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The following book shows a compilation of more than 20
basic exercises for competitive programming, all of them
are written in Python. In addition, desktop tests are added
to observe the operation of each algorithm.
Hoping you can take knowledge of the pages of this book,
my best wishes.
Jan Pol
Exercise 1
Write a program that reads a string S, and prints that line
on the standard output in reverse, that is, flipped right-to-
left.
Input
The only input has a string S.
Output
Print the string in reverse

Example
Input
1 2 3 hello
Output
olleh 3 2 1
Solution
One way to easily solve this task is to use a loop to print the
characters from the last position to the first. This avoids the
need to save the reverse list, just print each character.
The code for the solution written in Python is shown below.
1 l = input()
2 i = len(l)
3 while i > 0:
4 i = i - 1
5 print(l[i], end='')
6 print()

Desktop Testing
Doing a desktop testing, it is observed how in each iteration
each character is added inversely.
Exercise 2
Given of input a positive integer n. If n is even, the
algorithm divides it by two, and if n is odd, the algorithm
multiplies it by three and adds one. The algorithm repeats
this, until n is one. For example, the sequence for n=5 is as
follows:
5→16→8→4→21
Your task is to simulate the execution of the algorithm for a
given value of n.

Input
The only input line contains an positive integer n.
Output
Print a line that contains all values of n separated with
spaces.

Example
Input
5
Output
5 16 8 4 21
Solution
To solve this task, a cycle is used to verify that the number
is not yet 1. Within the cycle it is checked if the number is
even, it is divided by two, otherwise the number is multiplied
by 3 and 1 is added to it. the number is printed, like this
until the number is 1.
The code for the solution written in Python is shown below.
1 n = int(input())
2 print(n, end= ' ')
3 while n > 1:
4 if n % 2 == 0:
5 n //= 2
6 else:
7 n = 3 * n + 1
8 print(n, end=' ')

Desktop Testing
Doing a desktop testing, it shows if the number is odd or
even and the operation is performed.
Exercise 3
Write a program that reads a list of non-negative numbers
from the standard input, with one number per line, and
prints a histogram corresponding to those numbers. In this
histogram, each number N is represented by a line of N
characters "#"
Input
The only line contains n non-negative integers.
Output
Print the histogram result.

Example
Input
10 15 7 9 1 3
Output
##########
###############
#######
#########
#
###
Solution
To solve this task, it is taken into account that a list of non-
negative integers will be received so that they are saved
using a “map” of integers for the input, removing the
spaces. Then '#' is printed as many times as the value of the
number.
The code for the solution written in Python is shown below.
1 arr = map(int, input().split())
2
3 for a in arr:
4 print('#' * a)

Desktop Testing
Doing a desktop testing, it is shown how in the next line of
each iteration as many '#' as the value of the number are
added.
Exercise 4
You are given all numbers between 1,2,…,n except one.
Your task is to find the missing number.

Input
The first input line contains an integer n.
The second line contains n−1 numbers. Each number is
distinct and between 1 and n (inclusive).
Output
Print the missing number.

Example
Input
10
2 8 10 6 5 1 3 7 4
Output
9
Solution
To solve this task, the integer n is saved. Then the integer
line is saved. A sum is initialized, each integer is added. At
the end, the Gauss sum formula is used: n * (n + 1) / 2.
The previously made sum is subtracte it to obtain the
missing number. This works because the Gauss sum gets
the real total sum based on the total of numbers, if the sum
of the provided numbers is subtracted, the result will show
the missing value to get the real total sum.
The code for the solution written in Python is shown below.
1 n = int(input())
2 arr = map(int, input().split())
3 s = 0
4
5 for a in arr:
6 s += a
7
8 print(n * (n + 1) // 2 - s)

Desktop Testing
Doing a desktop testing, it is shown how in each iteration
the respective number is added. At the end the operation is
printed.
The final result is:
10 * (10 + 1) // 2 – 46
10 * 11 // 2 – 46
110 // 2 – 46
55 – 46
Result: 9
Exercise 5
Given a sequence of integers A, a maximal identical
sequence is a sequence of adjacent identical values of
maximal length k. Write a program that reads an input
sequence A, with one or more numbers per line, and
outputs the value of the first (leftmost) maximal identical
sequence in A.
Input
The first input line contains an integer n.
The second line contains n integers.
Output
Print one integer: the length of the longest repetition

Example
Input
24622
Output
2
Solution
To solve this task, an efficient way to know which number is
the most repeated is to use variables that help us in the
process. In this case, 'k' is used to determine how much a
number is repeated, 'i' saves the previous index, 'j' saves
the current index and 'v' stores the number that is repeated
the most sequentially.
At the beginning of the cycle, the previous and current
values are compared, if they are different, the indices are
exchanged. The index 'j' increases and is compared if the
numbers that are repeated is greater than 'k', if so, 'v' takes
the value of the number and 'k' takes the value of how
much that number was repeated.
The code for the solution written in Python is shown below.
1 A = list(map(int, input().split()))
2
3 v = A[0]
4k = 1
5i = 0
6j = 1
7 while j < len(A):
8 if A[j] != A[i]:
9i = j
10 j += 1
11 if j - i > k:
12 v = A[i]
13 k = j - i
14
15 print(v)
Desktop Testing
Doing a desktop testing, it is observed how in each cycle
the previous number and the current number are compared,
as well as the increase or exchange in the indexes according
to whether the sequential number is different. When the
numbers compared are equal, the index 'j' increases more
than the 'i', when not, the indexes go hand in hand.
Below is the sequence of integers 'A' and the desk test.
Exercise 6
You are given a DNA sequence: a string consisting of
characters A, C, G, and T. Your task is to find the longest
repetition in the sequence. This is a maximum-length
substring containing only one type of character.
Input
The only input line contains a string of n characters.
Output
Print one integer: the length of the longest repetition.

Example
Input
ATTGCCCA
Output
3
Solution
To solve this task, the input string is taken, using the
variables 'ans' stores the response, 'count' counts the
repetitions and 'l' contains the character to compare. A loop
is used to go through each character in the string, if the
character is repeated, add the counter and replace 'ans'
with the maximum between 'count' and 'ans', otherwise 'l'
becomes the new character and the counter is reset.
The code for the solution written in Python is shown below.
1 s = input()
2 ans = 1
3 count = 0
4 l = 'A'
5 for cha in s:
6 if cha == l:
7 count += 1
8 if count > ans:
9 ans = count
10 else:
11 l = cha
12 count = 1
13 print(ans, end=' ')
Desktop Testing
Doing a desktop testing, it shows how each character of the
sequence is compared, each that is equal increases the
counter and the maximum between the response is verified,
when the values are not reset.
Exercise 7
Write a program that takes a number N (a positive integer)
in decimal notation from the console, and prints its value as
a roman numeral.
Input
The only input line has an integer n.
Output
Print the value as a roman numeral.

Example
Input
2021
Output
MMXXI
Solution
To solve this task, the predefined characters of the Roman
numerals are listed, separated by groups, from one to nine,
from ten to 90 and from 100 to 900, each one with the
number zero. It is checked if the quantity is greater than or
equal to 1000, if so, the symbol 'M' is added as many times
as thousands it contains. Then the hundreds are extracted
and replaced by their respective symbols, in the same way
the tens and units, printing the result at the end.
The code for the solution written in Python is shown below.
1 ten_zero = ['', 'I', 'II', 'III', 'IV', 'V', 'VI',
'VII', 'VIII', 'IX']
2 ten_one = ['', 'X', 'XX', 'XXX', 'XL', 'L', 'LX',
'LXX', 'LXXX', 'XC']
3 ten_two = ['', 'C', 'CC', 'CCC', 'CD', 'D', 'DC',
'DCC', 'DCCC', 'CM']
4
5 n = int(input())
6
7 r = ''
8 while n >= 1000:
9 r += 'M'
10 n -= 1000
11
12 c = n // 100
13 r += ten_two[c]
14 n -= c*100
15
16 d = n // 10
17 r += ten_one[d]
18 n -= d*10
19
20 r += ten_zero[n]
21
22 print(r)

Desktop Testing
Doing a desktop testing, it is shown how each thousand is
subtracted from the quantity and the symbol 'M' is added, in
the same way the hundreds, tens and units are extracted to
obtain the result.
Exercise 8
You are given an array of n integers. You want to modify the
array so that it is increasing. Every element is at least as
large as the previous element.
On each move, you may increase the value of any element
by one. Your task is find the minimum number of moves
required.
Input
The first input line contains an integer n, the size of the
array.
Then, the second line contains n integers, the contents of
the array.
Output
Print the minimum number of moves.

Example
Input
5
21415
Output
4
Solution
To solve this task, we must find the least amount of
movements necessary to increase the values of an array so
that the list increases. After reading the input data, the
variables 'mx' are initialized, the maximum and 'ans' are
stored with a value of zero, each one of the data in the
array is traversed, the maximum is searched and the value
of the number is subtracted, the result is saved in response.
This works because it is looking for if the number before the
current one is greater, it obtains the difference between
current and previous, in other words it obtains the increase
that is needed so that both values are equal.
The code for the solution written in Python is shown below.
1 n = int(input())
2 arr = map(int, input().split())
3 mx = 0
4 ans = 0
5
6 for x in arr:
7 mx = max(x, mx)
8 ans += mx - x
9
10 print(ans)
Desktop Testing
Doing a desktop testing, it is shown how the maximum value
is obtained, at the moment in which the value of x
decreases, it obtains the necessary value to be equal to the
previous one.
Exercise 9
A ‘beautiful’ permutation is a permutation of integers
1,2,…,n, if there are no adjacent elements whose difference
is 1.
Given n, construct a beautiful permutation if such a
permutation exists. If there are no solutions, print “NO
SOLUTION”
Input
The only input line contains an integer n.
Output
Print a beautiful permutation of integers 1,2,…,n. If there
are several solutions, you may print any of them. If there
are no solutions, print "NO SOLUTION".

Example
Input
5
Output
24135
Solution
To solve this task, the difference between elements is
required to be different than 1. When n is equal to 1, 1 is
printed, if it is less than 4 there is no solution, in all other
cases, it will be enough to print 2 by 2 starting at 2 up to
the value of n + 1 and in another cycle the same strategy
but starting at 1.
The code for the solution written in Python is shown below.
1 n = int(input())
2 if n == 1:
3 print(1, end=' ')
4 elif n < 4:
5 print('NO SOLUTION')
6
7 else:
8 for i in range(2, n+1, 2):
9 print(i, end=' ')
10
11 for i in range(1, n+1, 2):
12 print(i, end=' ')
Desktop Testing
Doing a desktop testing, it is easy to observe that it is only
enough to print numbers from 2 to 2 with different start, in
this way it ensures that the difference between the numbers
is not 1.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 CHAPTER IX
THE SHELL, ITS FORM, COMPOSITION AND GROWTH—DESIGNATION OF
ITS VARIOUS PARTS

The popular names of ‘shells,’ ‘shell-fish,’ and the like, as

commonly applied to the Mollusca, the intrinsic beauty and grace of
the shells themselves, resulting in the passion for their collection,
their durability and ease of preservation, as compared with the non-
testaceous portion,—all these considerations tend to unduly exalt the
value of the shell as part of the organism as a whole, and to obscure
the truth that the shell is by no means the most important of the
organs.
At the same time it must not be forgotten that the old systems of
classification, which were based almost entirely on indications drawn
from the shell alone, have been strangely little disturbed by the new
principles of arrangement, which depend mainly on structural points
in the animal. This fact only tends to emphasise the truth that the
shell and animal are in the closest possible connexion, and that the
shell is a living part of the organism, and is equally sensitive to
external influences.
A striking instance of the comparative valuelessness of the shell
alone as a primary basis of classification is furnished by the large
number of cases in which a limpet-shaped shell is assumed by
genera widely removed from one another in cardinal points of
organisation. This form of shell occurs in the common limpet
(Patellidae), in Ancylus (Limnaeidae), Hemitoma (Fissurellidae),
Cocculina (close to Trochidae), Umbrella and Siphonaria
(Opisthobranchiata), while in many other cases the limpet form is
nearly approached.
Roughly speaking, about three-quarters of the known Mollusca,
recent and fossil, possess a univalve, and about one-fifth a bivalve
shell. In Pholas, and in some species of Thracia, there is a small
accessory hinge plate; in the Polyplacophora, or Chitons, the shell
consists of eight plates (see Fig. 2, p. 8), usually overlapping. A
certain proportion of the Mollusca have no shell at all. In many of
these cases the shell has been present in the larva, but is lost in the
adult.
The shell may be
(1) External, as in the great majority of both univalves and
bivalves.
(2) Partly external, partly internal; e.g. Homalonyx, Hemphillia,
some of the Naticidae, Scutum, Acera, Aplustrum (Figs. 148 and
149).

Fig. 148.—Aplustrum
aplustre L. Mauritius,
showing the partly
internal shell (S); F,
foot; LL, cephalic
lappets; TT, double
set of tentacles. (After
Quoy and Gaimard.)
 Fig. 149.—Sigaretus
laevigatus Lam.,
showing shell partially
immersed in the foot;
F, anterior
prolongation of the
foot. (After Souleyet.)
(3) Internal; e.g. Philine, Gastropteron, Pleurobranchus, Aplysia,
Limax, Arion, Hyalimax, Parmacella, Lamellaria, Cryptochiton, and,
among bivalves, Chlamydoconcha.
(4) Absent; e.g. all Nudibranchiata and Aplacophora, many
Cephalopoda, a few land Mollusca, e.g. all Onchidiidae, Philomycus,
and Vaginula.
The Univalve Shell.—In univalve Mollusca the normal form of the
shell is an elongated cone twisted into a spiral form round an axis,
the spiral ascending to the left. Probably the original form of the shell
was a simple cone, which covered the vital parts like a tent. As these
parts tended to increase in size, their position on the dorsal side of
the animal caused them gradually to fall over, drawing the shell with
them. The result of these two forces combined, the increasing size of
the visceral hump, and its tendency to pull the shell over with it,
probably resulted in the conversion of the conical into the spiral shell,
which gradually came to envelop the whole animal. Where the
visceral hump, instead of increasing in size, became flattened, the
conical shape of the shell may have been modified into a simple
elliptical plate (e.g. Limax), the nucleus representing the apex of the
cone. In extreme cases even this plate dwindles to a few calcareous
granules, or disappears altogether (Arion, Vaginula).
 Varieties of the Spiral.—Almost every conceivable modification
of the spiral occurs, from the type represented by Gena, Haliotis,
Sigaretus, and Lamellaria, in which the spire is practically confined to
the few apical whorls, with the body-whorl inordinately large in
proportion, to a multispiral form like Terebra, with about twenty
whorls, very gradually increasing in size.

Fig. 150.—Examples of shells with A, a flattened

spire (Polygyratia); B, a globose spire (Natica);
C, a greatly produced spire (Terebra).
As a rule, the spire is more or less obliquely coiled round the axis,
each whorl being partially covered, and therefore hidden by, its
immediate successor, while the size of the whorls, and therefore the
diameter of the spire as a whole, increases somewhat rapidly. The
effect of this is to produce the elevated spire, the shell of six to ten
whorls, and the wide aperture, of the normal type of mollusc, the
whelk, snail, periwinkle, etc.
Sometimes, however, the coil of the whorls, instead of being
oblique, tends to become horizontal to the axis, and thus we have
another series of gradations of form, from the excessively produced
spire of Terebra to the flattened disc of Planorbis, Polygyratia,
Euomphalus, and Ammonites. The shell of many species of Conus
practically belongs to the latter type, each whorl folding so closely
over its predecessor that the spiral nature of the shell is not
perceived until it is looked at at right angles to the spire.

Fig. 151.—Examples of
shells with
disconnected whorls;
A, Cyathopoma cornu
Mf., Philippines; B,
Cylindrella hystrix
Wright, Cuba. (Both ×
4.)
 Fig. 152.—Example of a
shell whose apical
whorls alone are
coiled, and the
remainder produced in
a regular curve.
(Cyclosurus Mariei
Morel., Mayotte.)
In some cases the regularly spiral form is kept, but the whorls are
completely disconnected; e.g. some Scalaria, Spirula; among fossil
Cephalopoda, Gyroceras, Crioceras, and Ancyloceras; and, among
recent land Mollusca, Cylindrella hystrix and Cyathopoma cornu (Fig.
151). Sometimes only the last whorl becomes disconnected from the
others, as in Rhiostoma (see Fig. 180, p. 266), Teinostoma, and in
the fossil Ophidioceras and Macroscaphites. Sometimes, again, not
more than one or two whorls at the apex are spirally coiled, and the
rest of the shell is simply produced or coiled in an exceedingly
irregular manner, e.g. Cyclosurus, Lituites, Orygoceras, Siliquaria
(Fig. 153), Vermetus. In Coecum (Fig. 170, p. 260) the spiral part is
entirely lost, and the shell becomes simply a cylinder. In a few cases
the last whorl is coiled irregularly backwards, and is brought up to
the apex, so that the animal in crawling must carry the shell with the
spire downwards, as in Anostoma (Fig. 154), Opisthostoma (Fig.
208, p. 309), Strophostoma, and Hypselostoma (Fig. 202 A, p. 302).
Fig. 153.—Siliquaria anguina Lam.,
showing scalariform coil of upper
whorls and irregular extension of
the lower.

Fig. 154.—Anostoma globulosum Lam.,

Brazil. (After P. Fischer.)
 Fig. 155.—Various forms of the internal plate in
Capulidae: A, Calyptraea (Mitrularia) equestris
Lam., E. Indies; B, Crucibulum scutellatum Gray,
Panama; C, Ergaea plana Ad., and Reeve,
Japan; D, Galerus chinensis L., Britain; E,
Crepipatella dilatata Lam., Callao; F, Trochita
maculata Quoy, N. Zealand; G, Crepidula
fornicata Lam., N. America.
Some genera of the Capulidae, in which the shell is of a broadly
conical form or with scarcely any spire, develop an internal plate or
process which serves the purpose of keeping the animal within the
shell, and does the work of a strong attachment muscle. In Mitrularia
this process takes the form of a raised horse-shoe; in Crucibulum it
is cup-shaped, with the edge free all round; in Galerus, Ergaea,
Crepipatella, and Trochita we get a series of changes, in which the
edge of the cup adheres to the interior of the shell, and then
gradually flattens into a plate. In Crepidula proper this plate becomes
a regular partition, covering a considerable portion of the interior
(Fig. 155 G). Hipponyx secretes a thin calcareous plate on the
ventral surface of the foot, which intervenes like an operculum
between the animal and the substance to which it adheres.
Sinistral, or Left-handed Shells.—The vast majority of univalve
spiral shells are normally dextral, i.e. when held spire uppermost,
with the aperture towards the observer, the aperture is to the right of
the axis of the spire. If we imagine such a shell to be a spiral
staircase, as we ascended it we should always have the axis of the
spire to our left.
 Sinistral or ‘reversed’ forms are not altogether uncommon, and
may be grouped under four classes:—
(1) Cases in which the genus is normally sinistral; (2) cases in
which the genus is normally dextral, but certain species are normally
sinistral; (3) cases in which the shell is indifferently dextral or
sinistral; (4) cases in which both genus and species are normally
dextral, and a sinistral form is an abnormal monstrosity.

Fig. 156.—Fulgur
perversum L., Florida. ½.

Fig. 157.—Illustration of the gradation of forms in Ampullaria between a dextral (A)

and an ultra-dextral species (F).

In all cases of sinistral monstrosity, and all in which a sinistral and

dextral form are interchangeable (sections 3 and 4 above), the
position of the apertures of the internal organs appears to be
relatively affected, i.e. the body is sinistral, as well as the shell. This
has been proved to be the case in all specimens hitherto examined,
and may therefore be assumed for the rest. The same uniformity,
however, does not hold good in all cases for genera and species
normally sinistral (sections 1 and 2). As a rule, the anal and genital
apertures are, in these instances also, to the left, but not always. In
Spirialis, Limacina, Meladomus, and Lanistes the shell is sinistral,
but the animal is dextral. This apparent anomaly has been most
ingeniously explained by Simroth, Von Ihering, and Pelseneer. The
shell, in all these cases, is not really sinistral, but ultra-dextral.
Imagine the whorls of a dextral species capable of being flattened,
as in a Planorbis, and continue the process, still pushing, as it were,
the spire downwards until it occupies the place of the original
umbilicus, becoming turned completely ‘inside out,’ and we have the
whole explanation of these puzzling forms. The animal remains
dextral, the shell has become sinistral. A convincing proof of the truth
of this is furnished by the operculum. It is well known that the twist of
the operculum varies with that of the shell; when the shell is dextral,
the operculum is sinistral, with its nucleus near the columella, and
vice versâ. In these ultra-dextral shells, however, where it is simply
the method of the enrolment of the spire that comes in question, and
not the formation of the whorls themselves, the operculum remains
sinistral on the apparently sinistral shell.
The reverse case to this, when the shell is dextral but the orifices
sinistral, is instanced by the two fresh-water genera Pompholyx
(from N. America), and Choanomphalus (L. Baikal). A similar
transition in the enrolment of the whorls may be confidently assumed
to have taken place, and the shells are styled ultra-sinistral.
Yet another variation remains, in which the embryonic form is
sinistral, but the adult shell dextral, the former remaining across the
nucleus of the spire. This is the case with Odostomia, Eulimella,
Turbonilla, and Mathilda, all belonging to the Prosobranchiata, with
Actaeon, Tornatina, and Actaeonina among the Opisthobranchs, and
Melampus alone among Pulmonates.
Monstrosities of the Shell.—Abnormal growths of the shell
constantly occur, some of them being scarcely noticeable, except by
a practised eye, others of a more serious nature, involving an entire
change in the normal aspect of the creature. Scalariform
monstrosities are occasionally met with, especially in Helix and
Planorbis, when the whorls become unnaturally elevated, and
sometimes quite disjoined from one another; carinated monstrosities
develop a keel on a whorl usually smooth; acuminated monstrosities
have the spire produced to an extreme length (Fig. 158); sinistral
monstrosities (see above) have the spire reversed: dwarfs and
giants, as in our own race, are occasionally noticed among a crowd
of individuals.
More serious forms of monstrosity are those which occur in
individual cases. Mr. S. P. Woodward once observed[332] a specimen
of an adult Helix aspersa with a second, half-grown individual fixed
to its spire, and partly embedded in the suture of the body whorl. The
younger snail had died during its first hibernation, as was shown by
the epiphragm remaining in the aperture, and its neighbour, not
being able to get free of the incubus, partially enveloped it in the
course of its growth. In the British Museum two Littorina littorea have
become entangled in a somewhat similar way (Fig. 160 B), possibly
as a result of embryonic fusion. Double apertures are not
uncommon[333] in the more produced land-shells, such as Cylindrella
and Clausilia (Fig. 160 A). In the Pickering collection was a Helix
hortensis which had crawled into a nutshell when young, and,
growing too large to escape, had to carry about this decidedly extra
shell to the end of its days. A monstrosity of the cornucopia form, in
which the whorls are uncoiled almost throughout, is of exceedingly
rare occurrence (Fig. 161).
 Fig. 158.—Monstrosities of
Neptunea antiqua L., and
Buccinum undatum L., with a
greatly produced spire (from
specimens in the Brit. Mus.).

Fig. 159.—Monstrosities of Littorina

rudis Mat, The Fleet, Weymouth.
(After Sykes.)
Some decades ago ingenious Frenchmen amused themselves by
creating artificial monstrosities. H. aspersa was taken from its shell,
by carefully breaking it away, and then introduced into another shell
of similar size (H. nemoralis, vermiculata, or pisana). At the end of
several days attachment to the columella took place, and then
growth began, the new shell becoming soldered to the old, and the
spiral part of the animal being protected by a thin calcareous
envelope. A growth of from one to two whorls took place under these
conditions. The individuals so treated were always sordid and
lethargic, but they bred, and naturally produced a normal aspersa
offspring.[334] In the British Museum there is a specimen of one of
these artificial unions of a Helix with the shell of a Limnaea stagnalis.

Fig. 160.—Monstrosities with two

apertures: A, Cylindrella
agnesiana C. B. Ad.,
Jamaica; B, Littorina littorea
(from specimens in the
British Museum).

Fig. 161.—Cornucopia-
shaped monstrosity of
Helix aspersa, from
Ilfracombe. (British
Museum.)
Composition of the Shell.—The shell is mainly composed of
pure carbonate of lime, with a very slight proportion of phosphate of
lime, and an organic base allied to chitin, known as conchiolin. The
proportion of carbonate of lime is known to vary from about 99 p.c. in
Strombus to about 89 p.c. in Turritella. Nearly 1 p.c. of phosphate of
lime has been obtained from the shell of Helix nemoralis, and nearly
2 p.c. from that of Ostrea virginica. The conchiolin forms a sort of
membranous framework for the shell; it soon disappears in dead
specimens, leaving the shell much more brittle than it was when
alive. Carbonate of magnesia has also been detected, to the extent
of ·12 p.c. in Telescopium and ·48 p.c. in Neptunea antiqua. A trace
of silica has also occasionally been found.
When the shell exhibits a crystalline formation, the carbonate of
lime may take the form either of calcite or aragonite. The calcite
crystals are rhombohedral, optically uniaxal, and cleave easily, while
the aragonite cleave badly, belong to the rhombic system, and are
harder and denser, and optically biaxal. Both classes of crystal may
occur in the same shell.
Two main views have been held with regard to the formation and
structure of the shell—(1) that of Bowerbank and Carpenter, that the
shell is an organic formation, growing by interstitial deposit, in the
same manner as the teeth and bones of the higher animals; (2) that
of Réaumur, Eisig, and most modern writers, that the shell is of the
nature of an excretion, deposited like a cuticle on the outside of the
skin, being formed simply of a number of calcareous particles held
together by a kind of ‘animal glue.’ Leydig’s view is that the shell of
the Monotocardia is a secretion of the epithelium, but that in the
Pulmonata it originates within the skin itself, and afterwards
becomes free.[335]
According to Carpenter, when a fragment of any recent shell is
decalcified by being placed in dilute acid, a definite animal basis
remains, often so fine as to be no more than a membranous film, but
sometimes consisting of an aggregation of ‘cells’ with perfectly
definite forms. He accordingly divides all shell structure into cellular
and membranous, according to the characteristics of the animal
basis. Cellular structure is comparatively rare; it occurs most notably
in Pinna, where the shell is composed of a vast multitude of tolerably
regular hexagonal prisms (Fig. 162 B). Membranous structure
comprises all forms of shell which do not present a cellular tissue.
Carpenter held that the membrane itself was at one time a
constituent part of the mantle of the mollusc, the carbonate of lime
being secreted in minute ‘cells’ on its surface, and afterwards
spreading over the subjacent membrane through the bursting of the
cells.
The iridescence of nacreous shells is due to a peculiar lineation of
their surface, which can be readily detected by a lens. According to
Brewster, the iridescence is due to the alternation of layers of
granular carbonate of lime and of a very thin organic membrane, the
layers very slightly undulating. Carpenter, on the other hand, holds
that it depends upon the disposition of a single membranous layer in
folds or plaits, which lie more or less obliquely to the general surface,
so that their edges show as lines. The nacreous type of shell occurs
largely among those Mollusca which, from other details in their
organisation, are known to represent very ancient forms (e.g.
Nucula, Avicula, Trigonia, Nautilus). It is also the least permanent,
and thus in some strata we find that only casts of the nacreous shells
remain, while those of different constitution are preserved entire.
Porcellanous shells (of which the great majority of Gasteropoda
are instances) usually consist of three layers, each of which is
composed of a number of adjacent plates, like cards on edge. The
inclination of the plates in the different layers varies, but that of the
plates in the inner and outer layer is frequently the same, thus if the
plates are transverse in the middle stratum, they are longitudinal in
the inner and outer strata, and, if longitudinal in the middle, they are
transverse in the other two. Not uncommonly (Fig. 163 B) other
layers occur. In bivalves the disposition and nature of the layers is
much more varied.
Fig. 162.—A, Section of shell of Unio: a, periostracal layer; b, prismatic layer; c,
nacreous layer. B, Horizontal section of shell of Pinna, showing the hexagonal
prisms.

In Unio the periostracal or uppermost layer is very thin; beneath

this is a prismatic layer of no great depth, while the whole remainder
of the shell is nacreous (Fig. 162 A). Many bivalves show traces of
tubular structure, while in the Veneridae the formation and character
of the layers approaches closely to that of the Gasteropoda. Further
details may be gathered from Carpenter’s researches.[336]
Formation of Shell.[337]—The mantle margin is the principal
agent in the deposition of shell. It is true that if the shell be fractured
at any point, the hole will be repaired, thus showing that every part of
the mantle is furnished with shell-depositing cells, but such new
deposits are devoid of colour and of periostracum, and no
observation seems to have been made with regard to the layers of
which they are composed. As a rule the mantle, except at its margin,
only serves to thicken the innermost layer of shell.
It is probable that the carbonate of lime, of which the shell is
mainly composed, is separated from the blood by the epithelial cells
of the mantle margin, and takes the crystalline or granular form as it
hardens on exposure after deposition. The three layers of a
porcellanous shell are deposited successively, and the extreme edge
of the mouth, when shell is forming, will contain only one layer, the
outermost; a little further in, two layers appear, and further still, three.
The pigment cells which colour the surface are situated at the front
edge of the mantle margin.

Fig. 163.—Sections of shells. A, Conus: a, outer layer; b, middle prismatic layer,

with obliquely intersecting laminae above and below; c, inner layer. B, Oliva:
a, outer layer; b, layer of crossed and curved laminae; c, prismatic layer,
succeeded by layer of laminae at right angles to one another; d, inner layer. C,
Cypraea: a, outer layer; b, middle layer; c, inner layer.
Shelly matter is deposited, and probably secreted, not only by the
mantle, but also in some genera by the foot. This is certainly the
case in Cymbium, Oliva, Ancillaria, Cassis, Distortio, and others, in
several of which the foot is so large that the shell appears to be quite
immersed in it.[338]
The deposition of shell is not continuous. Rest periods occur,
during which the function is dormant; these periods are marked off
on the edge of the shell, and are known as lines of growth. In some
cases (Murex, Triton, Ranella), the rest period is marked by a
decisive thickening of the lip, which persists on the surface of the
shell as what is called a varix (see p. 263).
 Fig. 164.—Murex
tenuispina L.,
Ceylon. × ⅔.

Fig. 165.—Neritina
longispina Récl., Mauritius.
(Operculum removed.)
The various details of sculpture on the exterior surface of the
shell, the striae, ribs, nodules, imbrications, spines, and other forms
of ornamentation are all the product of similar and corresponding
irregularities in the mantle margin, and have all been originally
situated at the edge of the lip. Spines, e.g. those of Murex and
Pteroceras, are first formed as a hollow thorn, cleft down its lower
side, and are afterwards filled in with solid matter as the mantle edge
withdraws. What purpose is served by the extreme elaboration of
these spiny processes in some cases, can hardly be considered as
satisfactorily ascertained. Possibly they are a form of sculptural
development which is, in the main, protective, and secures to its
owners immunity from the attacks of predatory fishes.
‘Attached’ genera (e.g. Chama, Spondylus) when living on smooth
surfaces have a flat shell, but when affixed to coral and other uneven
surfaces they become very irregular in shape. The sculpture of the
base on which they rest is often reproduced in these ‘attached’
shells, not only on the lower, but also on the upper valve, the
growing edge of which rests on the uneven surface of the base.
Oysters attached to the branches of the mangrove frequently display
a central convex rib, modelled on the shape of the branch, from
which the plaits of sculpture radiate, while specimens fixed to the
smooth trunk have no such rib. Crepidula, a genus which is in the
habit of attaching itself to other shells, varies in sculpture according
to that of its host. Sometimes the fact may be detected that a
specimen has lived on a ribbed shell when young, and on a smooth
one when old, or vice versâ. A new genus was actually founded by
Brown for a Capulus which had acquired ribs through adhesion to a
Pecten. A specimen of Hinnites giganteus in the British Museum
must at one period of its growth have adhered to a surface on which
was a Serpula, the impression of which is plainly reproduced on the
upper valve of the Hinnites.[339]
 Fig. 166.—A specimen of Anomia
ephippium L., Weymouth,
taken upon Pecten maximus,
the sculpture of which is
reproduced on the upper
valve of the Anomia, and
even on a young Anomia
attached to the larger
specimen.
Growth of the Shell.—Nothing very definite is known with regard
to the rate of growth of the shell in marine Mollusca. Under
favourable conditions, however, certain species are known to
increase very rapidly, especially if the food supply be abundant, and
if there is no inconvenient crowding of individuals. Petit de la
Saussaye mentions[340] the case of a ship which sailed from
Marseilles for the west coast of Africa, after being fitted with an
entirely new bottom. On arriving at its destination, the vessel spent
68 days in the Gambia River, and took 86 days on its homeward
voyage. On being cleaned immediately on its return to Marseilles, an
Avicula 78 mm. and an Ostrea 95 mm. long (both being species
peculiar to W. Africa) were taken from its keel. These specimens had
therefore attained this growth in at most 154 days, for at the period
of their first attachment they are known to be exceedingly minute. P.
Fischer relates[341] that in 1862 a buoy, newly cleaned and painted,
was placed in the basin at Arcachon. In less than a year after, it was
found to be covered with thousands of very large Mytilus edulis, 100