Mechanical Properties of Fluids

Chapter No. 2.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
FLUIDS
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 2

2.1 Introduction:
Liquids and gases do not have their own shape and they take the shape of the containing vessel. Due
to this, liquids and gases flow under the action of external force.
A fluid means a substance that can flow.
Therefore, liquids and gases, collectively, are called fluids. A fluid either has no rigidity or its rigidity is very
low.
In our daily life, we often experience the pressure exerted by a fluid at rest and in motion. Viscosity
and surface tension play an important role in nature.
2.2 Fluid:
Any substance that can flow is a fluid. A fluid is a substance that deforms continually under the action
of an external force. Fluid is a phase of matter that includes liquids, gases and plasmas.
Fig.2.2 (a) Compressive Stress Fig.2.2 (b) Tensile stress
Fig. 2.2: Normal stress

A fluid flows under the action of a force or a pressure gradient. We can understand fluids by making some
simple assumptions. To explain concept of an ideal fluid behavior. An ideal fluid has the following properties:
i) It is incompressible: its density is constant.
ii) Its flow is irrational i.e. its flow is smooth, there are no turbulences in the flow.
iii) It is non-viscous: there is no internal friction in the flow, i.e., the fluid has no viscosity.
iv) Its flow is steady: its velocity at each point is constant in time.
Solids oppose the shear stress either by developing a restoring force, which means that the
deformations are reversible, or they require a certain initial stress before they deform and start flowing.
Ideal fluids, on the other hand, can only be subjected to normal, compressive stress (called pressure). Most fluids
offer a very weak resistance to deformation.
The Fig. 2.3 shows a small surface of
area dA at rest within a fluid. The
surface does not accelerate, so the
surrounding fluid exerts equal normal
forces dF on both sides of it.
Fig. 2.3Forces acting on a small surface dA
within a fluid at rest.
Properties of Fluids:
i) They do not oppose deformation, they get permanently deformed.
ii) They have ability to flow.
iii) They have ability to take the shape of the container.
A fluid exhibits these properties because it cannot oppose a shear stress when in static equilibrium.
2.2.1 Fluids at Rest:
The branch of physics which deals Shri
with Swami
theVivekanand Shikshan
properties of Sanstha,
fluids Kolhapur
at rest is called hydrostatics. 4
2.3 Pressure:
A fluid at rest exerts a force on the surface of contact. The surface may be a wall or the bottom of an open container
of the fluid. The normal force (F) exerted by a fluid at rest per unit surface area (A) of contact is called the pressure (p) of
the fluid.
Thus, an object having small weight can exert high pressure if its weight acts on a small surface area.
The SI unit of pressure is N/m2. Also, 1 N/m2 = 1 Pascal (Pa). The dimension of pressure is [L-1M1T-2]. Pressure is
a scalar quantity.
Other common units of measuring pressure of a gas are bar and torr.
1 bar = 105 Nm-2
1 hectapascal (hPa) = 100 Pa.
2.3.1 Pressure Due to a Liquid Column:

A vessel is filled with a liquid. To calculate the pressure exerted by an imaginary
cylinder of cross sectional area A inside the container. Let the density of the fluid
be ‘ρ’, and the height of the imaginary cylinder be h as shown in the Fig.2.6 . The
liquid column exerts a force
F = mg
which is its weight, on the bottom of the cylinder. This force acts in the
downward direction. Therefore, the pressure p exerted by the liquid column on
the bottom of cylinder is,
Fig. 2.6 Pressure due to a liquid column. 𝐹
P=𝐴
𝑚𝑔
∴P= 𝐴
As m = volume of cylinder x density of liquid
m=vxρ
m = Ahρ
Ahρ𝑔
∴P= 𝐴
∴ P = hρ𝑔 ……………(i)
Thus pressure due to liquid column is depend on height of liquid column , density of liquid and acceleration due to
gravity. It does not depend upon area of container.
2.3.2 Atmospheric Pressure:

Earth's atmosphere is made up of a fluid, namely, air. It exerts a downward force due to its weight. The
pressure due to this force is called atmospheric pressure. Thus, at any point, the atmospheric pressure is the weight
of a column of air of unit cross section starting fromVivekanand
Shri Swami that point andSanstha,
Shikshan extending
Kolhapurto the top of the atmosphere. 6
The atmospheric pressure at sea level is called normal atmospheric pressure. The density of air in the
atmosphere decreases with increase in height and becomes negligible beyond a height of about 8 km so that the
height of air column producing atmospheric pressure at sea level can be taken to be 8 km.
2.3.3 Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure:
Consider a tank filled with water as shown in Fig 2.7. Assume an
imaginary cylinder of horizontal base area A and height x1- x2 = h. x1
and x2 being the heights measured from a reference point, height
increasing upwards: x1 > x2. The vertical forces acting on the cylinder
are:
1) Force F1 acts downwards at the top surface of the cylinder, and is due
to the weight of the water column above the cylinder
2) Force F2 acts upwards at the bottom surface of the cylinder, and is
due to the water below the cylinder.
3) The gravitational force on the water enclosed in the cylinder is mg,
from fig 2.7
F2 = F1 + mg …………(i)
As P1 and P2 are the pressure at the top and bottom By definition

F = P.A and
Mass m=vxρ
Fig 2.7 Pressure due to an imaginary
cylinder of fluid. m = Ahρ
as h is height i.e. h = x1 – x2
m = A(x1 – x2 )ρ
from equation (i)
P2A = P1A + A(x1 – x2 )ρ.g
P2 = P1 + (x1 – x2 )ρ.g
P2 - P1 = (x1 – x2 )ρ.g………..(ii)
Using above equation pressure inside a liquid can be calculate.

To find the pressure p at a depth h below the liquid surface, let the top
Case-I :-
of an imaginary cylinder be at the surface of the liquid. Let this level be x1.
Let x2 be some point at depth h below the surface as shown in Fig.2.8. Let
P0 be the atmospheric pressure at the surface, i.e., at x1. Then, substituting x1
= 0,
p 1 = p0, and x2 = -h, and P2 = P
P = P0 + hρg………….(iii)
The above equation gives the total pressure, or the absolute pressure p,
Fig.2.8Pressure at a depth h at a depth h Shri
below the surface of the liquid. The total pressure p, at the depth
Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 8
below the surface of a liquid. h is the sum of
i) p0, the pressure due to the atmosphere, which acts on the surface of the liquid, and
ii) hρg, the pressure due to the liquid at depth h
Case -II
It gives the pressure at a given height above a liquid surface, in terms of
the atmospheric pressure p0 (assuming that the atmospheric density is
uniform up to that height).
To find the atmospheric pressure at a distance ‘d’ above the liquid
surface as shown in Fig.2.9. we substitute x1 = d, p1 = p, x2 = 0, p2 = p0
and r = rair we get
Fig.2.9. Change of atmospheric P = P0 - hρairg ……………(iv)
pressure with height.
Consider the inter connected vessels as shown in Fig.2.10. When a liquid is
2.3.4 Hydrostatic Paradox:
poured in any one of the vessels, it is noticed that the level of liquids in all the
vessels is the same. This observation is somewhat puzzling. It was called
'hydrostatics paradox'
One can feel that the pressure of the base of the vessel C would be more than that at
the base of the vessel B and the liquid from vessel C would rise into the vessel B.
However, it is never observed. Equation of the pressure at a point depends only on
the height of the liquid column above it. It does not depend on the shape of the
vessel. In this case,Vivekanand
Shri Swami height Shikshan
of theSanstha,
liquidKolhapur
column is the same for all the vessels. 9
Fig.2.10. Hydrostatic paradox.
Therefore, the pressure of liquid column in each vessel is the same and the system is in equilibrium. That means the
liquid in vessel C does not rise in to vessel B.
2.3.5 Pascal’s Law:

Pascal’s law states that the pressure applied at any point of an enclosed fluid at rest is
transmitted equally and undiminished to every point of the fluid and also on the walls of the
container, provided the effect of gravity is neglected.
Applications of Pascal’s Law:

i) Hydraulic lift:
Hydraulic lift is used to lift a heavy object using a small force. The working of this
machine is based on Pascal’s law.
As shown in Fig.2.11. a tank containing a fluid is fitted with two
pistons S1 and S2 . S1 has a smaller area of cross section, A1 while S2
has a much larger area of cross section, A2 (A2 >> A1). If we apply a
force F1 on the smaller piston S1 in the downward direction it will
generate pressure
P1 = F1/A
transmitted undiminished to the bigger piston S2.
Fig.2.11Hydraulic Lift.
A force F2 = pA2 will be exerted upwards on it
According to Pascal law P1 = P 2
𝐹1 𝐹2
=
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝐴2
F2 = F 1
𝐴1
i.e F2 will be larger than F1
ii) Hydraulic brakes:

Hydraulic brakes are used to slow down or stop vehicles in motion. It is based on the same principle as
that of a hydraulic lift. The schematic diagram of hydraulic brakes is as shown in ﬁg.2.12 By pressing the
brake pedal, the piston of the master cylinder is pushed in forward direction. As a result, the piston in the slave
cylinder which has a much larger area of cross-section as compared to that of the master cylinder, also moves
in forward direction so as to maintain the volume of the oil constant. The slave piston pushes the friction pads
against the rotating disc, which is connected to the wheel.
Thus, causing a moving vehicle to slow down or stop.
By applying a small force F1 to the master cylinder, we
generate pressure,
𝐹1
p= . This pressure is transmitted undiminished through
𝐴1
the system. The force F2 on slave
cylinder is then, F2 = pA2
𝐹1
= A2
𝐴1
𝐴2
= F1
𝐴1
ﬁg.2.12 Hydraulic brake system (schematic).
2.3.6 Measurement of Pressure:

Instruments used to measure pressure are called pressure meters or pressure gauges or vacuum
gauges.
i) Mercury Barometer:
An instrument that measures atmospheric pressure is called a barometer. One of the first barometers
was by Italian scientist Torricelli.
Torricelli’s vacuum
From fig.2.13 the barometer is in the form of a glass tube completely filled with
mercury and placed upside down in a dish containing mercury. It is observed that
height of mercury inside capillary tube decreases to certain height and remains
constant. Thus, the pressure at the upper end of the mercury column inside the tube is
zero, i.e. pressure at point such as A is pA= zero.
As pressure at C is equal to pressure at B, as B is at depth ‘h’ from open
surface therefore its pressure is greater than ‘A’ therefore mercury rises in the capillary
to certain height above mercury level.
Fig. 2.13 Mercury barometer.
i.e. PB = PA + hρg
ii) Open tube manometer:
A manometer consists of a U – shaped tube partly filled with a low
density liquid such as water or kerosene. Fig. 2.14 shows an open tube
manometer. One arm of the manometer is open to the atmosphere and
the other is connected to the container D of which the pressure p is to
be measured. The pressure at point A is atmospheric pressure p0
because this arm is open to atmosphere. To find the pressure at point
C, which is exposed to the pressure of the gas in the container, we
consider a point B in the open arm of the manometer at the same level
as point C. The pressure at the points B and C is the same,
Fig. 2.14 Open tube manometer. Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 13
i.e., PC = PB
The pressure at point B
PB = PA + hρg
According to Pascal’s principle pressure at C is the same as at D, i.e., inside the
chamber. Therefore, the pressure p in the container is
P = PC
As w.k.t.
P = P0 + hρg
∴ P - P0 = hρg

2.4 Surface Tension:
We have seen that water spider walks on the surface of steady water, greased needle floats on
the steady surface of water, rain drops and soap bubbles always take spherical shape, etc. All
these phenomena arise due to surface tension. Surface tension is one of the important properties of
liquids.
2.4.1 Molecular Theory Of Surface Tension:
a) Intermolecular force: Any two molecules attract each other this force between molecules is called
intermolecular force
Types of intermolecular forces:
i) Cohesive Force : The force of attraction between the molecules of the same substance is called
cohesive force or force of cohesion.
example : force of attraction between two air molecules or

force of attraction that between two water molecules
ii) Adhesive Force : The force of attraction between the molecules of the different substances is called
adhesive force or force of adhesion.
example : force of attraction betweenShriglass

Swami and water
Vivekanand molecules.
Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 15
Surface tension on the basis of molecular theory:
Fig a 2.15 sphere of influence
b) Range of molecular force : The maximum distance from a molecule up to which the
molecular force is effective is called range of molecular force.
In solids and liquids range is.
10-9m
c) Sphere of influence : An imaginary sphere with a molecule at its center and radius
equal to the molecular range is called the sphere of influence of the molecule. Shown in fig a.
The intermolecular force is effective only within the sphere of influence.

Fig b 2.15 surface film.
d) Surface film : The surface layer of a liquid with thickness equal to the range of
intermolecular force is called the surface film. Shown in fig b. XX’-YY’
e) Free surface of a liquid : It is the surface of a fluid which does not experience any shear
stress.
For example, the interface between liquid water and the air above. XY
is the free surface of liquid.
f ) Surface tension on the basis of molecular theory:

From fig.2.15 (b) a beaker containing water ‘A’ molecule situated inside liquid surrounded by
same molecule hence resultant cohesive force on molecule ‘A’ is zero.
Molecule ‘B’ is just below the free surface maximum parts of its sphere of influence is in
liquid and some part is in air. Since number of molecule in lower half is more than upper half
region, the molecule ‘B’ experience resultant downward force.
The molecule ‘C’ is just on the free surface of the liquid, its half of the sphere of
influence is in air and half of the sphere in liquid. The downward force on the molecule become
maximum. Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 18
Thus all molecules in the surface film are acted upon by an unbalanced net cohesive force
directed in to the liquid. Therfore molecules are pulled inside minimizes total number of
molecules in the surface film. As a result surface film remains under tension. The surface film of
a liquid behaves like a stretched elastic membrane. This tension is known as surface tension

2.4.2 SURFACE TENSION and SURFACE ENERGY :-
a) SURFACE TENSION :-
Surface tension T is defined as ,the tangential force acting per unit length on both
sides of an imaginary line drawn on the free surface of liquid .
𝐹
T=
𝐿
S.I unit of surface tension is N/m
It’s Dimension are [L0M1T-2]
Fig. 2.16 Force of surface tension
b) Surface Energy:
work has to be done to bring the molecule from inside the liquid
into the surface film. This extra potential energy possessed by molecules in
the surface layer is called the
Shri surface energy.
Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 20
c) RELATION BETWEEN SURFACE ENERGY AND SURFACE TENSION :
fig.2.17 Surface energy of a liquid

Consider a rectangular frame of wire P’PSS’.It is fitted with movable arm QR as shown in fig.2.17
The frame is dipped in a soap solution and taken out so that film will be formed with boundaries
PQRS.
Arm QR moves towards PS to decrease the surface area of film. If QR is L, then inward force F is given
by
F = T × (2L)
Since film has two surfaces ,total length over which surface tension acts on QR is 2L.Imagine, an external
force F’ applied isothermally to QR so it moves to Q’R’ through distance dx which increase surface area of
film. Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 21
fig.2.17 Surface energy of a liquid
Workdone against force is

dw = F’ dx
dw = T (2Ldx)
2Ldx =dA increase in area of the two surfaces of the film
dw = T (dA)
This workdone in stretching film is stored in area dA as potential energy. This energy is
called surface energy.
Surface energy = T (dA)
2.4.3 Angle of contact:
The angle of contact, θ , between a liquid and a solid surface is defined as the angle
between the tangent drawn to the free surface of the liquid and surface of the solid at the point of
contact, measured within the liquid.
Mercury in a glass
Water in a glass
Angle of contact is obtuse
Angle of contact is acute
θ >90
θ < 90
Fig. 2.18 (a) Concave meniscus Fig. 2.18 (b) Convex meniscus due
due to liquids which partially wet to liquids which do not wet
a solid surface. a solid surface.
a) Shape of meniscus:
i) Concave meniscus-acute angle of contact:
Fig. 2.19 (a): Acute angle of contact.

Whenever the free surface of a liquid comes in contact with a solid it becomes curved near the place of
contact. The nature of curvature depends on the relative magnitude of the cohesive forces between molecules
and molecules of the surface in contact it is always measured inside the liquid of surface in contact.
From fig. 2.19(a) consider molecule “A” of a liquid near the point of contact of solid and liquid. The
mole. ‘A’ is acted up on by two forces’
i) Adhesive force between mole. ‘A’ and solid molecules . This force is perpendicular to the solid surface.
i.e. adhesive force have greater in magnitude.
ii) The molecule ‘A’ exerts the cohesive force due to the liquid mole. This is inside the liquid and have
smaller in magnitude than adhesive force, Hence near the point of contact liquid surface behave as concave.
The angle of contact will be acute or lessShrithan
Swami90 0.
Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 24
ii) Convex meniscus-obtuse angle of contact:
Fig. 2.19 (b): Obtuse angle of contact

From fig. 2.19 (b) consider mole. ‘A’ of a mercury near the point of contact of glass and mercury. The
molecule A is acted up on by four type of forces.
i) Adhesive force represented by AP
ii) The molecule ‘A’ is acted by adhesive force due to the presence of air in the sphere of influence.
iii) The molecule ’A’ acted by the cohesive force due to the liquid mole.
The resultant force is directed into the liquid, hence liquid behave as convex surface near the
point of contact. The angle of contact will be obtuse or greater than 900.
iii) Zero angle of contact:
Fig. 2.19 (c): Angle of contact equal to zero.
The angle of contact between a liquid (e.g. highly pure water) which completely wets a
solid (e.g. clean glass) surface. The angle of contact in this case is almost zero ( θ = 00).
In this case, normal component to point of contact is same in magnitude opposite in direction cancel
each other therefore angle of contact will be zero.

iv) Angle of contact 900 and conditions for convexity and concavity :
𝐴𝑃
sin θ = θ = 450 A AP= CR
𝐴𝐶
AP = AC sin θ θ
1
R C
Sin450 = √2
𝐴𝐶
Fig. 2.19 (d): Acute angle equal to 900. AP = √2
The net cohesive force AC is exactly at 450 with either of surfaces and resultant force
AR is exactly vertical along solid surface
𝐴𝐶
For this to occur AP =
√2
Conditions for acute and obtuse angle of contact
𝐴𝐶
For acute angle of contact , AP >
√2
𝐴𝐶
Obtuse angle of contact AP <
√2
b) Shape of liquid drops on a solid surface:
fig. 2.20 (a) Acute angle

fig. 2.20 (b) Obtuse angle
The surface tension exist along the surface between
a) Liquid and solid ( T1 )
b) Solid and air ( T2 )
c) Liquid and air, ( T3 )
Consider the formation of the liquid drop on a solid surface. Let from fig. 2.20 (a)
T1, T2 , T3 be the S.T. between solid-liquid, solid and air, liquid and air resp.
From fig T = T + T cosθ
2
Shri Swami Vivekanand 1
Shikshan 3
Sanstha, Kolhapur 28
T2 −T1
Cosθ = …………..(i)
T3
Case-I :- If T2 < T1 Cosθ is –ve, i.e. θ > 900
Case-II :- If T2 – T1 = T3 Cosθ = 1 i.e. θ = 00
Case-III :- If T2 > T1 Cosθ is +ve, i.e. θ < 900
Case-IV :- If T2 – T1 > T3 θ >1 It is practically impossible

c) Factors affecting the angle of contact:
i) The nature of the liquid and the solid in contact.
ii) Impurity : Impurities present in the liquid change the angle of contact.
iii) Temperature of the liquid : Any increase in the temperature of a liquid decreases its angle of contact
for a given solid-liquid.
2.4.4 EFFECT OF IMPURITY AND TEMPERATURE ON SURFACE TENSION :-
a) Effect of impurities on surface tension:

The effect of impurities on surface tension of liquid can be either due to soluble
impurities or insoluble impurities on the surface of liquid.
i. Effect of soluble impurities:

In the case of highly soluble impurities like common salt, the solute molecules are
attracted more strongly to liquid molecules.
This results in increase of surface tension.
ii. Effect of insoluble or partly soluble impurities:

If impurity is insoluble or partly soluble in liquid, surface tension of liquid
decreases. Soap or detergent in water decrease the surface tension of water.
b) Effect of temperature on surface tension:
In most of liquid surface tension decreases with increase in temperature.
When the liquid is heated, the molecules of liquid are in random motion with more
velocity, reduces surface tension. Hence surface tension of the liquid decreases with
increase in temperature
Critical Temperature :- The surface tension of a liquid becomes zero at critical temperature.
2.4.5 Excess pressure across the free surface of a liquid:
a) PLANE SURFACE :-
Consider a small surface area of element AB of a free surface.

The force due to surface tension are equal in magnitude and opposite
in direction hence the resultant force on surface is zero. Therefore liquid
fig. 2.21 (a) Plane Surface
surface behave as plane. Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 31
b) Convex liquid surface:
Consider a small surface element AB of a liquid in
fig. 2.21(b) like mercury is ion container. The small element
AB on which forces due to the S.T. net force acts inside the
liquid. The pressure inside the liquid is greater than
fig. 2.21 (b) Convex surface
atmospheric pressure. Hence liquid surface behave as convex.
c) Concave liquid surface:
Consider a small surface area of element AB of a free
surface. From fig.2.21(c) the resultant force is in the upward
direction. There is pressure difference between inside and
outside. The pressure on surface is maximum, hence the liquid
surface behave as concave. Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur
fig. 2.21 (c) Concave surface
32
Mechanical Properties of Fluids
2.4.6 Explanation of formation of drops and bubbles:
Fig. 2.22. Excess pressure inside a liquid drop

The liquid drops and bubbles are spherical in nature due to S.T. The pressure inside bubbles is
greater than outside.
Let in fig 2.22 , P0 and Pi be the pressure outside and inside the bubbles
Excess pressure = Pi – P0
Let radius of the drop increases from ‘r’ to ‘ r + ∆r’ to maintain pressure same area must be
increases.
Initial area A1 = 4πr2
Final surface area
A2 = 4π(r+ ∆r )2
A2 = 4π ( r2 + 2r. ∆r + ∆r2 )
A2 = 4πr + 8π.r. ∆r + 4π.∆r2

2
A2 = 4πr2 + 8πr. ∆r
∵ 4π.∆r2 = 0
From fig 2.22 increases in surface area

dA = A2 – A1
from above equation dA = 4𝜋r2 + 8𝜋r.∆r - 4𝜋r2
dA = 8𝜋r.∆r
Work done to increase the surface area will be
dw = T. dA
i.e.
dw = T. 8𝜋r.∆r
OR
dw = dF. ∆r ………..(i)
but dF = pressure x area
= (pi – p0) 4𝜋r2
dw = (pi – p0) 4𝜋r2 .∆r …………..(ii)

Equating equation (i) and (ii)
T. 8𝜋r.∆r = (pi – p0) 4𝜋r2 .∆r
T.8πr.∆r
(pi – p0) =
4π𝑟 2 .∆r
2T
(pi – p0) = ……………(iii)
r
Bubble posses two surface , hence the excess pressure will be

4T
(pi – p0) = …………(iv)
r
Eg :- The threads of rain coat are coated with
Shri Swami water
Vivekanand proofing
Shikshan like resin etc.
Sanstha, Kolhapur 35
2.4.7 Capillary Action:-
A tube having a very fine bore ( ~ 1 mm) and open at both ends is called a capillary tube.
If one end of a capillary tube is dipped in a liquid which partially or completely wets the surface of the
capillary like water the level of liquid in the capillary rises. On the other hand, if the capillary tube is dipped in
a liquid which does not wet its surface like mercury the level of liquid in the capillary drops.
The phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid inside a capillary tube when it is
dipped in the liquid is called capillarity.
Capillarity is in action when,
•Oil rises up the wick of a lamp.
•Cloth rag sucks water.
•Water rises up the crevices in rocks.
•Sap and water rise up to the top most leaves in a tree. ‘The phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid in
capillary
•Blotting paper absorbs ink.

a) CAPILLARY FALL:
Consider a capillary tube dipped in a liquid in fig. 2.23 (a) which does not wet the
surface, like in mercury. The shape of mercury meniscus in the capillary is upper convex.
Consider the points A, B, C, and D such that,
i) Point A is just above the convex surface and inside the capillary.
ii) Point B is just below the convex surface inside the capillary.
iii) Point C is just above the plane surface outside the capillary.
Fig. 2.23 (a) : Capillary in
iv) Point D is just below the plane surface and outside the capillary, and below the point C
mercury before drop in level.
Let PA, PB, PC, and PD be the pressure at A, B, C, and D resp. The liquid level inside the capillary is
concave.
PA < PB
The liquid surface is plane
PC = PD = PA
The point B and D are at same level
PB > PD
But the points B and D are at the same horizontal level. Thus, in order to maintain the same pressure, the mercury in the
capillary rushes out of the capillary. Because of this, there is a drop in the level of mercury inside the capillary as shown
in Fig.
b) CAPILLARY RISE :
Consider a liquid like water in fig. 2.23 (b) which wet the capillary, level in the capillary is
concave. Consider four points A, B, C, and D such as ‘A’ is just above the liquid surface.
Surface ‘B’ is just below the liquid inside the capillary, ‘C’ is just above and ‘D’ just below the
liquid surface.
Let PA, PB, PC, and PD be the pressure at A, B, C, and D resp. The liquid level inside the
capillary is concave.
PA > PB
The liquid surface is plane
PC = PD = PA
The point B and D are at same level
Fig. 2.23 (b): Capillary in
P B < PD mercury, drop in level
But the points B and D are at the same horizontal level. Thus, in order to maintain the same
pressure, in the capillary water rises in the capillary. Because of this, there is a rise in the level
of water inside the capillary as shown in Fig.
Expression for capillary rise or fall:
Method (I): Using pressure difference:-
The pressure due to the liquid (water) column of height h must be equal to the pressure difference
2T/R due to the concavity
2𝑇
hρg =
𝑅
Let r be the radius of the capillary tube and θ be the angle of contact
of the liquid as shown in fig. 2.25 (a)
Radius of curvature of miniscus is given by

𝑟
R=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 fig. 2.25 (a) Forces acting

hρg =
𝑟 at the point of contact.
2𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
h= ………….(i)
𝑟𝜌𝑔Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur
Shri Swami Vivekanand 39
If the capillary tube is held vertical in a liquid that has a convex meniscus, then the
angle of contact q is obtuse. Therefore, cosq is negative and so is h. This means that the
liquid will suffer capillary fall or depression.
b) (Method II): Using forces:
Consider a glass capillary tube of internal radius ‘r’ dipped in water.
Let from fig. 2.25 (b) ‘h’ be the rise of water in a capillary then normal
liquid level. At the point of contact of liquid and glass a force per unit
length ‘T’ acts tangentially to the surface. The force of magnitude T
acts on unit length of liquid surface which is in contact with wall of
capillary tube.
This force fT can be resolved into two components
a. fTcosθ - vertically upward and
Fig 2.25 (b): Forces acting on
b. fTsinθ - along horizontal liquid inside a capillary
Vertical component is effective. The horizontal
components due to all the molecule along the circumference cancel each
other.
Total vertical force on liquid column = force per unit length x
Circumference
Total vertical force on liquid column = Tcosθ x 2𝜋r …………(i)
Upward force balances weight of liquid column.

Upward force = weight of liquid
T cosθ x 2𝜋r = mg ………(ii)

m = 𝜌v
m = 𝜌Ah
m = 𝜌h 𝜋r2
substituting value of ‘m’ in eqn(i)
T cosθ x 2𝜋r = 𝜌h 𝜋r2 g
rhρg
T= ………….(iii)
2cosθ
2.5 Fluids in Motion:
The branch of Physics which deals with the study of
properties of fluids in motion is called hydrodynamics.
Consider a pipe whose direction and cross sectional area
change arbitrarily. The direction of flow of the fluid in pipe is as
shown. We assume an ideal fluid to flow through the pipe. We define a
few terms used to describe flow of a fluid. Fig. 2.26: Flow lines and flow tube
Steady flow: Measurable property, such as pressure or velocity of the fluid at a given point is constant over time
Flow line: It is the path of an individual particle in a moving fluid as shown in Fig.2.26
Streamline: It is a curve whose tangent at any point in the flow is in the direction of the velocity of the flow at
that point. Streamlines and flow lines are identical for a steady flow.
Flow tube: It is an imaginary bundle of flow lines bound by an imaginary wall. For a steady flow, the fluid
cannot cross the walls of a flow tube. Fluids in adjacent flow tubes cannot mix.
Laminar flow/Streamline flow: It is a steady flow in which adjacent

layers of a fluid move smoothly over each other as shown in Fig. 2.27
(a) A steady flow of river can be assumed to be a laminar flow.
Fig. 2.27 (a): Streamline flow
Turbulent flow: It is a flow at a very high flow rate so that there is no steady
flow and the flow pattern changes continuously as shown in Fig.2.27 (b) A
flooded river flow or a tap running very fast is a turbulent flow.
Fig. 2.27 (b):
Turbulent flow
2.6 Critical Velocity and Reynolds number:

The flow of a fluid, whether streamline or turbulent, is differentiated on the basis of velocity
of the flow. The velocity beyond which a streamline flow becomes turbulent is called critical velocity.
𝑅𝑛 𝜂
Vc = ………….(i)
𝜌𝑑
VC= critical velocity of the fluid
Rn= Reynolds number
h = coefficient of viscosity
r = density of fluid
d = diameter of tube
From above equation for Reynolds number can be written as,
𝑉𝑐 𝜌𝑑
Rn = ……………(ii)
𝜂
Reynold number is a pure number. It has no unit and dimension.
i) If Reynolds number is less than 1000, the flow of a fluid is streamline
ii) If Reynolds number is Rn greater than 2000, the flow of fluid is turbulent.
iii) If Reynolds number is Rn is between 1000 and 2000, the flow of fluid becomes unsteady, i.e., it changes
from a streamline flow to a turbulent flow.

2.6.1 Viscosity:-
When we pour water from a glass, it flows freely and quickly. But when we pour syrup or honey, it flows
slowly and sticks to the container. The difference is due to fluid friction. This friction is both within the fluid itself and
between the fluid and its surroundings. This property of fluids is called viscosity. Water has low viscosity, whereas syrup
or honey has high viscosity.
Fig. 2.28 Viscous flow

For Viscous liquid flow different layers flow with different velocities. The central layer flows the fastest
and the outermost layers flow the slowest.
Fig. 2.29 Non-viscous flow

For non viscous liquid flow there is no dragging force in the non-viscous flow, and all layers are
moving with the same velocity. Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 45
Fig. 2.30 Change in velocity of layer as its distance from a referee layer changes.
Viscosity is that property of fluid, by virtue of which, the relative motion between different layers of a fluid
experience a dragging force.
This force is called the viscous drag.
In liquids, the viscous drag is due to short range molecular cohesive forces, and in gases it is due
to collisions between fast moving molecules.
In both liquids and gases, as long as the relative velocity between the layers is small, the viscous
drag is proportional to the relative velocity.
However, in a turbulent flow, the viscous drag increases rapidly and is not proportional to
relative velocity but proportional to higher powers of relative velocity.
Velocity gradient: The rate of change of velocity (dv) with distance (dx) measured from a stationary
layer is called velocity gradient (dv/dx). Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 46
2.6.2 Coefficient of viscosity:
According to Newton’s law of viscosity, for a streamline flow, viscous force (f) acting on any layer is
directly proportional to the area (A) of the layer and the velocity gradient (dv/dx)
𝑑𝑣
f αA
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣
f = ηA
𝑑𝑥
η is a constant called coefficient of viscosity.
𝑓
η= 𝑑𝑣
A 𝑑𝑥
The coefficient of viscosity can be defined as the viscous force per unit area per unit velocity gradient.
S.I. unit of viscosity is Ns/m2.
2.7 Stokes’ Law:-
Fig 2.31 Spherical object moving through a viscous medium.
The law states that, “The viscous force(Fv) acting on a small sphere falling through a viscous medium is
directly proportional to the radius of the sphere (r), its velocity(v) through the fluid, and the coefficient of
viscosity (η) of the fluid”
Fv 𝛼 ηrv
Fv=6πηrv
6π is constnt.
2.7.1 Terminal Velocity:
Consider a spherical object falling through a viscous fluid. Forces experienced by it during its downward
motion are
i) Viscous force (F ), directed upwards. Its magnitude goes on increasing with increase in its velocity.
ii) Gravitational force, or its weight (Fg), directed downwards, and
iii) Buoyant force or upthrust (Fu), directed upwards.
Fig. 2.32 Forces acting on object moving through a viscous medium.
Consider a spherical object falling under gravity through a viscous medium as shown in Fig.2.32
Let the radius of the sphere be r, its mass m and density ρ. Let the density of the medium be 𝜎 and its
coefficient of viscosity be η. When the sphere attains the terminal velocity, the total downward force
acting on the sphere is balanced by the total upward force acting on the sphere.

Total downward force = Total upward force
weight of sphere (mg) = viscous force + wt. of medium displaced of medium
4 4
π𝑟 3 ρg = 6πηrv + π𝑟 3 𝜎g
3 3
4 4
6πηrv = π𝑟 3 ρg - π𝑟 3 𝜎g
3 3
4
6πηrv = π𝑟 3 (ρ -𝜎 ) g
3
4 3
3
π𝑟 (ρ −𝜎 ) g
V=
6πηr
4 𝑟 2 (ρ −𝜎 ) g
V=
18η
2 𝑟 2 (ρ −𝜎 ) g
V=
9 η
OR
2 𝑟 2 (ρ
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan −𝜎 )Kolhapur
Sanstha, g 50
η=
9 𝑉
2.8 Equation of Continuity:
Fig. 2.33: Steady flow fluid.
Consider a steady flow of an incompressible fluid as shown in Fig. 2.33 For a steady flow, the velocity of a particle
remains constant at a given point but it can vary from point to point. For example, consider section A1 and A2 in Fig.
Section A1 has larger cross sectional area than the section A2. Let V1 and V2 be the velocities of the fluid at sections
A1 and A2 respectively.
This is because, a particle has to move faster in the narrower section. When a particle enters a wider section,
it slows down because there is more space. Because the fluid is incompressible, the particles moves faster through a
narrow section and slow down while moving through wider section.
All the fluid that passes through a tube of flow must pass through any cross section that cuts the tube of
flow. We know that all the fluid is confined to the tube of flow. Fluid can not leave the tube or enter the tube. Let the
speed of the fluid which crosses the section EFGH at point A in time interval ∆t be v . Thus, the volume of the fluid
entering the tube through the cross section at point A is ρA1v1 ∆t. Similarly, let the speed of the fluid be v2 at point
B. The fluid crosses the section PQRS of area A2 in time interval ∆t. Thus, the mass of the fluid leaving the tube
through the cross section at B is ρA2v2 ∆t. Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 51
As fluid is incompressible, the mass of the fluid entering the tube at point A is the same as the mass
leaving the tube at B Mass of the fluid in section EFGH = mass of fluid in section PQRS
ρA1v1 ∆t = ρA2v2 ∆t
A1v1 = A2v2
or,
Av = constant
Av is the volume rate of flow of a fluid.

𝑑𝑣
AV =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
is the volume of a fluid per unit time passing through any cross section of the tube of flow. It is called the volume
𝑑𝑡
flux. Similarly,
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑚
ρ = is called mass flux.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Av = constant is called the equation of continuity in fluid dynamics.
The continuity equation says that the volume rate of flow of an incompressible fluid for a steady flow is the same
throughout the flow.
2.9 Bernoulli Equation:
Fig. 2.34 Flow of fluid through a tube of varying cross section and height
the work done per unit volume of a fluid by the surrounding fluid is equal to the sum of the
changes in kinetic and potential energies per unit volume that occur during the flow.
Bernoulli’s equation relates the speed of a fluid at a point, the pressure at that point and the height
of that point above a reference level. It is an application of work – energy theorem for a fluid in flow. While
deriving Bernoulli’s equation, we will prove that the net work done on a fluid element by the pressure of
the surrounding fluid is equal to the sum of the change in the kinetic energy and the change in the
gravitational potential energy.
From Fig. 2.34 consider an element of fluid that lies between cross sections P and R. Let,
i) v1 and v2 be the speed the fluid at the lower end P and the upper end R respectively.
ii) A1 and A2 be the cross section area of the fluid at the lower end P and the upper end R resp.
iii) p1 and p2 be the pressures of the fluid at the lower end P and the upper R respectively.
iv) d1 and d2 be the distances travelled by the fluid at the lower and P and the upper and R during the time
interval dt with velocities v1 and v2
v) p1 A1 and p2 A2 be the forces acting on the equation of continuity, the volume dV of the fluid passing
through any cross section during time interval dt is the same; i.e.,
dV = A1d1 = A2d2 …….(i)
There is no internal friction in the fluid as the fluid is ideal. In practice also, for a fluid like water, the loss in
energy due to viscous force is negligible. So the only non-gravitational force that does work on the fluid
element is due to the pressure of the surrounding fluid. Therefore, the net work, W, done on the element by the
surrounding fluid during the flow from P to R
W = p1A1d1 – p2A2d2 ………….(ii)
The second term in the above equation has a negative sign because the force at R opposes the displacement of
the fluid. From the above equation can be written as,
W = p1dV – P2dV

W = ( P1 – P2 )dV ……..(iii)
As work is due to forces is conservative therefore
W = ∆ K.E. + ∆P.E.
The second term in the above equation has a negative sign because the force at R opposes the displacement of the fluid.
From the above equation can be written as,
W = p1dV – P2dV
W = ( P1 – P2 )dV ……..(iii)
As work is due to forces is conservative therefore
W = ∆ K.E. + ∆P.E.
Where
1 1
∆ K.E. = 2 ρ(A2d2)𝑉22 - 2 ρ(A1d1)𝑉12
1 1
∆ K.E. = ρdv𝑉22 - ρdv𝑉12
2 2
1 2 2
∆Swami
Shri = ρdvShikshan
K.E.Vivekanand 𝑉1 )……..(iv)
( 𝑉2 -Sanstha, Kolhapur 55
2
At beginning
Mgh1 = ρdVgh1
At end
Mgh2 = ρdVgh2
Therefore change in potential energy

∆P.E. = ρdVgh2 - ρdVgh1
∆P.E. = ρdVg( h2 - h1) ………(v)

From equation (iv) and (v)
1
W = 2 ρdV ( 𝑉22 - 𝑉12 ) + ρdVg( h2 - h1)
1
( P1 – P2 )dV = 2 ρdV ( 𝑉22 - 𝑉12 ) + ρdVg( h2 - h1)
1
( P1 – P2 ) = 2 ρ ( 𝑉22 - 𝑉12 ) + ρg( h2 - h1)……(vi)
This is Bernoulli’s equation. It can be written as
1 1
P1 +2 ρ 𝑉12 + ρgh1 = P2 + 2 ρ 𝑉22 + ρgh2
OR
1
P +2 ρ 𝑉 + ρgh = constant………(vii)
Applications of Bernoulli’s equation:

a) Speed of efflux:
Fig. 2.35 Efflux of fluid from an orifice.

Consider a liquid of density ‘ρ’ filled in a tank of large cross-sectional area A1 having an orifice of cross-
sectional area A2 at the bottom as shown in Fig. 2.35. Let A2 << A1. The liquid flows out of the tank through the orifice.
Let v1 and v2 be the speeds of the liquid at A1 and A2 respectively. As both, inlet and outlet, are exposed to the atmosphere,
the pressure at these position equals the atmosphere pressure p0. If the height of the free surface above the orifice is h,
Bernoulli’s equation gives us,
1 1
Shri Swami
ρ 𝑉12 + Shikshan
P0 +2Vivekanand ρgh = P ρ 𝑉22
0 + 2 Kolhapur
Sanstha, 57
Using equation of continuity
𝐴2 2
V1 = V2
𝐴1
From above equation

1 𝐴2 2 2 1
ρ 𝑉2 + ρgh = ρ 𝑉22
2 𝐴1 2
𝐴2 2 2
𝑉2 + 2gh = 𝑉22
𝐴1
𝐴2 2 2
2gh = 𝑉22 - 𝑉2
𝐴1
𝐴2 2 2
2gh = ( 1 - ) 𝑉2
𝐴1
If A2 <<<<A1
V2 = 2gh
b) Ventury tube :-
Fig. 2.36 Ventury tube
A ventury tube is used to measure the speed of flow of a fluid in a tube. It has a constriction in the tube. As the fluid passes
through the constriction, its speed increases in accordance with the equation of continuity.
1 1
Using Bernoulli’s principle P1 +2 ρ 𝑉12 = P2 + 2 ρ 𝑉22
1
P1 - P2 = 2 ρ ( 𝑉22 −𝑉12 )
As A1 and A2 are at different height

P1 - P2 = ρgh
1
∴ ρgh = 2 ρ ( 𝑉22 −𝑉12 )
2 Kolhapur
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 2 59
∴ 2gh = ( 𝑉2 −𝑉1 ) ……(i)
c) Lifting up of an aeroplane:-
Fig. 2.37 Airflow along an aerofoil.

The shape of cross section of wings of an aeroplane is as shown in Fig.2.37 When an aeroplane runs on a runway, due
to aerodynamic shape of its wings, the streamlines of air are crowded above the wings compared to those below the wings.
Thus, the air above the wings moves faster than that below the that below the wings increases. Due to this pressure
difference, an upward force called the dynamic lift acts on the bottom of the wings of a plane. When this force becomes
greater than the weight of aeroplane, the aeroplane takes off.
d) Working of an Atomizer :-
.
Fig. 2.38: Atomizer

The action of the carburetor of an automobile engine paint-gun, scent-sprayor insect-sprayer is based on the
Bernoulli’s principle. In all these, a tube T is dipped in a liquid as shown in Fig.2.38 Air is blown at high speed over the
tip of this tube with the help of a piston P in the cylinder C. This high speed air creates low pressure over the tube, due to
which the liquid rises in it and is then blown off in very small droplets with expelled air.
e) Blowing off of roofs by stormy wind:
Fig. 2.39 Airflow along a roof.
When high speed, stormy wind blows over a roof top, it causes low pressure p above the roof in
accordance with the Bernoulli’s principle. However, the air below the roof (i.e. inside the room) is still at
the atmospheric pressure p0. So, due to this difference in pressure, the roof is lifted up and is then blown off
by the wind as shown in Fig.2.39
M.C.Q. from Text Book
01. A hydraulic lift is designed to lift heavy objects of maximum mass 2000 kg. The area of cross section
of piston carrying the load is 2.25 x 10-2 m2. What is the maximum pressure the smaller piston would have
to bear?
(A) 0.8711 x 106 N/m2 (B) 0.5862 x 107 N/m2 C) 0.4869 x 105 N/m2 (D) 0.3271 x 104 N/m2
Given :-
m = 2000 kg 𝐹
P=
𝐴
g = 9.8 m/s2
𝑚𝑔
A = 2.25 x 10-2 m2 P=
𝐴
2000 𝑥 9.8
P=
2.25 𝑥 10−2
P = 0.8711 x 106 N/m2

02. Two capillary tubes of radii 0.3 cm and 0.6 cm are dipped in the same liquid. The ratio
of heights through which the liquid will rise in the tubes is
(A) 1:2 (B) 2:1 (C) 1:4 (D) 4:1
h1 r 1 = h2 r 2
ℎ1 𝑟2
=
ℎ2 𝑟1
ℎ1 0.6
=
ℎ2 0.3
ℎ1
=2:1
ℎ2

03. The energy stored in a soap bubble of diameter 6 cm and T = 0.04 N/m is nearly
(A) 0.9 x 10-3 J (B) 0.4 x 10-3 J (C) 0.7 x 10-3 J (D) 0.5 x 10-3 J
U = 2.T.A
U = 2.T.4πr2
U = 2 x 0.04 x 4 x 3.142 x (3 x 10-2)2
U = 8 x 0.04 x 3.142 x 9 x 10-4 U = 0.904 x 10-3 J
U ≅ 0.9 x 10-3 J
04. Two hail stones with radii in the ratio of 1:4 fall from a great height through the
atmosphere. Then the ratio of their terminal velocities is
(A) 1:2 (B) 1:12 (C) 1:16 (D) 1:8
As terminal velocity
V α r2
𝑉1 𝑟12
=
𝑉2 𝑟22
𝑉1 12
=
𝑉2 42
𝑉1 1
= i.e. 1 : 16
𝑉2 16

05. In Bernoulli’s theorem, which of the following is conserved?
(A) linear momentum
(B)angular momentum
(C) mass
(D) Energy
Ans :- ( D ) Energy

10. Find the pressure 200 m below the surface of the ocean if pressure on the
free surface of liquid is one atmosphere. (Density of sea water = 1060 kg/m3)
[Ans. 21.789 x 105 N/m2]
Given :-
h = 200 m , P0 = 1 atm = 1.013 x 105 N/m2
ρ = 1060 kg /m3
g = 9.8 m/s2 P = P0 + hρg
P = 1.013 x 105 + 200 x1060 x 9.8
P = 21.789 x 105 N/m2

11. In a hydraulic lift, the input piston had surface area 30 cm2 and the output piston has surface
area of 1500 cm2. If a force of 25 N is applied to the input piston, calculate weight on output
piston. [Ans. 1250 N]
Given :- 𝐹1 𝐹2
=
𝐴1 𝐴2
A1 = 30 cm2 = 30 x 10-4 m2
A2 = 1500 cm2 = 1500 x 10-4 m2

𝐴2
F1 = 25 N F2 = F1
𝐴1
F2 = ?
25 x 1500 x 10−4
F2 =
30 x 10−4
F2 = 1250 N
12. Calculate the viscous force acting on a rain drop of diameter 1 mm, falling with a
uniform velocity 2 m/s through air. The coefficient of viscosity of air is 1.8 x 10-5 Ns/m2.
[Ans. 3.393 x 10-7 N]
Given :-
d = 1mm = 1 x 10-3 m,
r = d/2 = 0.5 x 10-3 m F = 6πrvη
V = 2 m/s
η = 1.8 x 10-5 N-s/m2 F = 6 x 3.142 x 0.5 x 10-3 x 2 x 1.8 x 10-5
F=?
By stokes law F = 3.393 x 10-7 N
F = 6πrvη

13. A horizontal force of 1 N is required to move a metal plate of area 10-2 m2 with a
velocity of 2 x 10-2 m/s, when it rests on a layer of oil 1.5 x 10-3 m thick. Find the
coefficient of viscosity of oil. [Ans. 7.5 Ns/m2]
Given :- 𝑑𝑣
F = η A.
𝑑𝑥
F=1N
A = 10-2 m2 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑥
η=
𝐴 . 𝑑𝑣
dv = 2 x 10-2 m/s
dx = 1.5 x 10-3 m
1 x 1.5 𝑥 10−3
η=
η=? 10−2 𝑥 2 𝑥 10−2
η = 7.5 N-s/m2
14. With what terminal velocity will an air bubble 0.4 mm in diameter rise in a liquid of
viscosity 0.1 Ns/m2 and specific gravity 0.9? Density of air is 1.29 kg/m3.
[Ans. - 0.782 x 10-3 m/s, The negative sign indicates that the bubble rises up]
Given :- Specific gravity =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
d = 0.4 mm = 4 x 10-4 m
r = d/2 = 2 x 10-4 𝜎
Specific gravity =
𝜌
η = 0.1 N-s/m2
ρ = 1.29 kg/m3
σ = ρ x specific gravity
g = 9.8 m/s2
Specific gravity = 0.9 σ = 0.9 x 1000
Terminal velocity V ?
σ = 900
2 𝑟 2 𝑥 𝜌− 𝜎 𝑔
V=
9 𝜂
2
2 2 𝑥 10−4 𝑥 1.29 − 900 𝑥 9.8
V=
9 0.1
V = - 0.7828 x 10-3 m/s
( The negative sign indicates that the bubble rises up )

15. The speed of water is 2m/s through a pipe of internal diameter 10 cm. What should be the
internal diameter of nozzle of the pipe if the speed of water at nozzle is 4 m/s?
[Ans. 7.07 x 10-2 m]
Given :- 2 𝑥 10 −1 2
𝑑22 =
4
Input internal diameter d1 = 10 cm = 10-1m
Out put diameter d2 = ?
By equation of continuity 1 𝑥 10−2
A1V1 = A2V2 d2 =
2
π𝑟12 V1 = π𝑟22 V2
d2 = 50 𝑥 10−2
𝑑12 V1 = 𝑑22 V2
𝑑12 𝑉1
𝑑22 = d2 = 7.071 x 10-2 m
𝑉2

16. With what velocity does water flow out of an orifice in a tank with gauge pressure
4 x 105 N/m2 before the flow starts? Density of water = 1000 kg/m3.
[Ans. 28.28 m/s]
𝑝
V2 = U2 + 2g .
Given :- 𝜌𝑔
P = 4 x 105 N/m2
2𝑝
ρ = 1000 kg/m3 V2 = 0 +
𝜌
as
p = hρg 2 𝑥 4 𝑥 105
V2 =
1000
𝑝
h= ……….(i)
𝜌𝑔 V = 28.28 m/s
17. The pressure of water inside the closed pipe is 3 x 105 N/m2. This pressure reduces to
2 x 105 N/m2 on opening the value of the pipe. Calculate the speed of water flowing through
the pipe. (Density of water = 1000 kg/m3).
[Ans. 14.14 m/s]
1
Given:- P1 – P2 = ρ 𝑉22 − 𝑉12
2
Initial velocity V1 = 0
Final velocity V2 = ? 2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝑉22 =
𝜌
2 3 𝑥 105 −2 𝑥 105
𝑉22 =
1000
V2 = 14.14 m/s
18. Calculate the rise of water inside a clean glass capillary tube of radius 0.1 mm. When
immersed in water of surface tension 7 x 10-2 N/m. The angle of contact between water and
glass is zero, density of water = 1000 kg/m3, g = 9.8 m/s2
Given :-
r = 0.1mm = 1 x 10-4m
T = 7 x 10-2 N/m
2𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
h=
θ = 00 𝑟ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝜌 = 1000 kg/m3
2 𝑥 7 𝑥 10−2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠0
h=
1 𝑥 10−4 𝑥 1000 𝑥 9.8
g = 9.8 m/s2
h=? h = 0.1428 m
19. An air bubble of radius 0.2 mm is situated just below the water surface. Calculate the gauge pressure .
Surface tension of water = 7.2 x 10-2 N/m
Given :_
r = 0.2 mm = 2 x 10-4m
T = 7.2 x 10-2 N/m
∆P = ? 2𝑇
∆P =
𝑟
2 𝑥 7.2 𝑥 10−2
∆P =
2 𝑥 10−4
∆P = 7200 N/m2

20. Twenty seven droplets of water, each of radius 0.1 mm coalesces into a single drop. Find the change
in surface energy. Surface tension of water is 0.072 N/m.
Given :- Volume of 27 droplets = volume of single drop
n = 27
4 4
r = 0.1mm = 1 x 10-4m n 𝜋 r3 = 𝜋 R3
3 3
T = 0.072 N/m
R = 3r
S.E. = ? ∴ change in S.E. = Work done
1Τ
dw = 4 𝜋R2T(𝑛 3 −1)
1
dw = 4𝜋 x 3𝑟 2 x T(27 Τ3 − 1 )
1
dw = 4𝑥 3.142 x 9 𝑥 10−4 2 x 0.072 x (27 Τ3 − 1 )
dw = 16.28 x 10-8 J
21. A drop of mercury of radius 0.2 cm is broken into 8 droplets of the same size. Find the work done if
the surface tension of mercury is 435.5 dyne/cm.
Given :-
R = 0.2 cm = 0.2 x 10-2m
n=8
T = 435.5 dyne/cm
T = 435.5 x 10-3N/m2 S.E. = dw
S.E. = ?
1Τ
= 4 𝜋R2T(𝑛 3 −1)
1Τ
= 4 x 3.142 x 0.2 𝑥 10−2 2 x 435.5 x 10-3 (8 3 −1)
S.E. = 2.189 x 10-5 J

22. How much work is required to form a bubble of 2 cm radius from the soap solution having surface
tension 0.07 N/m.
Given :-
R = 2 cm = 2 x 10-2m
T = 0.07 N/m
dw = ?
dw = 2TdA
= 2 x 0.07 x 4 x 3.142 x 2 𝑥 10−2 2
= 0.703 x 10-3 J

23. A rectangular wire frame of size 2 cm x 2 cm, is dipped in a soap solution and taken out. A soap film
is formed, if the size of the film is changed to 3 cm x 3 cm, calculate the work done in the process.
The surface tension of soap film is 3 x 10-2 N/m.
Given :-
Initial Area
A1 = 2 cm x 2 cm = 4 x 10-4 m2
Final Area dw = 2TdA
A2 = 3 cm x 3 cm = 9 x 10-4 m2
T = 3 x 10-2 N/m = 2T(A2 – A1)
dw = ? = 2 x 3 x 10-2 (9 x 10-4 – 4 x 10-4)
= 3 x 10-5 J

Question Bank
ONE Mark Question
01. State Pascal’s Law
02. Explain why big dam’s having wall thicker at the bottom
03. Define Poise
04. Define Viscous force
05. What is an ideal fluid
06. Define Intermolecular force
07. Define sphere of influence
08. What will be the range of Reynolds number for streamline flow of liquid.
09. What is viscosity.
10. Terminal velocity of a body is depend upon height from which it dropped or not.
11. Why does a knife have a sharp edge. And a needle has a sharp tip ?
12. What will be the normal atmospheric pressure in bar and also in torr ?
13. Why can a water spider walks comfortably on the surface of still water ?
14. Why are free liquid drops and bubbles are always spherical in shape ?
15. How does a water proofing agent work ?
16. What would happen if two streamline flow intersect ?
17. Why do racer cars and birds have typical shape ?
18. Why is the surface tension of paints and lubricant oils kept low ?
19. How much amount of work is done in forming a soap bubble of radius ‘r’ ?
20. What is the basis of the Bernoulli’s principle ?
21. Why is a low density liquid used as a monochromatic liquid in a physics laboratory ?
22. What is an incompressible fluid ?
23. Why two or more mercury drops form a single drop when brought in contact with each other?
24. Why does velocity increases when water flowing in broader pipe enters a narrow pipe ?
25. When a large number of drops combine to form a big drop and vice-versa then what happen to energy and why
?
26. If a bubble is formed inside a liquid then what happens to the pressure inside and outside the bubble ?
27. Two spherical soap bubbles of radii r1 and r2 in vacuum coalesce under isothermal conditions. What is the radius
of the resultant bubble ?
TWO Mark Question
01. Distinguish between streamline flow and turbulent flow.
02. State and explain Newton’s law of viscosity .
03. State the application of capillarity.
04. Explain why angle of contact is acute for water glass pair and is obtuse for mercury glass pair.
05. Define Surface tension. State its S,I, unit and dimension.
06. What is viscous drag. State its S.I. unit and dimension.
07. State application of Bernoulli’s Equation.
08. Prove that equivalent S.I. unit of surface tension is J/m2
09. State different examples of streamline flow and turbulent flow.
10. Does the Bernoulli’s equation change when the fluid is at rest ? How?
11. Explain the capillary action .
12. Define :- i) Cohesive force ii) Adhesive force
13. Define i) Surface tension ii) Surface energy per unit area.
14. State the application of surface tension.
15. Draw a neat and labeled diagram for the rise of liquid in a capillary tube showing the
component of a surface tension.
16. Define and explain velocity gradient.
17. Obtain an expression for pressure to a liquid column.
18. What is Reynold’s number ? What is its significance ?

THREE Mark Question
01. State Bernoulli’s principle. Give equations for it.
02. Define surface energy per unit area. Obtain the relation between surface tension and surface
energy.
03. Using coefficient of viscosity show that 1 N.s/m2 = 10 poise.
04. Derive an expression for capillary rise using pressure difference method.
05. State and explain Newton’s law of viscosity.
06. Explain surface tension on the basis of molecular theory.
07. Define surface energy per unit area. Obtain the relation between surface tension and surface
energy.
08. State Stoke’s law. Prove it by dimensional analysis.
09. Derive an expression for capillary rise for a liquid having a concave meniscus.

FOUR Mark Question
01. Obtain an expression for the terminal velocity of small spherical body falling under
gravity through viscous fluid.
02. Derive Laplace’s law for spherical membrane
OR
02. Derive an expression of excesses pressure inside a liquid drop.
03. Obtain an expression for conservation of mass starting from the equation of continuity.
04. State Bernoulli’s principle. Give equations for it.

DUE TO CIVID-19 DELETED PORTION FOR THE YEAR 2020-21
Sr.No. Text Book Page No. Portion Deleted
01. 27 to 33 Pressure
02. 48 to 49 Equation of Continuity
03. 50 to 53 Bernoulli’s Equation

PPT Prepared by :-
Sr. Name Of Teacher Name of working Contact
No. college Number
01. Mrs.Tiwale Vivekanand College, 9970307195
Kalpana Sadashiv Kolhapur
02. Shri. More Deepak Shikshanmaharshi Dr. 9970503766
Subhashrao Bapuji Salunkhe
Mahavidyalaya, Miraj
03. Shri. Pawar Ajit Shikshanmaharshi Dr. 9960824082
Ashok Bapuji Salunkhe
Mahavidyalaya, Miraj
04. Miss. Bandgar PKM Jr. College, 8975351454
Ranjana Lonikalbhor
Ramchandra

Mechanical Properties of Fluids

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Chapter No. 2.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 2

Fig.2.2 (a) Compressive Stress Fig.2.2 (b) Tensile stress

Fig. 2.2: Normal stress

2.3.1 Pressure Due to a Liquid Column:

As m = volume of cylinder x density of liquid

2.3.2 Atmospheric Pressure:

As P1 and P2 are the pressure at the top and bottom By definition

Using above equation pressure inside a liquid can be calculate.

2.3.5 Pascal’s Law:

Applications of Pascal’s Law:

i.e F2 will be larger than F1

ii) Hydraulic brakes:

2.3.6 Measurement of Pressure:

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 14

Types of intermolecular forces:

example : force of attraction between two air molecules or

example : force of attraction betweenShriglass

Fig a 2.15 sphere of influence

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 16

Fig b 2.15 surface film.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 19

Fig. 2.16 Force of surface tension

fig.2.17 Surface energy of a liquid

Workdone against force is

2Ldx =dA increase in area of the two surfaces of the film

Fig. 2.19 (a): Acute angle of contact.

Fig. 2.19 (b): Obtuse angle of contact

Fig. 2.19 (c): Angle of contact equal to zero.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 26

fig. 2.20 (a) Acute angle

Case-I :- If T2 < T1 Cosθ is –ve, i.e. θ > 900

Case-II :- If T2 – T1 = T3 Cosθ = 1 i.e. θ = 00

Case-III :- If T2 > T1 Cosθ is +ve, i.e. θ < 900

Case-IV :- If T2 – T1 > T3 θ >1 It is practically impossible

a) Effect of impurities on surface tension:

i. Effect of soluble impurities:

ii. Effect of insoluble or partly soluble impurities:

Consider a small surface area of element AB of a free surface.

Fig. 2.22. Excess pressure inside a liquid drop

A2 = 4πr + 8π.r. ∆r + 4π.∆r2

From fig 2.22 increases in surface area

dw = (pi – p0) 4𝜋r2 .∆r …………..(ii)

Bubble posses two surface , hence the excess pressure will be

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 36

Radius of curvature of miniscus is given by

2𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 fig. 2.25 (a) Forces acting

Upward force balances weight of liquid column.

T cosθ x 2𝜋r = mg ………(ii)

T cosθ x 2𝜋r = 𝜌h 𝜋r2 g

Laminar flow/Streamline flow: It is a steady flow in which adjacent

2.6 Critical Velocity and Reynolds number:

Reynold number is a pure number. It has no unit and dimension.

i) If Reynolds number is less than 1000, the flow of a fluid is streamline

from a streamline flow to a turbulent flow.

Fig. 2.28 Viscous flow

Fig. 2.29 Non-viscous flow

η is a constant called coefficient of viscosity.

Fig 2.31 Spherical object moving through a viscous medium.