity Method and Joint Ventures," clearly specifies actual events that
indicate this level of authority (paragraph 323-10-15-6):
Ability to exercise that influence may be indicated in several ways, such as representation on the
board of directors, participation in policy-making processes, material intra-entity transactions,
interchange of managerial personnel, or technological dependency. Another important
consideration is the extent of ownership by an investor in relation to the concentration of other
shareholdings, but substantial or majority ownership of the voting stock of an investee company by
another investor does not necessarily preclude the ability to exercise significant influence by the
investor.
In this case, the accountants would be wise to determine whether Dennis Bostitch or any other
member of the Highland Laboratories administration is participating in the management of
Abraham, Inc. If any individual from Highland's organization is on Abraham’s board of directors or
is participating in management decisions, the equity method would seem to be appropriate.
Likewise, if significant transactions have occurred between the companies (such as loans by
Highland to Abraham), the ability to apply significant influence becomes much more evident.
However, if James Abraham continues to operate Abraham, Inc., with little or no regard for
Highland, the equity method should not be applied. This possibility seems especially likely in this
case since one stockholder, James Abraham, continues to hold a majority (2/3) of the voting stock.
Thus, evidence of the ability to apply significant influence must be present before the equity method
is viewed as applicable. The mere holding of 1/3 of the stock is not conclusive.
1-5
Answers to Questions
1. Through its voting rights over an investee, an investor firm can elect members to the investee’s
board of directors and thus exercise power over the strategic direction of the investee in ways
that align with the investor’s own operating and financial interests.
2. An investor should apply the equity method when it has the ability to exercise significant
influence over the operating and financial policies of the investee. However, if the investor
controls the investee, consolidating the financial information of the two companies will normally
be the appropriate method for reporting the investment.
3. For equity securities without readily determinable fair values, ASC 321 allows the cost method
for the investment asset. The investor recognizes dividend income for its share of investee
dividends declared. Under the cost method, the investment account remains at cost unless
there is (a) a demonstrable impairment or (b) observable price changes for identical or similar
investments of the same issuer.
4. According to FASB ASC paragraph 323-10-15-6 "Ability to exercise that influence may be
indicated in several ways, such as representation on the board of directors, participation in
policy-making processes, material intra-entity transactions, interchange of managerial
personnel, or technological dependency. Another important consideration is the extent of
ownership by an investor in relation to the extent of ownership of other shareholdings." The
most objective of the criteria established by the Board is that holding (either directly or indirectly)
20 percent or more of the outstanding voting stock is presumed to constitute the ability to hold
significant influence over the decision-making process of the investee.
5. Dividends received from an investee reduce the investment account. The investor does not
record such dividends as revenue, to avoid reporting the income from the investee twice. The
equity method is appropriate when an investor has the ability to exercise significant influence
over the operating and financing decisions of an investee. Because dividends represent
financing decisions, the investor may have the ability to influence dividend timing. If investors
recorded dividends received as income, managers could affect reported income in a way that
does not reflect actual performance. Therefore, in reflecting the close relationship between the
investor and investee, the equity method employs accrual accounting to record income when
reported by the investee. The investor increases its investment account for the investor’s share
of the investee’s net income and then decreases the investment accounts as the investee
distributes its net income through dividends. From the investor’s view, the decrease in the
investment asset (from investee dividends) is offset by an immediate increase in dividends
receivable and an eventual increase in cash.
6. If Jones cannot significantly influence the operating and financial policies of Sandridge, the
equity method should not be applied regardless of the ownership level. However, an owner of
25 percent of a company's outstanding common stock is assumed to possess this ability. This
presumption stands until overcome by predominant evidence to the contrary.
Examples of indications that an investor may be unable to exercise significant influence over
the operating and financial policies of an investee include (ASC 323-10-15-10):
a. Opposition by the investee, such as litigation or complaints to governmental regulatory
authorities, challenges the investor's ability to exercise significant influence.
b. The investor and investee sign an agreement under which the investor surrenders significant
rights as a shareholder.
1-6
14e
c. Majority ownership of the investee is concentrated among a small group of shareholders

who operate the investee without regard to the views of the investor.
d. The investor needs or wants more financial information to apply the equity method than is
available to the investee's other shareholders (for example, the investor wants quarterly
financial information from an investee that publicly reports only annually), tries to obtain that
information, and fails.
e. The investor tries and fails to obtain representation on the investee's board of directors.
7. The following events necessitate changes in this investment account.

a. Net income earned by Watts would be reflected by an increase in the investment balance
whereas a reported loss is shown as a reduction to that same account.
b. Dividends declared by the investee decrease its book value, thus requiring a corresponding
reduction to be recorded in the investment balance.
c. If, in the initial acquisition price, Smith paid extra amounts because specific investee assets
and liabilities had values differing from their book values, amortization of this portion of the
investment account is subsequently required. As an exception, if the specific asset is land
or goodwill, amortization is not appropriate.
d. Intra-entity gross profits created by sales between the investor and the investee must be
deferred until resale to outside parties or consumed by the purchasing affiliate. The initial
deferral entry made by the investor reduces the investment balance while the eventual
recognition of the gross profit increases this account.
8. The equity method has been criticized because it allows the investor to recognize income that
may not be received in any usable form in the foreseeable future. The investor accrues income
based on the investee's reported earnings, not on the investor’s share of investee dividends.
Frequently, equity income will exceed the investor’s share of investee cash dividends with no
assurance that the difference will ever be forthcoming.
Many companies have contractual provisions (e.g., debt covenants, managerial compensation
contracts) based on ratios in the main body of the financial statements. Relative to consolidation,
a firm employing the equity method will report smaller values for assets and liabilities.
Consequently, higher rates of return for its assets and sales, as well as lower debt-to-equity
ratios may result. Meeting such contractual provisions of may provide managers incentives to
maintain technical eligibility for the equity method rather than full consolidation.
9. Accounting standards require that an investor treat a change to the equity method prospectively.
Any new investment (or other investor or investee activity) that provides significant influence
requires application of the equity method. At the date the investor’s influence becomes
significant, the investor prepares an investment fair value allocation schedule. The resulting
excess fair over book value amortizations serve to compute future equity in investee earnings.
10. In reporting equity earnings for the current year, Riggins must separate its accrual into two
components: (1) net income and (2) other comprehensive income or loss. This handling enables
the reader of the investor's financial statements to assess the nature of the change to the
investment account.
11. Under the equity method, losses are recognized by an investor at the time that they are reported
by the investee. However, because of the conservatism inherent in accounting, any permanent
losses in value should also be recorded immediately. Because the investee's stock has suffered
a permanent impairment in this question, the investor recognizes the loss applicable to its
investment.
1-7
12. Following the guidelines established by the ASC, Wilson would recognize an equity loss of
$120,000 (40 percent) stemming from Andrews' reported loss. However, since the book value
of this investment is only $100,000, Wilson's loss is limited to that amount with the remaining
$20,000 omitted. The investor will record subsequent income based on investee dividends. If
Andrews is ever able to generate sufficient future profits to offset the total unrecognized losses,
the investor will revert to the equity method.
13. In accounting, goodwill is derived as a residual figure. It is the investor's cost in excess of its
share of the fair value of the investee assets and liabilities. Although a portion of the acquisition
price may represent either goodwill or valuation adjustments to specific identifiable investee
assets and liabilities, the investor records the entire cost in a single investment account. No
separate identification of the cost components is made in the reporting process. Subsequently,
the cost figures attributed to specific accounts (having a limited life), besides goodwill and other
indefinite life assets, are amortized based on their anticipated lives. This amortization reduces
the investment and the accrued income in future years.
14. On June 19, Princeton removes the portion of this investment account that has been sold and
recognizes the resulting gross profit or loss. For proper valuation purposes, the equity method
is applied (based on the 40 percent ownership) from the beginning of Princeton's fiscal year
until June 19. Princeton's method of accounting for any remaining shares after June 19 will
depend upon the degree of influence that is retained. If Princeton still has the ability to
significantly influence the operating and financial policies of Yale, the equity method continues
to be appropriate based on the reduced percentage of ownership. Conversely, if Princeton no
longer holds this ability, the fair-value method becomes applicable, based on the remaining
equity value after the sale.
15. Downstream sales occur when an investor sells to the investee while upstream sales are from
the investee to the investor. These titles reflect the traditional positions given to the two parties
when presented on an organization-type chart. Under the equity method, no accounting
distinction exists between downstream and upstream sales. Separate presentation is made in
this chapter only because the distinction becomes significant in the consolidation process as
demonstrated in Chapter Five.
16. The portion of an intra-entity gross profit is computed based on the markup on any transferred
inventory retained by the buyer at year's end. The markup percentage (based on sales price)
multiplied by the intra-entity ending inventory gives the seller’s profit remaining in the buyer’s
ending inventory. The product of the ownership percentage and this profit figure is the investor’s
share of gross profit from the intra-entity transaction. The investor defers this gross profit in the
recognition of equity earnings until subsequently recognized following use or resale to an
unrelated party.
17. Intra-entity transfers do not affect the financial reporting of the investee except that the related
party transactions must be appropriately disclosed and labeled.
18. Under fair value accounting, firms report the investment’s fair value as an asset and changes
in fair value as earnings. Dividends from an investee are included in earnings under the fair
value accounting. Dividends are not recognized in income but instead reduce the investment
account under the equity method. Also, under the equity method, firms recognize their
ownership share of investee profits adjusted for excess cost amortizations and intra-entity
profits.
1-8
14e
Answers to Problems
1. D
2. B
3. C
4. B
5. D
6. B Acquisition price ........................................................................... $2,295,000

Equity income ($750,000 × 30%) .................................................. 225,000
Dividends (90,000 shares × $1.00)................................................ (90,000)
Investment in O’Fallon as of December 31.................................. $2.430,000
7. A Acquisition price ............................................................................. $700,000

Income accruals: 2020—$170,000 × 20%....................................... 34,000
2021—$210,000 × 20% ...................................... 42,000
Amortization (see below): 2020 ...................................................... (10,000)
Amortization: 2021 .......................................................................... (10,000)
Dividends: 2020—$70,000 × 20% ................................................... (14,000)
2021—$70,000 × 20% .................................................... (14,000)
Investment in Martes, December 31, 2021 ..................................... $728,000
Acquisition price of Martes............................................................. $700,000

Acquired net assets (book value) ($3,000,000 × 20%) ................. (600,000)
Excess cost over book value to patent ......................................... $100,000
Annual amortization (10 year remaining life) ............................... $10,000
8. B Purchase price of Johnson stock .................. $500,000

Book value of Johnson ($900,000 × 40%)...... (360,000)
Cost in excess of book value .................... $140,000
Remaining Annual
Payment identified with undervalued ............ life amortization
Building ($140,000 × 40%) ......................... 56,000 7 yrs. $8,000
Trademark ($210,000 × 40%) ..................... 84,000 10 yrs. 8,400
Total ................................................................. $ -0- $16,400
1-9
8. (continued)
Investment purchase price ............................................ $500,000

Basic income accrual ($90,000 × 40%) .................... 36,000
Amortization (above) ................................................. (16,400)
Dividends declared ($30,000 × 40%) ........................ (12,000)
Investment in Johnson ................................................... $507,600
9. D The 2020 purchase is reported using the equity method.
Purchase price of Evan stock......................................................... $600,000

Book value of Evan stock ($1,200,000 × 40%) ............................... (480,000)
Goodwill ........................................................................................... $120,000
Life of goodwill ................................................................................ indefinite
Annual amortization ........................................................................ (-0-)
Cost on January 1, 2020 ................................................................. $600,000

2020 Income accrued ($140,000 x 40%) ......................................... 56,000
2020 Dividend ($50,000 × 40%) ....................................................... (20,000)
2021 Income accrued ($140,000 × 40%) ......................................... 56,000
2021 Dividend ($50,000 × 40%) ....................................................... (20,000)
2022 Income accrued ($140,000 × 40%) ......................................... 56,000
2022 Dividend ($50,000 × 40%) ....................................................... (20,000)
Investment in Evan, 12/31/22..................................................... $708,000
10. D
11. A Gross profit rate (GPR): $15,000 ÷ $75,000 = 20%

Inventory remaining at year-end .................................................... $30,000
GPR................................................................................................... × 20%
Gross profit................................................................................. $6,000
Ownership ........................................................................................ × 35%
Intra-entity gross profit—deferred ............................................ $ 2,100
1-10
14e
12. B Purchase price of Steinbart shares ............................................... $530,000

Book value of Steinbart shares ($1,200,000 × 40%)...................... (480,000)
Trade name ...................................................................................... $ 50,000
Remaining life of trade name.......................................................... 20 years
Annual amortization ........................................................................ $ 2,500
2020 Gross profit rate = $30,000 ÷ $100,000 = 30%
2021 Gross profit rate = $54,000 ÷ $150,000 = 36%
2021—Equity income in Steinbart:
Income accrual ($110,000 × 40%) ................................................... $44,000
Amortization (above) ....................................................................... (2,500)
Recognition of 2020 deferred gross profit
($25,000 × 30% GPR × 40% ownership) .................................... 3,000
Deferral of 2021 intra-entity gross profit
($45,000 × 36% GPR × 40% ownership ..................................... (6,480)
Equity income in Steinbart—2021 ............................................ $38,020
13. (6 minutes) (Investment account after one year)

Purchase price ..................................................................................... $1,160,000
Basic 2021 equity accrual ($260,000 × 40%) ..................................... 104,000
Amortization of copyright:
Excess payment ($1,160,000 – $820,000 = $340,000)
to copyright allocated over 10 year remaining life .................. (34,000)
Dividends (50,000 × 40%) .................................................................... (20,000)
Investment account balance at year end ........................................... $1,210,000
14. (7 minutes)
a. Purchase price ................................................................................. $2,290,000
Equity income accrual ($720,000 × 35%) ....................................... 252,000
Other comprehensive loss accrual ($100,000 × 35%)................... (35,000)
Dividends (20,000 × 35%) ................................................................ (7,000)
Investment in Steel at December 31, 2021 .................................... $2,500,000
b. Equity income of Steel = $252,000 (does not include OCI share which is
reported separately).
1-11
15. (15 minutes) (Investment account after 2 years)

a. Acquisition price ................................................................................. $2,700,000
Book value acquired ($5,175,000 × 20%) ........................................... 1,035,000
Excess payment .................................................................................. $1,665,000
Excess fair value: Computing equipment ($700,000 × 20%) ........ 140,000
Excess fair value: Patented technology ($3,900,000 × 20%) ........ 780,000
Excess fair value: Trademark ($1,850,000 × 20%) ........................ 370,000
Goodwill ............................................................................................... $ 375,000
Amortization:
Computing equipment ($140,000 ÷ 7) ....................................... $ 20,000
Patented technology ($780,000 ÷ 3) .......................................... 260,000
Trademark (indefinite)................................................................ -0-
Goodwill (indefinite) ................................................................... -0-
Annual amortization ........................................................................ $280,000
b. Basic equity accrual 2020 ($1,800,000 × 20%) .................................. $360,000

Amortization—2020 (above) ............................................................... (280,000)
Equity in 2020 earnings of Sauk Trail ................................................ $ 80,000
Basic equity accrual 2021 ($1,985,000 × 20%) .................................. $397,000

Amortization—2021 (above) ............................................................... (280,000)
Equity in 2021 earnings of Sauk Trail ................................................ $117,000
c. Acquisition price ................................................................................. $2,700,000

Equity in 2020 earnings of Sauk Trail (above) .................................. 80,000
Dividends—2020 ($150,000 × 20%) .................................................... (30,000)
Investment in Sauk Trail, 12/31/20 ..................................................... $2,750,000

Equity in 2021 earnings of Sauk Trail (above) .................................. $117,000
Dividends—2021 ($160,000 × 20%) .................................................... (32,000)
1-12
14e
16. (10 minutes) (Investment account after 2 years with fair value accounting
included)
a. Acquisition price ................................................................................. $60,000
Book value—assets minus liabilities ($125,000 × 40%) ............... 50,000
Excess payment ......................................................................... $10,000
Value of patent in excess of book value ($15,000 × 40%) ............ 6,000
Goodwill ........................................................................................... $ 4,000
Amortization:
Patent ($6,000 ÷ 6) ...................................................................... $1,000
Goodwill ...................................................................................... -0-
Annual amortization ............................................................. $1,000
Acquisition price ............................................................................. $60,000
Basic equity accrual 2020 ($30,000 × 40%) ................................... 12,000
Dividends—2020 ($10,000 × 40%) .................................................. (4,000)
Amortization—2020 (above) ........................................................... (1,000)
Investment in Holister, 12/31/20 ..................................................... $67,000
Basic equity accrual —2021 ($50,000 × 40%) ................................ 20,000
Dividends—2021 ($15,000 x 40%) .................................................. (6,000)
Amortization—2021 (above) ........................................................... (1,000)
Investment in Holister, 12/31/21 ..................................................... $80,000
b. Dividend income ($15,000 × 40%) .................................................. $6,000
Increase in fair value ($75,000 – $68,000) ...................................... 7,000
Investment income under fair value accounting—2021 ............... $13,000
17. (10 minutes) (Equity entries for one year, includes intra-entity transfers but no
gross profit deferral)
Purchase price of Burks stock ....................................................... $210,000

Book value of Burks stock ($360,000 × 40%) ................................ (144,000)
Unidentified asset (goodwill) .......................................................... $ 66,000
Life .................................................................................................... indefinite
Annual amortization ........................................................................ $ -0-
No intra-entity profit exists at year’s end because all of the transferred

merchandise was used during the period.
1-13
17. (continued)
Investment in Burks, Inc. .......................................... 210,000

Cash (or a Liability) .............................................. 210,000
To record acquisition of a 40 percent interest in Burks.
Investment in Burks, Inc. .......................................... 32,000

Equity in Investee Income ................................... 32,000
To recognize 40 percent income earned during period by Burks, an equity
method investment.
Dividend Receivable .................................................. 10,000

Investment in Burks, Inc. ..................................... 10,000
To record investee dividend declaration.
Cash ............................................................................ 10,000

Dividend Receivable. ........................................... 10,000
To record collection of dividend from investee.
18. (25 Minutes) (Equity entries for one year, includes prospective application of
equity method)
JANUARY 1, 2021 (Date significant influence is attained)
Purchase price of 30% of Seida’s stock ...................................... $600,000
Fair value of original 10% investment in Seida ........................... 200,000
Total fair value of 40% investment in Seida ................................ 800,000
Book value of Seida stock ($1,850,000 × 40%) ............................ (740,000)
Fair value in excess of book value............................................... $ 60,000
Excess cost assigned to undervalued land
($120,000 × 40%)....................................................................... (48,000)
Trademark ...................................................................................... $ 12,000
Remaining life of Trademark ........................................................ 8 years
Annual Amortization ..................................................................... $ 1,500
Journal Entries:
To record acquisition of Seida stock.
Investment in Seida ................................................... 600,000
Cash ...................................................................... 600,000
Investment in Seida ................................................... 120,000

Equity in Investee Income ................................... 120,000
To record income for the year: 40% of the $300,000 reported income.
1-14
14e
Equity in Investee Income ........................................ 1,500

Investment in Seida ............................................. 1,500
To record 2021 amortization.
Dividend Receivable .................................................. 44,000

Investment in Seida ............................................. 44,000
To record dividend declaration from Seida (40% of $110,000).
Cash ............................................................................ 44,000

Dividend Receivable. ........................................... 44,000
To record collection of dividend from investee.
19. (7 minutes) (Deferral of intra-entity gross profit)
Ending inventory ($200,000 – $85,000) ............................................... $115,000

Gross profit percentage (GP $80,000 ÷ Sales $200,000).................... × 40%
Gross profit on sale to Eckerle ............................................................ $46,000
Ownership ............................................................................................. × 30%
Intra-entity gross profit—deferred....................................................... $13,800
Entry to Defer Intra-entity Gross Profit:
Equity in Investee Income ............................................ 13,800

Investment in Eckerle .............................................. 13,800
20. (10 minutes) (Reporting of equity income and transfers)
a. Equity in investee income:

Equity income accrual ($100,000 × 25%) .................................. $25,000
Less: deferral of intra-entity gross profit (below) .................. (3,000)
Less: patent amortization (given) ............................................ (10,000)
Equity in investee income .................................................... $12,000
Deferral of intra-entity gross profit:

Remaining inventory—end of year ...................................... $32,000
Gross profit percentage (GP $30,000 ÷ Sales $80,000)...... × 37½%
Profit within remaining inventory ........................................ $12,000
Ownership percentage ......................................................... × 25%
Intra-entity gross profit deferral .................................................... $ 3,000
1-15
b. In 2021, the deferral of $3,000 can be recognized by BuyCo’s use or sale of

this inventory. Thus, the equity accrual for 2021 will be increased by $3,000
in that year. Recognition of this amount is simply being delayed from 2020
until 2021, the year when the goods are sold to customers outside the
affiliated entity.
c. The direction (upstream versus downstream) of the intra-entity transfer

does not affect the above answers. However, as discussed in Chapter Five,
a controlling interest calls for a 100% gross profit deferral for downstream
intra-entity transfers. In the presence of only signification influence,
however, equity method accounting is identical regardless of whether an
intra-entity transfer is upstream or downstream.
21. (25 minutes) (Equity method with a subsequent partial investment sale)
Equity method income accrual for 2021

25 percent of $600,000 for ½ year = ...................................... $ 75,000
21 percent of $600,000 for ½ year = ...................................... 63,000
Total income accrual (no amortization or deferred gross profit) ........ $138,000
Gain on sale (below) ........................................................................ 32,000
Total income statement effect–2021 ................................................ $170,000
Gain on sale of 12,000 shares of Sedgwick:

Cost of initial acquisition—2019 ..................................................... $1,480,000
25% income accrual—2019 .............................................................. 85,000
25% of dividends—2019 ................................................................... (30,000)
25% income accrual—2020 .............................................................. 120,000
25% of dividends—2020 ................................................................... (35,000)
25% income accrual for ½ year—2021 ............................................ 75,000
25% of dividends for ½ year—2021................................................. (20,000)
Book value of 75,000 shares on July 1, 2021 ........................... $1,675,000
Cash proceeds from the sale: 12,000 shares × $25 ......................... $300,000
Less: book value of shares sold: $1,675,000 × (12,000 ÷ 75,000) ..... 268,000
Gain on sale ................................................................................. $ 32,000
1-16
14e
22. (25 minutes) (Verbal overview of equity method.
a. In 2020, the fair-value method was appropriate. Thus, income recognized

includes dividends declared and the change in the investment’s fair value.
b. The assumption is that Echo’ level of ownership now provides the company
with the ability to exercise significant influence over the operating and
financial policies of ProForm. Factors that indicate such a level of influence
are described in the textbook and include representation on the investee’s
board of directors, material intra-entity transactions, and interchange of
managerial personnel.
c. Despite holding 25 percent of ProForm’s outstanding stock, the equity

method is inappropriate absent the ability to apply significant influence.
Factors indicating a lack of such influence include: an agreement whereby
the owner surrenders significant rights, a concentration of the remaining
ownership, and failure to gain representation on the board of directors.
d. The equity method attempts to reflect the relationship between the investor
and the investee in two ways. First, the investor recognizes investment
income as soon as it is earned by the investee. Second, the Investment
account reported by the investor is increased and decreased to indicate
changes in the underlying book value of the investee.
e. Criticisms of the equity method include

▪ its emphasis on the 20-50% of voting stock in determining significant
influence vs. control
▪ allowing off-balance sheet financing
▪ potential biasing of performance ratios
Relative to consolidation, the equity method will report smaller amounts for
assets, liabilities, revenues and expenses. However, income is typically the
same as reported under consolidation. Therefore, companies that use the
equity method, and avoid consolidation, often show enhanced debt-to
equity ratios, as well as ratios for returns on assets and sales.
f. When an investor buys enough additional shares to gain the ability to exert
significant influence, accounting for any shares previously owned must be
adjusted to the equity method on a prospective basis.
g. The price paid for each purchase is first compared to the equivalent book
value on the date of acquisition. Any excess payment is then assigned to
specific assets and liabilities based on differences between book value and
fair value. If any residual amount of the purchase price remains
unexplained, it is assigned to goodwill.
1-17
22. (continued)
h. Investee dividends reduce its book value. Because the investor’s

Investment account tracks the investee’s book value, Echo records the
dividend as a reduction in its Investment account. This method of recording
also avoids double-counting of the revenue since the investor has already
recorded the amount when earned by the investee. Under the equity
method, revenues are recognized when earned by the investee but not
through dividends as a distribution of the same earnings.
i. The Investment account will show the costs to obtain ownership of

ProForm. In addition, an equity accrual equal to 10 percent of the investee’s
income for 2020 and 25 percent for 2021 is included. The investment
balance will be reduced by 10 percent of any of ProForm’s dividends during
2020 and 25 percent for 2021 dividends. Finally, the Investment account will
be decreased by any amortization expense for both 2020 and 2021.
23. (20 minutes) (Verbal overview of intra-entity transfers and their impact on
application of the equity method)
a. An upstream transfer goes from investee to investor whereas a

downstream transfer is made by the investor to the investee.
b. The direction of an intra-entity transfer has no impact on reporting when

the equity method is applied. The direction of the transfers was introduced
in Chapter One because it does have an important impact on consolidation
accounting as explained in Chapter Five.
c. To determine the intra-entity gross profit when applying the equity method,
the transferred inventory that remains at year’s end is multiplied by the
gross profit percentage. This computation derives the gross profit. The
intra-entity portion of this gross profit is found by multiplying it by the
percentage of the investee that is owned by the investor.
d. Parrot, as the investor, will accrue 42 percent of the income reported by

Sunrise. However, this equity income will then be reduced by the amount of
the investor’s share of the intra-entity gross profit. These amounts can be
combined and recorded as a single entry, increasing both the Investment
account and an Equity Income account. As an alternative, separate entries
can be made. The equity accrual is added to these two accounts while the
deferral of the intra-entity gross profit serves as a reduction.
1-18
14e
23. (continued)
e. In the second year, Parrot again records an equity accrual for 42 percent of
the income reported by Sunrise. The intra-entity portion gross profit
created by the transfers for that year are delayed in the same manner as for
2020 in (d) above. However, for 2021, the gross profit deferred from 2020
must now be recognized. This transferred merchandise was sold during
this second year so that the earnings process has now been culminated.
f. If none of the transferred merchandise remains at year-end, the intra-entity

transactions create no impact on the recording of the investment when
applying the equity method. No gross profit remains unrecognized.
g. The intra-entity transfers create no direct effects for Sunrise, the investee.
However, as related party transactions, the amounts, as well as the
relationship, must be properly disclosed and labeled.
24. (15 minutes) (Verbal overview of the sale of a portion of an investment being
reported on the equity method and the accounting for any shares that remain)
a. The equity method must be applied up to the date of the sale. Therefore, for
the current year until August 1, Einstein records an equity accrual
recognizing 40 percent of Brooks’ reported income for that period. In
addition, Einstein records any dividends declared by Brooks as a reduction
in the carrying amount of the investment account. Finally, amortization of
acquisition-date excess fair over book values are recorded through August
1. These entries establish an appropriate book value as of the date of sale.
Then, an amount of that book value equal to the portion of the shares sold
is removed to compute a gain or loss on sale.
b. Subsequent accounting for the remaining shares depends on the influence

retained post-sale. If Einstein maintains the ability to apply significant
influence to the operating and financial decisions of Brooks, the equity
method is still applicable based on the smaller new ownership percentage.
However, if significant influence has been lost, Einstein should report the
remaining shares by means of the fair-value method.
c. In this situation, three figures would be reported by Einstein. First, an equity

income balance is recorded that includes both the accrual and amortization
prior to August 1. Second, a gain or loss should be shown for the sale of the
shares. Third, any investee dividends declared after August 1 must be
included in Einstein’s income statement as dividend revenue.
1-19
24. (continued)
d. No, the ability to apply significant influence to the investee was present
prior to August 1 so that the equity method was appropriate. No change is
made in those figures. However, after the sale, the remaining investment
must be accounted for by means of the fair-value method.
25. (12 minutes) (Equity balances for one year includes intra-entity transfers)
a. Equity income accrual—2021 ($90,000 × 30%) ......................... $27,000

Amortization—2021 (given) ........................................................ (9,000)
Intra-entity profit recognized on 2020 transfer*........................ 1,200
Intra-entity profit deferred on 2021 transfer** ........................... (2,640)
Equity income recognized by Matthew in 2021 ................... $16,560
*Gross profit rate (GPR) on 2020 transfer ($16,000/$40,000) ... 40%

Intra-entity gross profit:
Remaining inventory (40,000 × 25%) .................................... $10,000
GPR (above) ........................................................................... × 40%
Ownership percentage .......................................................... × 30%
Intra-entity profit deferred from 2020 until 2021 ................. $ 1,200
**GPR on 2021 transfer ($22,000/$50,000) ................................. 44%

Intra-entity gross profit:
Remaining inventory (50,000 × 40%) .................................... $20,000
GPR (above) ........................................................................... × 44%
Ownership percentage .......................................................... × 30%
Intra-entity profit deferred from 2021 until 2022 ................. $ 2,640
b. Investment in Lindman, 1/1/21 ................................................... $335,000

Equity income—2021 (see [a] above) ........................................ 16,560
Dividends—2021 ($30,000 × 30%) .............................................. (9,000)
Investment in Lindman, 12/31/21 ............................................... $342,560
1-20
14e
26. (20 Minutes) (Equity method including prospective application; Allocate

investment cost and calculate amortization expense; Fair-value accounting)
Part a
Allocation and annual amortization—12/31/20

Purchase price of 25% interest .................................................. $95,000
Carrying amount of 5% interest (5% × $380,000)...................... 19,000
Total fair value of Akron’s investment in Zip ...................... 114,000
Net book value ($290,000 × 30%) ............................................... (87,000)
Franchise agreements ................................................................ $27,000
Remaining life of franchise agreements ................................... ÷ 10 years
Annual amortization .............................................................. $ 2,700
1. Equity Income—2021
2021 basic equity income accrual ($88,000 × 30%) .................. $26,400
2021 amortization (above) .......................................................... (2,700)
Equity income—2021 ............................................................. $23,700
2. Investment in Zip account

December 31, 2020 total fair value............................................. $114,000
2021 basic equity income (above) ............................................. 23,700
2021 dividends ($15,000 × 30%) ................................................. (4,500)
Investment in Zip—December 31, 2021................................ $133,200
Part b
1. Dividend income (30% × 15,000) ............................................... $ 4,500

Increase in fair value (30% × [$480,000 - $380,000]) ................. 30,000
Total reported income from Investment in Zip .................... $34,500
2. Investment in Zip (30% × 480,000) ............................................. $144,000
1-21
27. (30 minutes) (Equity method, sale of investment, and intra-entity gross profit)
Part a
Allocation and annual amortization
Purchase price of 30 percent interest ....................................... $312,000
Net book value ($800,000 × 30%) ........................................... (240,000)
Copyright ..................................................................................... $ 72,000
Remaining life of Copyright ............................................................. ÷ 16 yrs.
Annual Amortization ........................................................................ $ 4,500
Equity income—2020
2020 basic equity income accrual ($180,000 × 30%) ..................... $54,000
2020 excess fair over book value amortization (above) ................ (4,500)
Equity income—2020 .................................................................. $49,500
Equity income 2021

2021 basic equity income accrual ($230,000 × 30%) ................ $69,000
2021 excess fair over book value amortization (above)........... (4,500)
Equity income 2021 .......................................................................... $64,500
Part b
Investment in Sheffield
Purchase price—January 1, 2020.................................................... $312,000
2020 equity income (above) ....................................................... 49,500
2020 dividends ($70,000 × 30%) ................................................. (21,000)
2021 equity income above .......................................................... 64,500
2021 dividends ($80,000 × 30%) ................................................. (24,000)
Investment in Sheffield—12/31/21 ................................................... $381,000
Gain on sale of investment in Sheffield

Sales price (given) ...................................................................... $400,000
Book value 1/1/22 (above) .......................................................... (381,000)
Gain on sale of investment ................................................... $ 19,000
1-22
14e
Problem 27 continued:
Part c
2020 intra-entity gross profit to be recognized in 2021

Ending inventory ......................................................................... $20,000
Gross profit percentage ($20,000 ÷ $50,000) ............................ × 40%
Intra-entity gross profit ......................................................... $8,000
Belden’s ownership .................................................................... × 30%
Intra-entity gross profit recognized in 2021 ........................ $ 2,400
Deferral of 2021 intra-entity ending inventory gross profit into 2022

Ending inventory ......................................................................... $40,000
Gross profit percentage ($27,000 ÷ $60,000) ............................ × 45%
Intra-entity gross profit ......................................................... $18,000
Belden’s ownership .................................................................... × 30%
Intra-entity gross profit deferred .......................................... $ 5,400
Equity Income—2021
2021 equity income (part a above) ............................................. $64,500
Recognition of 2020 intra-entity profit (part c above) .............. 2,400
Deferral of 2021 intra-entity profit (part c above) ..................... (5,400)
Equity Income—2021 ............................................................. $61,500
1-23
28. (25 Minutes) (Preparation of journal entries for two years, includes losses and
intra-entity transfers of inventory)
Journal Entries for Harper Co.
1/1/20 Investment in Kinman Co. ............ 210,000

Cash ......................................... 210,000
(To record initial investment)
During Dividends Receivable ................... 4,000

2020 Investment in Kinman Co. ...... 4,000
(To record dividend declaration: $10,000 x 40%)
Cash ............................................... 4,000

Dividends Receivable ............. 4,000
(To record receipt of dividend)
12/31/20 Equity in Investee Income ............ 16,000

Other Comprehensive Loss of Kinman 8,000
Investment in Kinman Co. ...... 24,000
(To record accrual of income and OCI from
equity investee, 40% of reported balances)

(To record amortization relating to acquisition
of Kinman—see Schedule 1 below)
1-24
14e
28. (continued)

(To defer Harper’s share of gross profit on intra-entity
sale, see Schedule 2 below)
During Dividends Receivable ................... 4,800

2021 Investment in Kinman Co. ...... 4,800
(To record dividend declaration: $12,000 x 40%)
Cash ............................................... 4,800

Dividends Receivable.............. 4,800
(To record receipt of dividend)

Equity in Investee Income ...... 16,000
(To record 40% accrual of income as earned by
equity investee)

(To record amortization relating to acquisition
of Kinman)

Equity in Investee Income ...... 2,000
(To recognize income deferred from 2020)

(To defer Harper’s share of gross profit on intra-entity
sale—see Schedule 3 below)
1-25
28. (continued)
Schedule 1—Allocation of Purchase Price and Related Amortization
Purchase price ........................................................ $210,000

Percentage of book value acquired
($400,000 × 40%)..................................................... (160,000)
Payment in excess of book value .............................. $50,000
Remaining Annual
Excess payment identified with specific assets: Life Amortization
Building ($40,000 × 40%) $16,000 10 yrs. $1,600
Royalty agreement ($85,000 × 40%) 34,000 20 yrs. 1,700
Total annual amortization $3,300
Schedule 2—Deferral of Intra-entity Gross Profit—2020
Inventory remaining at end of year ................................................. $15,000

Gross profit percentage ($30,000 ÷ $90,000) .................................. × 33⅓%
Gross profit remaining in inventory .......................................... $5,000
Ownership percentage ..................................................................... × 40%
Intra-entity gross profit to be deferred until 2021 .................... $ 2,000
Schedule 3—Deferral of Intra-entity Gross Profit—2021
Inventory remaining at end of year (30%) ...................................... $24,000

Gross profit percentage ($30,000 ÷ $80,000) .................................. × 37½%
Gross profit remaining in inventory .......................................... $9,000
Ownership percentage ..................................................................... × 40%
Intra-entity gross profit to be deferred until 2022 .................... $ 3,600
1-26
14e
29. (35 Minutes) (Investment sale with equity method applied both before and
after. Includes other comprehensive loss and intra-entity inventory transfer)
Income effects for year ending December 31, 2021

Equity income in Seacrest, Inc. (Schedule 1) ........................... $116,000
Other comprehensive loss—Seacrest, Inc.

1/1/21 to 8/1/21 ($120,000 × 40% × 7/12 year) ............. . (28,000)
8/1/21 to 12/31/21 ($120,000 × 32% × 5/12 year) ......... (16,000) $(44,000)
Gain on sale of 8,000 shares of Seacrest (Schedule 2) ................. $ 25,000
Schedule 1—Equity Income in Seacrest, Inc.
Investee income accrual—operations

$342,000 × 40% × 7/12 year.................................... $79,800
$342,000 × 32% × 5/12 year.................................... 45,600 $125,400
Amortization
$12,000 × 7/12 year ................................................. $7,000
After 20 percent of stock is sold (8,000 ÷ 40,000
shares): $12,000 × 80% × 5/12 year ................. 4,000 (11,000)
Recognition of intra-entity gross profit

Remaining inventory—12/31/20 ............................ $10,000
Gross profit percentage on original sale
($20,000 ÷ $50,000)............................................ × 40%
Gross profit remaining in inventory ..................... $4,000
Ownership percentage .......................................... × 40%
Intra-entity gross profit recognized in 2021 ......... 1,600
Equity income in Seacrest, Inc. ....................... $116,000
1-27
29. (continued)
Schedule 2—Gain on Sale of Investment in Seacrest, Inc.
Book value—investment in Seacrest, Inc.—1/1/21 (given) ........ $293,600

Investee income accrual—1/1/21 – 8/1/21 (Schedule 1) ............. 79,800
Investee other comprehensive loss 1/1/21 – 8/1/21 .................... (28,000)
Amortization—1/1/21 – 8/1/21 (Schedule 1) ................................. (7,000)
Recognition of deferred profit (Schedule 1) ................................ 1,600
Investment in Seacrest book value 8/1/21........................................ $340,000
Percentage of investment sold (8,000 ÷ 40,000 shares) ............. × 20%
Book value of shares being sold.................................................. $ 68,000
Proceeds from sale of shares....................................................... 93,000
Gain on sale of 8,000 shares of Seacrest. .............................. $ 25,000
30. (30 Minutes) (Compute equity balances for three years. Includes
intra-entity inventory transfer)
Part a.
Equity Income 2019

Basic equity accrual ($598,000 × ½ year × 25%) ....................... $74,750
Amortization (½ year—see Schedule 1) .................................... (30,800)
Equity Income—2019 ............................................................. $43,950
Equity Income 2020

Basic equity accrual ($639,600 × 25%) ..................................... $159,900
Amortization (see Schedule 1) .................................................. (61,600)
Deferral of intra-entity profit (see Schedule 2) ........................ (6,000)
Equity Income—2020 ............................................................ $92,300
Equity Income 2021

Basic equity accrual ($692,400 × 25%) ..................................... $173,100
Amortization (see Schedule 1) .................................................. (61,600)
Recognition of deferred profit (see Schedule 2) ..................... 6,000
Equity Income—2021 ............................................................ $117,500
1-28
14e
30. (continued)
Schedule 1—Acquisition Price Allocation and Amortization

Acquisition price (88,000 shares × $13) $1,144,000
Book value acquired ($2,925,600 × 25%) 731,400
Payment in excess of book value $412,600
Remaining Annual
Equipment ($364,000 × 25%) $91,000 7 yrs. $13,000
Copyright ($972,000 × 25%) 243,000 5 yrs. 48,600
Goodwill 78,600 indefinite -0-
Total annual amortization (full year) $61,600
Schedule 2—Deferral of Intra-entity Gross Profit

Intra-entity Gross Profit Percentage:
Sales $152,000
Cost of goods sold 91,200
Gross profit $ 60,800
Gross profit percentage: $60,800 ÷ $152,000 = 40%
Inventory remaining at December 31, 2020 ................................. $60,000

Gross profit percentage ............................................................... × 40%
Total profit on intra-entity sale still held by affiliate ................... $24,000
Investor ownership percentage.................................................... × 25%
Intra-entity gross profit deferred from 2020 until 2021 .............. $ 6,000
Part b.
Investment in Shaun—December 31, 2021 balance
Acquisition price ........................................................................... $1,144,000
2019 Equity income (above) ......................................................... 43,950
2019 Dividends declared during half year (88,000 shares × $1.00) (88,000)
2020 Dividends declared (88,000 shares × $1.00 × 2) ................. (176,000)
2021 Dividends declared (88,000 shares × $1.00 × 2) ................. (176,000)
Investment in Shaun—12/31/21........................................... $957,750
1-29
31. (35 Minutes) (Journal entries for several years. Includes sale of a portion of the
investment)
1/1/20 Investment in Bowden .............................. 982,000

Cash ...................................................... 982,000
(To record cost of 80,000 shares of Bowden Company.)
9/15/20 Cash............................................................ 40,000

Investment in Bowden ......................... 40,000
(Annual dividend declared and received from Bowden
[40% × $100,000])

Equity in Investee Income ................... 160,000
(To accrue 2020 income based on 40%
ownership of Bowden)
12/31/20 Equity in Investee Income ........................ 4,000

(Amortization of $60,000 excess patent fair value
[indicated in problem] over 15 years)

(To accrue ½ year income of 40% owner-
ship = $380,000 × ½ × 40%)

(To record ½ year amortization of patent
to establish correct book value for invest-
ment as of 7/1/21)
7/1/21 Cash ........................................................... 330,000

Gain on Sale of Investment ................. 37,000
(20,000 shares of Bowden Company sold;
investment basis computed below.)
1-30
14e
31. (continued)
Investment in Bowden and cost of shares sold:

1/1/20 Acquisition .................................................................... $ 982,000
9/15/20 Dividends ..................................................................... (40,000)
12/31/20 Basic equity accrual.................................................. 160,000
12/31/20 Amortization .............................................................. (4,000)
7/1/21 Basic equity accrual...................................................... 76,000
7/1/21 Amortization .................................................................. (2,000)
Investment in Bowden—7/1/21 balance ............................ $1,172,000
Percentage of shares sold (20,000 ÷ 80,000) .................... × 25%
Carrying amount of shares sold ........................................ $ 293,000
Because 20,000 of 80,000, or ¼, of shares are sold, the percentage retained is

¾ of 40% = 30%.
9/15/21 Cash........................................................... 30,000

Investment in Bowden ........................ 30,000
(To record annual dividend declared and received)

(To record ½ year income based on
remaining 30% ownership: $380,000 × 1/2 × 30%)

(To record ½ year of patent amortization—
computation presented below)
Annual patent amortization—original computation ................... $4,000

Percentage of shares retained (60,000 ÷ 80,000) ........................ × 75%
Annual patent amortization—current ......................................... $3,000
Patent amortization for half year .................................................. $1,500
1-31
32. (25 Minutes) (Equity income balances for two years, intra-entity transfers)
Equity Income 2020

Basic equity accrual ($250,000 × 30%) ................................... $75,000
Amortization (see Schedule 1) ................................................ (18,000)
Deferral of intra-entity gross profit (see Schedule 2) ............ (9,000)
Equity Income—2020 .......................................................... $48,000
Equity Income (Loss—2021)

Basic equity accrual ($100,000 [loss] × 30%) ........................ $(30,000)
Amortization (see Schedule 1) ................................................ (18,000)
Realization of deferred gross profit (see Schedule 2) .......... 9,000
Deferral of intra-entity gross profit (see Schedule 3) ............ (4,500)
Equity Loss—2021 .............................................................. $(43,500)
Schedule 1
Purchase price ................................................... $770,000
Book value acquired ($1,200,000 × 30%) ......... 360,000
Payment in excess of book value .................... $410,000
Remaining Annual
Customer list ($300,000 × 30%) 90,000 5 yrs. $18,000
Excess not identified with specific accounts
Goodwill $320,000 indefinite -0-
Total annual amortization $18,000
Schedule 2
Gross profit percentage ($60,000 ÷ $160,000) ............................. × 37½%
Total intra-entity gross profit........................................................ $30,000
Intra-entity gross profit deferral—12/31/20
(To be deferred until 2021) ...................................................... $ 9,000
Schedule 3
Gross profit percentage ($35,000 ÷ $175,000) ............................. × 20%
Total intra-entity gross profit........................................................ $15,000
intra-entity gross profit deferral—12/31/21
(Deferred until 2022) ................................................................ $ 4,500
1-32
14e
Solutions to Develop Your Skills

Data Analysis Case 1 (less difficult)—see Connect for the Excel file solution
Parts 1, 2 and 3
Growth rate in income 10%

Dividends $30,000
Cost $700,000 (given in problem)
Annual amortization $15,000
1st year PHC income $185,000
Percentage owned 40%
2021 2022 2023 2024 2025

PHC reported income $74,000 $81,400 $89,540 $98,494 $108,343
Amortization 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000
Equity earnings $59,000 $66,400 $74,540 $83,494 $93,343
Beginning Balance $700,000 $747,000 $801,400 $863,940 $935,434

Equity earnings 59,000 66,400 74,540 83,494 93,343
Dividends (12,000) (12,000) (12,000) (12,000) (12,000)
Ending Balance $747,000 $801,400 $863,940 $935,434 $1,016,777
ROI 8.43% 8.89% 9.30% 9.66% 9.98%

Average 9.25%
Part 3
Growth rate in income 10%

Dividends $30,000
Cost $639,794 (Determined through Solver
under Tools command)
Annual amortization $15,000
1st year PHC income $185,000
Percentage owned 40%
PHC reported income $74,000 $81,400 $89,540 $98,494 $108,343

Amortization 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000
Equity earnings $59,000 $66,400 $74,540 $83,494 $93,343
Beginning Balance $639,794 $686,794 $741,194 $803,734 $875,228

Equity earnings 59,000 66,400 74,540 83,494 93,343
Dividends (12,000) (12,000) (12,000) (12,000) (12,000)
Ending Balance $686,794 $741,194 $803,734 $875,228 $956,571
ROI 9.22% 9.67% 10.06% 10.39% 10.67%

Average 10.00%
1-33
Data Analysis Case 2 (more difficult)—see Connect for the Excel file solution
Intergen’s ownership percentage of Ryan 40% Intra-entity Transfer Price = $1,025,000
Cell F4
Ryan's Income Statement Intergen's Income Statement
Sales $900,000 Sales $1,025,000
Beginning inventory $ -0- Cost of goods sold $ 850,000
Purchases from Intergen $1,025,000 Gross profit $ 175,000
Inventory remaining 25% Equity in Ryan's earnings $ 35,000*
Ending inventory $ 256,250 Net income $ 210,000
Cost of goods sold $768,750
Net income $131,250 *(52,500 – (40% × 256,250 ×
175,000/1,025,000))
Income to Intergen—40% $ 52,500
Income to two equity partners—60% $ 78,750 Use Goal Seek
or Solver under
Rate of Return Analysis the Tools
Investment Base Rate of Return command to set
Intergen $1,000,000 21.00% Cell D20 to zero
Two outside equity partners $300,000 26.25% by changing Cell
Difference -5.25% F4
Intergen’s ownership percentage of Ryan = 40% Intra-entity Transfer Price = 1,050,000
Ryan's Income Statement Intergen's Income Statement

Sales $900,000 Sales $1,050,000
Beginning inventory $ -0- Cost of goods sold $ 850,000
Purchases from Intergen $1,050,000 Gross profit $ 200,000
Inventory 25% Equity in Ryan's earnings $ 25,000*
Ending inventory $ 262,500 Net income $ 225,000
Cost of goods sold $787,500
Net income $112,500 *[45,000 – (40% ×262,500 × 200,000 ÷
1,050,000)]
Income to Intergen—40% $ 45,000
Income to two equity partners—60% $ 67,500
Rate of Return Analysis

Investment Base Rate of Return
Intergen $1,000,000 22.50%
Two outside equity partners $300,000 22.50%
Difference 0.00%
1-34
14e
Solution to Coca-Cola Company Research and Discussion Case

1. In its 2018 10-K, Coca-Cola lists the following companies among its significant equity
method investees (page 37):
• Monster Beverage Corporation
• Coca-Cola European Partners plc
• Coca-Cola FEMSA, S.A.B. de C.V.
• Coca-Cola Bottling Company
• Coca-Cola Amatil Limited
2. As part of strategic business alliances, each of these companies bottle, market, and
distribute Coca-Cola’s products in various designated geographic areas throughout
the world, thus generating substantial revenues for the Coca-Cola Company.
According to Coca-Cola’s 2018 annual report (page 7),
…from time to time we make equity investments representing noncontrolling

interests in selected bottling operations with the intention of maximizing the
strength and efficiency of the Coca-Cola system's production, marketing, sales and
distribution capabilities around the world by providing expertise and resources to
strengthen those businesses. These investments are intended to result in
increases in unit case volume, net revenues and profits at the bottler level, which
in turn generate increased concentrate sales for our Company's concentrate
business.
When our equity investment provides us with the ability to exercise significant
influence over the investee bottler's operating and financial policies, we account
for the investment under the equity method, and we sometimes refer to such a
bottler as an "equity method investee bottler" or "equity method investee."
3. From the Coca-Cola Company’s 2018 10-K report (page 35),
We use the equity method to account for investments in companies, if our

investment provides us with the ability to exercise significant influence over
operating and financial policies of the investee. Our consolidated net income
includes our Company’s proportionate share of the net income or loss of these
companies. Our judgment regarding the level of influence over each equity method
investment includes considering key factors such as our ownership interest,
representation on the board of directors, participation in policy-making decisions
and material intercompany transactions.
4. 2018 equity income = $1,008 million.

5. See page 37 of Coca-Cola’s 2018 10-K annual report for a listing of the fair values
and carrying amounts of its equity method investment. In general, the equity method
provides cost-based values while fair values provide exit-based values. The
relevance of the equity method valuation derives from the investment’s nature as a
productive asset for the investor. Because of their business relationship the investee
represents an extension of the investor and frequently a key part of the investor’s
business model. Coca-Cola, for example, has a high level of operational influence
1-35
over its investees who, in turn receive exclusive rights to bottle and distribute Coca-
Cola products in specific geographic areas. Because of its significance influence,
investors may wish to judge the results of operations of Coca-Cola’s investees as it
related to Coca-Cola’s ownership. Additionally, the equity method provides results
consistent with accrual accounting recognizing the net effect of investee revenues
and expenses as they are earned by the investor.
When possible, fair values are measured using market prices for the investor’s
shares of the investee. Although exit prices represent a “hypothetical” sale
transaction, they indicate the market’s assessment of the investor’s position in the
investee and thus may be relevant. However, if the investor has no plans to sell the
shares, exit prices may be of limited relevance for investors’ decision making.
RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS CASE—IMPAIRMENT
1. Paragraph 323-10-35-32 of the FASB ASC states that
A loss in value of an investment which is other than a temporary decline

shall be recognized. Evidence of a loss in value might include, but would
not necessarily be limited to, absence of an ability to recover the carrying
amount of the investment or inability of the investee to sustain an earnings
capacity which would justify the carrying amount of the investment. A
current fair value of an investment that is less than its carrying amount
may indicate a loss in value of the investment. However, a decline in the
quoted market price below the carrying amount or the existence of
operating losses is not necessarily indicative of a loss in value that is other
than temporary. All are factors to be evaluated.
2. Given the facts in the case, a very good case can be made that the decline in value
appears permanent. The change in competitive environment, decline in revenues,
drop in share value, and the lack of a responsive business plan all point to a loss that
is other than temporary.
3. No, according to FASB ASC para. 350-20-35-59, the equity method investment as a
whole is reviewed for impairment, not the underlying assets. The FASB concluded
that because equity method goodwill is not separable from the related investment, that
goodwill should not be separately tested for impairment.
1-36
14e
Research Case Solution -- Noncontrolling Shareholder Rights
1. Protective Rights (ASC Topic 810, Consolidation 810-10-25-10)
Noncontrolling rights (whether granted by contract or by law) that would allow the
noncontrolling shareholder to block corporate actions would be considered
protective rights and would not overcome the presumption of consolidation by the
investor with a majority voting interest in its investee. The following list is illustrative
of the protective rights that often are provided to the noncontrolling shareholder but
is not all-inclusive:
a. Amendments to articles of incorporation of the investee
b. Pricing on transactions between the owner of a majority voting interest and the
investee and related self-dealing transactions
c. Liquidation of the investee or a decision to cause the investee to enter
bankruptcy or other receivership
d. Acquisitions and dispositions of assets that are not expected to be undertaken
in the ordinary course of business (noncontrolling rights relating to acquisitions
and dispositions of assets that are expected to be made in the ordinary course
of business are participating rights; determining whether such rights are
substantive requires judgment in light of the relevant facts and circumstances
[see paragraphs 810-10-25-13 and 810-10-55-1])
e. Issuance or repurchase of equity interests.
2. Substantive Participating Rights (ASC Topic 810, Consolidation 810-10-25-11)
Noncontrolling rights (whether granted by contract or by law) that would allow the
noncontrolling shareholder to participate in determining certain financial and
operating decisions in the ordinary course of business shall be considered
substantive participating rights and would overcome the presumption that the
investor with a majority voting interest shall consolidate its investee.
Example: Prior to obtaining 100% of Clearwire’s voting stock, despite a majority

voting interest, Sprint cited substantive participating rights of the noncontrolling
interest as a reason for not consolidating its investment in Clearwire. Currently,
Sprint consolidates Clearwire as a wholly-owned subsidiary.
3. (FASB ASC Topic 810, Consolidation 810-10-25-11)
Substantive participating rights would overcome the presumption that the investor
with a majority voting interest shall consolidate its investee. The following list is
illustrative of substantive participating rights, but is not necessarily all-inclusive:
a. Selecting, terminating, and setting the compensation of management

responsible for implementing the investee's policies and procedures
1-37
b. Establishing operating and capital decisions of the investee, including budgets,

in the ordinary course of business.
4. Assessing Individual Noncontrolling Rights (FASB ASC Topic 810, Consolidation

810-10-55-1 b and c)
b. Existing facts and circumstances should be considered in assessing whether

the rights of the noncontrolling shareholder relating to an investee's incurring
additional indebtedness are protective or participating rights. For example, if it is
reasonably possible or probable that the investee will need to incur the level of
borrowings that requires noncontrolling shareholder approval in its ordinary
course of business, the rights of the noncontrolling shareholder would be viewed
as substantive participating rights.
c. The rights of the noncontrolling shareholder relating to dividends or other

distributions may be protective or participating and should be assessed in light
of the available facts and circumstances. For example, rights to block customary
or expected dividends or other distributions may be substantive participating
rights, while rights to block extraordinary distributions would be protective rights.
1-38
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Fig. 232. Davallia aculeata. (⅖ nat. size.)
It is noteworthy that while certain vegetative features may in some
cases be cited as family-characters, such features are not usually of
much value from a taxonomic point of view. While the typical tree
ferns are practically all members of the Cyatheaceae, a few
members of other families, e.g. Todea barbara (Osmundaceae) and
the monotypic Indian genus Brainea (Polypodiaceae), form erect
stems several feet in height; but these differ in appearance from the
Palm-like type of the Cyatheaceous tree ferns. On the other hand,
the thin, almost transparent, leaf of Hymenophyllum tunbridgense
and other filmy ferns is a character shared by several species of
Todea, Asplenium resectum, and Danaea trichomanoides
(Marattiaceae); the filmy habit is essentially a biological adaptation.
The form of frond represented by certain species of Gleichenia,
characterised by a regular dichotomy of the axis and by the
occurrence of arrested buds, is on the whole a trustworthy character,
though Davallia aculeata (bearing spines on its rachis) (fig. 232) and
Matonia sarmentosa have fronds with a similar mode of branching
and also bear arrested radius-buds. A limited acquaintance with
ferns as a whole often leads us to regard a certain form of leaf as
characteristic of a particular species, but more extended enquiry
usually exposes the fallacy of relying upon so capricious a feature.
The form of leaf illustrated by Trichomanes reniforme is met with also
in Gymnogramme reniformis and is fairly closely matched by the leaf
of Scolopendrium nigripes. The fronds of Matonia pectinata (figs.
227, 228) bear a close resemblance to those of Gleichenia
Cunninghami, Adiantum pedatum, and Cheiropteris
[704]
palmatopedata .
The habit, leaf-form, and distribution of Ferns.

The full accounts of the structure and life-history of the common
Male Fern, given by Scott in his Structural Botany and by Bower in
the Origin of a Land Flora, render superfluous more than a brief
reference to certain general considerations in so far as they may
facilitate a study of fossil types.
In size Ferns have a wide range: at the one extreme we have the
filmy fern Trichomanes Goebelianum[705], growing on tree stems in
Venezuela, with leaves 2·5 to 3 mm. in diameter, and at the other the
tree ferns with tall columnar stems reaching a height of 40 to 50 feet
and terminating in a crown of fronds with a spread of several feet. A
common form of stem is represented by the subterranean or
creeping rhizome covered with ramental scales or hairs: the remains
of old leaves may persist as ragged stumps, or, as in Oleandra,
Polypodium vulgare and several other species, the leaf may be cut
off by the formation of an absciss-layer[706] leaving a clean-cut peg
projecting from the stem. As a rule the branches bear no relation to
the leaves and are often given off from the lower part of a petiole, but
in a few cases, e.g. in the Hymenophyllaceae, it is noteworthy that
true axillary branching is the rule[707]. In the typical tree-fern the
surface resembles that of a Cycadean trunk covered with persistent
leaf-bases and a thick mass of roots. Among epiphytic ferns highly
modified stems are occasionally met with, as in the Malayan species
Polypodium (Lecanopteris) carnosum and P. sinuosum[708].
The leaves of ferns are among the most protean of all plant
organs; as Darwin wrote, “the variability of ferns passes all
bounds[709].” The highly compound tri- or quadripinnate leaves of
such species as Pteris aquilina, Davallia and other genera stand for
the central type of fern frond; others exhibit a well-marked
dichotomy, e.g. Lygodium, Gleichenia, Matonia, etc., a habit in all
probability associated with the older rather than with the more
modern products of fern evolution. Before attempting to determine
specifically fossil fern fronds, it is important to familiarise ourselves
with the range of variability among existing species and more
especially in leaves of the same plant. A striking example of
heteromorphy is illustrated in fig. 233. Reinecke[710] has figured a
plant of Asplenium multilineatum in which the segments of the
compound fronds assume various forms. In Teratophyllum
aculeatum var. inermis Mett., a tropical climbing fern believed by
Karsten[711] to be identical with Acrostichum (Lomariopsis)
sorbifolium,—an identification which Goebel[712] questions,—the
fronds which stand free of the stem supporting the climber differ
considerably from the translucent and much more delicate filmy
leaves pressed against the supporting tree. From this fern alone Fée
is said to have created 17 distinct species. In this, as in many other
cases, differences in leaf-form are the expression of a physiological
division of labour connected with an epiphytic existence. Some
tropical species of Polypodium (sect. Drynaria), e.g. P. quercifolium
(fig. 234 and fig. 231, D), produce two distinct types of leaf, the large
green fronds, concerned with the assimilation of carbon and spore-
production, being in sharp contrast to the small slightly lobed brown
leaves which act as stiff brackets (fig. 234, M) for collecting humus
from which the roots absorb raw material. Similarly in Platycerium
the orbicular mantle-leaves differ widely from the long pendulous or
erect fronds fashioned like the spreading antlers of an elk. In
Hemitelia capensis, a South African Cyatheaceous species, the
basal pinnae assume the form of finely divided leaves identified by
earlier collectors as those of a parasitic Trichomanes (fig. 235). In a
letter written by W. H. Harvey in 1837 accompanying the specimen
shown in fig. 235, he says, “Apropos of Hemitelia, be it known
abroad that supposed parasitical Trichomanes ... is not a parasite,
but a part of the frond of Hemitelia.” The delicate reduced pinnae
remain on the stem and form a cluster at the base of the fronds[713].
Fig. 233. Polypodium Billardieri Br. (¼ nat. size.) Middle Island, New
Zealand. From specimens in the Cambridge Herbarium.
Fig. 234. Polypodium quercifolium. (Much reduced: M, Mantle-leaves.)
In many species the sporophylls are distinguished from the sterile
fronds by segments with little or no chlorophyllous tissue, as in
Onoclea struthiopteris[714] in which, each year, the plant produces a
funnel-shaped group of sterile leaves followed later in the season by
a cluster of sporophylls; or, as in many other genera, the fertile
leaves are distinguished also by longer petioles and thus serve as
more efficient agents of spore-dissemination. In Ceratopteris the
narrow segments of the taller fertile leaves are in striking contrast to
the broader pinnules of the submerged foliage leaves. Leaf-form is in
many cases obviously the expression of environment; the
xerophilous fern Jamesonia[715] from the treeless paramos of the
Andes[716] is characterised by its minute leaflets with strong revolute
margins and a thick felt of hairs on the lower surface; in others,
xerophilous features take the form of a covering of overlapping
scales (Ceterach), or a development of water-tissue as in the fleshy
leaves of the Himalayan fern Drymoglossum carnosum. In the
Bracken fern Boodle[717] has shown how the fronds may be classed
as shade and sun leaves; the former are spreading and softer, while
the latter are relatively smaller and of harder texture (fig. 236, a and
b). Even in one leaf six feet high, growing through a dense bush of
gorse and bramble, the lower part was found to have the features of
a shade leaf, while the uppermost exposed pinnae were xerophilous.
Fig. 235. Hemitelia capensis R. Brown. Nat. size. a, Pinna of normal frond.
[From a specimen in the British Museum. M.S.]
Fig. 236a. Pteris aquilina.
Part of leaf from greenhouse. (¼ nat. size.) After Boodle.
PTERIS
The resemblance between some of the filmy Hymenophyllaceae

and thalloid Liverworts[718] is worthy of mention as one of the many
possible pitfalls to be avoided by the palaeobotanical student. The
long linear fronds of such genera as Vittaria and Monogramme might
well be identified in a fossil state as the leaves of a grass-like
Monocotyledon, or compared with the foliage of Isoetes or Pilularia.
The resemblance of some fern leaves with reticulate venation to
those of Dicotyledons has led astray experienced palaeobotanists; it
is not only the anastomosing venation in the leaves of several ferns
that simulates dicotyledonous foliage, but the compound leaves of
many dicotyledons, e.g. Paullinia thalictrifolia (Sapindaceae) and
species of Umbelliferae, may easily be mistaken for fronds of ferns.
Fig. 236b. Pteris aquilina.

Leaf from the same plant grown out of doors. (¼ nat. size.)
After Boodle.
RECENT FERNS
The dichotomously lobed lamina of some Schizaeas, e.g. S.
dichotoma and S. elegans (fig. 222), bears a close resemblance to
the leaves of Baiera or Ginkgo[719]. The original description by
Kunze[720] of the South African Cycad Stangeria paradoxa as a
Polypodiaceous fern illustrates the difficulty, or indeed impossibility,
of distinguishing between a sterile simply pinnate fern frond and the
foliage of some Cycads. The deeply divided segments of Cycas
Micholitzii[721] simulate the dichotomously branched pinnae of
Lygodium dichotomum, and the leaves of Aneimia rotundifolia (fig.
223) and other species are almost identical in form with the Jurassic
species Otozamites Beani, a member of the Cycadophyta.
There are certain facts in regard to the geographical distribution of
ferns to which attention should be directed. Mr Baker in his paper on
fern distribution writes: “With the precision of an hygrometer, an
increase in the fern-vegetation marks the wooded humid regions[722].”
If in a collection of fossil plants we find a preponderance of ferns we
are tempted to assume the existence of such conditions as are
favourable to the luxuriant development of ferns at the present day.
On the other hand, we must bear in mind the wonderful plasticity of
many recent species and the fact that xerophilous ferns are by no
means unknown in present-day floras.
Ferns are admirably adapted to rapid dispersal over comparatively
wide areas. Bower[723] estimates that in one season a Male Fern may
produce about 5,000,000 spores: with this enormous spore-output
are coupled a thoroughly efficient mechanism for scattering the
germs and an unusual facility for wind-dispersal. When Treub[724]
visited the devastated and sterilised wreck of the Island of Krakatau
in 1886, three years after the volcanic outburst, he found that twelve
ferns had already established themselves; the spores had probably
been carried by the wind at least 25 to 30 miles. It is not surprising,
therefore, to find that many ferns have an almost world-wide
distribution; and, it may be added, in view of their efficient means of
dispersal, wide range by no means implies great antiquity. Prof.
Campbell[725] has recently called attention to the significance of the
wide distribution of Hepaticae in its bearing on their antiquity; the
spores are incapable of retaining vitality for more than a short period,
and it is argued that a world-wide distribution can have been
acquired only after an enormous lapse of time. If we apply this
reasoning to the Osmundaceae among ferns, it may be legitimate to
assume that their short-lived green spores render them much less
efficient colonisers than the great majority of ferns; if this is granted,
the wide distribution of Osmundaceous ferns in the Mesozoic era
carries their history back to a still more remote past, a conclusion
which receives support from the records of the rocks.
The Bracken fern which we regard as characteristically British is a
cosmopolitan type; it was found by Treub among the pioneers of the
New Flora of Krakatau; in British Central Africa, it greets one at
every turn “like a messenger from the homeland[726]”; it grows on the
Swiss Alps, on the mountains of Abyssinia, in Tasmania, and on the
slopes of the Himalayas. The two genera Matonia (fig. 228) and
Dipteris, which grow side by side on Mount Ophir in the Malay
Peninsula, are examples of restricted geographical range and carry
us back to the Jurassic period when closely allied types flourished
abundantly in northern latitudes. Similarly Thyrsopteris elegans,
confined to Juan Fernandez, exhibits a remarkable likeness to
Jurassic species from England and the Arctic regions.
The proportion of ferns to flowering plants in recent floras is a
question of some interest from a palaeobotanical point of view; but
we must bear in mind the fact that the evolution of angiosperms,
effected at a late stage in the history of the earth, seriously disturbed
the balance of power among competitors for earth and air. The
abundance of ferns in a particular region is, however, an unsafe
guide to geographical or climatic conditions. Many ferns are
essentially social plants; the wide stretches of moorland carpeted
with Pteris aquilina afford an example of the monopolisation of the
soil by a single species. In Sikkim Sir Joseph Hooker speaks of
extensive groves of tree ferns, and in the wet regions of the Amazon,
Bates[727] describes the whole forest glade as forming a “vast
fernery.” In a valley in Tahiti Alsophila tahitiensis is said to form “a
sort of forest almost to the exclusion of other ferns[728].” In the
abundance of Glossopteris (figs. 334, etc.) fronds spread over wide
areas of Permo-Carboniferous rocks in S. Africa, Australia, and
India, we have a striking instance of a similar social habit in an
extinct fern or at least fern-like plant.
Acrostichum aureum, with pinnate fronds several feet long, is an
example of a recent fern covering immense tracts, but this
species[729] is more especially interesting as a member of the
Filicineae characteristic of brackish marshes and the banks of
tropical rivers in company with Mangrove plants and the “Stemless
Palm” Nipa. This species exhibits the anatomical characters of a
water-plant and affords an interesting parallel with some Palaeozoic
ferns (species of Psaronius) which probably grew under similar
conditions.
The Anatomy of Ferns.

The text-book accounts of fern-anatomy convey a very inadequate
idea of the architectural characters displayed by the vascular
systems of recent genera. When we are concerned with the study of
extinct plants it is essential to be familiar not only with the commoner
recent types, but particularly with exceptional or aberrant types. The
vascular system of many ferns consists of strands of xylem
composed of scalariform tracheae associated with a larger or smaller
amount of parenchyma, surrounded either wholly or in part (that is
concentric or bicollateral) by phloem: beyond this is a pericycle, one
layer or frequently several layers in breadth, limited externally by an
endodermis, which can usually be readily recognised. The vascular
strands are embedded in the ground-tissue of the stem consisting of
thin-walled parenchyma and, in most ferns, a considerable quantity
of hard and lignified mechanical tissue. The narrow protoxylem
elements are usually characterised by a spiral form of thickening, but
in slow-growing stems the first-formed elements are frequently of the
scalariform type.
A study of the anatomy of recent ferns both in the adult state and
in successive stages of development from the embryo has on the
whole revealed “a striking parallelism[730]” between vascular and
sporangial characters in leptosporangiate ferns. For a masterly
treatment of our knowledge of fern anatomy from a phylogenetic
point of view reference should be made to Mr Tansley’s recently
published lectures: within the limits of this volume all that is possible
is a brief outline of the main types of vascular structure illustrated by
recent genera.
Fig. 237.
A. Matonia pectinata (petiole).
B. M. pectinata (stem).
C. Gleichenia dicarpa (stem): p, petiole; pp, protophloem; position
of protoxylem indicated by black dots.
D. Matonidium.
E. Trichomanes reniforme: pp, protophloem.
(C, E, after Boodle; D, after Bommer.)
To Prof. Jeffrey[731] we owe the term protostele which he applied to
a type of stele consisting of a central core of xylem surrounded by
phloem, pericycle, and endodermis. While admitting that steles of
this type may sometimes be the result of the modification of less
simple forms, we may confidently regard the protostele as
representing the most primitive form of vascular system. The genus
Lygodium affords an example of a protostelic fern; a solid column of
xylem tracheae and parenchyma is completely encircled by a
cylinder of phloem succeeded by a multi-layered pericycle and an
endodermis of a single layer of cells. In this genus the stele is
characterised by marginal groups of protoxylem; it is exarch. An
almost identical type is represented by species of Gleichenia, but
here the stele is mesarch, the protoxylem being slightly internal (fig.
237, C). Trichomanes scandens (fig. 238) has an exarch protostele
like that of Lygodium; but, as Boodle[732] has suggested, the
protostelic form in this case is probably the result of modification of a
collateral form of stele such as occurs in Trichomanes reniforme (fig.
237, E). A second type of stele has been described in species of
Lindsaya[733] in which the xylem includes a small group of phloem
near the dorsal surface. This Lindsaya type is often passed through
in the development of “seedling” ferns and may be regarded as a
stage in a series leading to another well-marked type, the
solenostele. The solenostele[734], a hollow cylinder of xylem lined
within and without by phloem, pericycle, and endodermis, occurs in
several genera belonging to different families, e.g. Dipteris, species
of Pteris, species of Lindsaya, Polypodium, Jamesonia, Loxsoma,
Gleichenia and other genera. In a smaller number of ferns the stele
consists of what may be called a medullated protostele similar to the
common form of stele in Lepidodendron: this type is found in species
of Schizaea and in Platyzoma (fig. 239). It is important to notice that
in the solenostele and as a rule in the medullated protostele when a
leaf-trace passes out from the rhizome stele the vascular cylinder is
interrupted by the formation of a foliar gap (Platyzoma[735], fig. 239, is
an exception). This fact has been emphasized by Jeffrey[736] who
draws a distinction between the Lycopodiaceous type of stele, which
is not broken by the exit of leaf-traces, and the fern stele in which
foliar gaps are produced: the former he speaks of as the
cladosiphonic type (Lycopsida) and the latter as the phyllosiphonic
(Pteropsida).
Fig. 238. Stele of Trichomanes scandens: px, protoxylem; s, endodermis.
From Tansley, after Boodle.
Fig. 239. Platyzoma microphylla. l.t., leaf-trace; i.e., internal endodermis.

(After Tansley; modified from Boodle.)
The transition to a hollow cylinder of xylem from a protostele may
be described as the result of the replacement of some of the axial
conducting tracheae by parenchyma or other non-vascular tissue
consequent on an increase in diameter of the whole stele and the
concentration of the true conducting elements towards the
periphery[737].
The occurrence of the internal cylinder of phloem, pericycle, and
endodermis in a solenostele is rendered intelligible by a study of fern
seedlings and by a comparative examination of transitional types
connecting protosteles and solenosteles through medullated
protosteles and steles of the Lindsaya type. A further stage in stelar
evolution is illustrated by what is termed the dictyostele, the
arrangement of vascular tissue characteristic of Nephrodium Filix-
mas, Cyathea (fig. 240), Polypodium vulgare and many other
common ferns.
Fig. 240. Cyathea Imrayana. (From Tansley after de Bary.) (Sclerenchyma

represented by black bands.)
If a solenostele is interrupted by leaf-gaps at intervals sufficiently
close to cause overlapping, a transverse section at any part of the
stele will show apparently separate curved bands of concentrically
arranged xylem and phloem, which on dissection are seen to
represent parts of a continuous lattice-work or a cylinder with the
wall pierced by large meshes. The manner of evolution of the
dictyostele has been ably dealt with by Gwynne-Vaughan[738] and
other authors. In a few ferns, e.g. Matonia pectinata[739], a transverse
section of the stem (fig. 237, B) reveals the presence of two or in
some cases three concentric solenosteles with a solid protostele in
the centre: this polycylic type may be regarded as the expression of
the fact that in response to the need for an adequate water-supply to
the large fronds, ferns have increased the conducting channels by a
method other than by the mere increase of the diameter of a single
stele. Fig. 237, A, shows the vascular tissue of a petiole of Matonia
in transverse section.
The two genera of Osmundaceae, Todea and Osmunda, are
peculiar among recent ferns in having a vascular cylinder composed
of separate strands of xylem varying considerably in shape and size,
from U-shaped strands with the concavity facing the centre of the
stem and with the protoxylem in the hollow of the U, to oval or more
or less circular strands with a mesarch protoxylem or without any
protoxylem elements (fig. 221, A, B). These different forms are the
expression of the change in contour or in structure which the parts of
the lattice-work undergo at different levels in the stem[740]. Beyond
this ring of xylem bundles is a continuous sheath of phloem of
characteristic structure. A transverse section of a stem of Osmunda
regalis may show 15 or more xylem strands; in O. Claytoniana there
may be as many as 40. In Todea barbara (fig. 221, B) the leaf-gaps
are shorter, and in consequence of the less amount of overlapping
the xylem cylinder becomes an almost continuous tube. The recent
researches of Kidston and Gwynne-Vaughan[741] have resulted in the
discovery of fossil Osmundaceous stems with a complete xylem ring,
the stele being of the medullated protostele type; in another extinct
member of the family the stele consists of a solid xylem core. The
Osmundaceous type of stele is complicated in O. cinnamomea (fig.
221, A) by the occurrence of local internal phloem and by an internal
endodermis, a feature which leads Jeffrey to what I believe to be an
incorrect conclusion that the vascular arrangement found in
Osmunda regalis has been evolved by reduction from a stele in
which the xylem was enclosed within and without by phloem. New
facts recently brought to light enable us to derive the ordinary
Osmundaceous type from the protostele and solenostele. It is worthy
of remark that the Osmundaceae occupy a somewhat isolated
position among recent ferns; their anatomy represents a special
type, their sporangia differ in several respects from those of other
leptosporangiate ferns and in some features Osmunda and Todea
agree with the Eusporangiate ferns. The possession of such
distinguishing characters as these suggests antiquity; and the facts
of palaeobotany, as also the present geographical range of the
family, confirm the correctness of this deduction.
Before leaving the stelar structure of leptosporangiate fern stems,
a word must be added in regard to a type of structure met with in the
Hymenophyllaceae. In this family Trichomanes reniforme (fig. 237,
E) may be regarded, as Boodle suggests, as the central type: the
stele consists of a ring of metaxylem tracheae, the dorsal portion
having the form of a flat arch and the ventral half that of a straight
band. This flattened ring of xylem encloses parenchymatous tissue
containing scattered tracheae some of which are protoxylem
elements. In Trichomanes radicans the rhizome is stouter than in T.
reniforme and the stele consists of a greater number of tracheae.
The stele is cylindrical like that shown in fig. 238, but the centre is
occupied by two groups of protoxylem and associated parenchyma.
In Hymenophyllum tunbrigense the stele is of the subcollateral type;
the ventral plate of the xylem ring has disappeared leaving a single
strand of xylem with endarch protoxylem and completely surrounded
by phloem. Trichomanes muscoides possesses a still simpler stele
consisting of a slender xylem strand with phloem on one side only.
Reference has already been made to the occurrence in this family of
the protostelic type. The Hymenophyllaceae afford a striking
illustration of the modification in different directions of stelar structure
connected with differences in habit, and of the correlation of demand
and supply as shown in the varying amount of conducting tissue in
the steles of different species.
The leaf-trace in a great number of ferns is characterised by its C-
shaped form[742] as seen in transverse section: this in some genera,
e.g. Matonia (fig. 237, A), is complicated by the spiral infolding of the
free edges of the C; in other ferns (e.g. some Cyatheaceae) (fig.
278, C) the sides of the C are incurved, while in some species the
xylem is broken up into a large number of separate strands.
An elaborate treatment of the leaf-traces of ferns was published a
few years ago by MM. Bertrand and Cornaille[743] in which the
authors show how the various systems of vascular tissue in the
fronds of ferns maybe derived from a common type. As Prof.
Chodat[744] justly remarks this important work has not received the
attention it deserves, the neglect being attributed to the strange
notation which is adopted[745].
The roots of ferns are characterised by a uniformity of plan in
marked contrast to the wide range of structure met with in the stem
and to a less extent in the leaves. The xylem may consist of a plate
of scalariform tracheae with a protoxylem group at each end, or the
stele may include six or more alternating strands of xylem and
phloem.
II. Marattiales (Eusporangiate isosporous Filicales).

The Marattiaceae, the single family of ferns included in the
Marattiales, comprise the genera Angiopteris, Archangiopteris,
Marattia, Danaea, and Kaulfussia, which are for the most part
tropical in distribution. These genera are characterised by
eusporangiate sori or synangia, the presence of stipules at the base
of the petioles, and by the complex arrangement of the vascular
tissue. In view of the fact that many fossil ferns show a close
resemblance to the recent Marattiaceae, the surviving genera are
briefly described. The prothallus is green and relatively large.
Angiopteris. This genus occurs in Polynesia, tropical Asia, and
Madagascar; it is characterised by a short and thick fleshy stem
bearing large bipinnate leaves which occasionally show a forking of
the rachis[746], a feature reminiscent of some Palaeozoic fern-like
fronds. One of the large plants of Angiopteris evecta in the Royal
Gardens, Kew, bears leaves 12 feet in length with a stalk 6 inches in
diameter at the base. The sessile or shortly stalked and rather
leathery linear or broadly lanceolate pinnules have a prominent
midrib and dichotomously branched lateral veins. The surface of an
old stem is covered with the thick stumps of petioles enclosed by
pairs of fleshy stipules (fig. 241, A) and bears numerous fleshy roots,
which hang free in the air or penetrate the soil. The young fronds
(fig. 220, A) exhibit very clearly the characteristic circinate vernation.
The proximal part of each primary pinna is characterised by a
pulvinus-like swelling. The sporangia, in short linear elliptical sori
near the edge of the pinnules, consist of free sporangia (fig. 242, A–
D) provided with a peculiar type of “annulus”[747], in the form of a
narrow band of thicker-walled cells, which extends as a broad strip
on either side of the apex. An examination of sections through the
sporangia of Angiopteris in different planes[748] illustrates the difficulty
of determining the precise nature of the annulus in a petrified
sporangium which is seen only in one or two planes. Many of the
sporangia from the English Coal-Measures, compared by authors
with those of Leptosporangiate ferns, are in all probability referable
to the Marattiaceous type.
Fig. 241.
A. Angiopteris evecta. (Considerably reduced.)
B. Marattia fraxinea. Stipule. M.S.
The vascular system[749] of the stem constitutes a highly complex
dictyostelic or polycylic type which may consist of as many as nine
concentric series of strands of xylem surrounded by phloem, with
large sieve-tubes and a pericycle which abuts on the
parenchymatous ground-tissue without any definite endodermal
layer. A peculiarity in the vascular strands is that the first-formed
elements of the phloem lie close to the edge of the xylem, the
metaphloem being therefore centrifugal in its development. The
ground-tissue is devoid of mechanical tissue and is penetrated by
roots, a few of which arise from the outer vascular strands while
others force their way to the surface from the more internal
dictyosteles. Leaf-traces, consisting of several strands, are given off
from the outermost cylinder and a segment of the second dictyostele
moves out to fill the gap formed in the outermost network, while the
gap in the second cylinder receives compensating strands from the
third. A few layers below the surface of the petiole there is a ring of
thick-walled elements (s, fig. 243), and in both petiole and stem
numerous mucilage ducts and tannin-sacs occur in the ground-
tissue. It has been shown by Farmer and Hill[750] that in some of the
vascular strands in an Angiopteris stem a few secondary tracheae
are added to the primary xylem by the activity of the adjacent
parenchyma. The vascular bundles in the petiole form more or less
regular concentric series; they have no endodermis and are
characterised also by the large size of the sieve-tubes (st, fig. 243).

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II. Accounting for an investment: the equity method

IV. Excess investment cost over book value acquired

V. Deferral of intra-entity gross profit in inventory

Answers to Discussion Questions

Did the Cost Method Invite Manipulation?

Does the Equity Method Really Apply Here?

c. Majority ownership of the investee is concentrated among a small group of shareholders

7. The following events necessitate changes in this investment account.

6. B Acquisition price ........................................................................... $2,295,000

7. A Acquisition price ............................................................................. $700,000

Acquisition price of Martes............................................................. $700,000

8. B Purchase price of Johnson stock .................. $500,000

Investment purchase price ............................................ $500,000

9. D The 2020 purchase is reported using the equity method.

Purchase price of Evan stock......................................................... $600,000

Cost on January 1, 2020 ................................................................. $600,000

11. A Gross profit rate (GPR): $15,000 ÷ $75,000 = 20%

12. B Purchase price of Steinbart shares ............................................... $530,000

13. (6 minutes) (Investment account after one year)

15. (15 minutes) (Investment account after 2 years)

b. Basic equity accrual 2020 ($1,800,000 × 20%) .................................. $360,000

Basic equity accrual 2021 ($1,985,000 × 20%) .................................. $397,000

c. Acquisition price ................................................................................. $2,700,000

Investment in Sauk Trail, 12/31/20 ..................................................... $2,750,000

Purchase price of Burks stock ....................................................... $210,000

No intra-entity profit exists at year’s end because all of the transferred

Investment in Burks, Inc. .......................................... 210,000

Investment in Burks, Inc. .......................................... 32,000

Dividend Receivable .................................................. 10,000

Cash ............................................................................ 10,000

Investment in Seida ................................................... 120,000

Equity in Investee Income ........................................ 1,500

Dividend Receivable .................................................. 44,000

Cash ............................................................................ 44,000

19. (7 minutes) (Deferral of intra-entity gross profit)

Ending inventory ($200,000 – $85,000) ............................................... $115,000

Entry to Defer Intra-entity Gross Profit:

Equity in Investee Income ............................................ 13,800

20. (10 minutes) (Reporting of equity income and transfers)

a. Equity in investee income:

Deferral of intra-entity gross profit:

b. In 2021, the deferral of $3,000 can be recognized by BuyCo’s use or sale of

c. The direction (upstream versus downstream) of the intra-entity transfer

Equity method income accrual for 2021

Gain on sale of 12,000 shares of Sedgwick:

22. (25 minutes) (Verbal overview of equity method.

a. In 2020, the fair-value method was appropriate. Thus, income recognized

c. Despite holding 25 percent of ProForm’s outstanding stock, the equity