MODULE - 1

POWER ELECTRONICS
The control of electric motor drives requires control of electric power. Power electronics have
eased the concept of power control. Power electronics signifies the word power electronics
and control or we can say the electronic that deal with power equipment for power control.

Main power source

Ref signal
Control Digital Power Load
Circuit Circuit Electronic
circuit

Feedback Signal

Power electronics based on the switching of power semiconductor devices. With the
development of power semiconductor technology, the power handling capabilities and
switching speed of power devices have been improved tremendously.

Power Semiconductor Devices

The first SCR was developed in late 1957. Power semiconductor devices are broadly
categorized into 3 types:

1. Power diodes (600V,4500A)

2. Transistors
3. Thyristors (10KV,300A,30MW)

Thyristor is a four layer three junction pnpn semiconductor switching device. It has 3
terminals these are anode, cathode and gate. SCRs are solid state device, so they are compact,
possess high reliability and have low loss.
SCR is made up of silicon, it act as a rectifier; it has very low resistance in the forward
direction and high resistance in the reverse direction. It is a unidirectional device.

Static V-I characteristics of a Thyristor

The circuit diagram for obtaining static V-I characteristics is as shown

Anode and cathode are connected to main source voltage through the load. The gate and
cathode are fed from source .
A typical SCR V-I characteristic is as shown below:
 =Forward breakover voltage
=Reverse breakover voltage

=Gate current

=Anode voltage across the thyristor terminal A,K.

=Anode current

It can be inferred from the static V-I characteristic of SCR. SCR have 3 modes of
operation:

1. Reverse blocking mode

2. Forward blocking mode ( off state)
3. Forward conduction mode (on state)

1. Reverse Blocking Mode

When cathode of the thyristor is made positive with respect to anode with switch open
thyristor is reverse biased. Junctions and are reverse biased where junction is
forward biased. The device behaves as if two diodes are connected in series with reverse
voltage applied across them.

A small leakage current of the order of few mA only flows. As the thyristor is
reverse biased and in blocking mode. It is called as acting in reverse blocking
mode of operation.

Now if the reverse voltage is increased, at a critical breakdown level called

reverse breakdown voltage ,an avalanche occurs at and and the reverse
 current increases rapidly. As a large current associated with and hence more
losses to the SCR.

This results in Thyristor damage as junction temperature may exceed its maximum
temperature rise.

2. Forward Blocking Mode

When anode is positive with respect to cathode, with gate circuit open, thyristor is said to
be forward biased.

Thus junction and are forward biased and is reverse biased. As the forward
voltage is increases junction will have an avalanche breakdown at a voltage called
forward breakover voltage . When forward voltage is less then thyristor offers high
impedance. Thus a thyristor acts as an open switch in forward blocking mode.

3. Forward Conduction Mode

Here thyristor conducts current from anode to cathode with a very small voltage drop
across it. So a thyristor can be brought from forward blocking mode to forward
conducting mode:

1. By exceeding the forward breakover voltage.

2. By applying a gate pulse between gate and cathode.

During forward conduction mode of operation thyristor is in on state and behave like a
close switch. Voltage drop is of the order of 1 to 2mV. This small voltage drop is due to
ohmic drop across the four layers of the device.

Different turn ON methods for SCR

1. Forward voltage triggering
2. Gate triggering
3. triggering
4. Light triggering
5. Temperature triggering

1. Forward voltage triggering

A forward voltage is applied between anode and cathode with gate circuit open.

Junction and is forward biased.

Juntion is reverse biased.
As the anode to cathode voltage is increased breakdown of the reverse biased junction
occurs. This is known as avalanche breakdown and the voltage at which this
phenomena occurs is called forward breakover voltage.
The conduction of current continues even if the anode cathode voltage reduces below
till will not go below . Where is the holding current for the thyristor.

2. Gate triggering

This is the simplest, reliable and efficient method of firing the forward biased SCRs. First
SCR is forward biased. Then a positive gate voltage is applied between gate and cathode. In
practice the transition from OFF state to ON state by exceeding is never employed as it
may destroy the device. The magnitude of so forward breakover voltage is taken as final
voltage rating of the device during the design of SCR application.

First step is to choose a thyristor with forward breakover voltage (say 800V) higher than the
normal working voltage. The benefit is that the thyristor will be in blocking state with normal
working voltage applied across the anode and cathode with gate open. When we require the
turning ON of a SCR a positive gate voltage between gate and cathode is applied. The point
to be noted that cathode n- layer is heavily doped as compared to gate p-layer. So when gate
supply is given between gate and cathode gate p-layer is flooded with electron from cathode
n-layer. Now the thyristor is forward biased, so some of these electron reach junction .As a
result width of breaks down or conduction at occur at a voltage less than .As
increases reduces which decreases then turn ON time. Another important point is
duration for which the gate current is applied should be more then turn ON time. This means
that if the gate current is reduced to zero before the anode current reaches a minimum value
kno

In this process power loss is less and also low applied voltage is required for triggering.

3. dv/dt triggering

This is a turning ON method but it may lead to destruction of SCR and so it must be avoided.

When SCR is forward biased, junction and are forward biased and junction is
reversed biased so it behaves as if an insulator is place between two conducting plate. Here
and acts as a conducting plate and acts as an insulator. is known as junction capacitor.
So if we increase the rate of change of forward voltage instead of increasing the magnitude of
voltage. Junction breaks and starts conducting. A high value of changing current may
damage the SCR. So SCR may be protected from high .

4. Temperature triggering

During forward biased, is reverse biased so a leakage forward current always associated
with SCR. Now as we know the leakage current is temperature dependant, so if we increase
the temperature the leakage current will also increase and heat dissipitation of junction
occurs. When this heat reaches a sufficient value will break and conduction starts.

Disadvantages
This type of triggering causes local hot spot and may cause thermal run away of the device.

This triggering cannot be controlled easily.

It is very costly as protection is costly.

5. Light triggering

First a new recess niche is made in the inner p-layer. When this recess is irradiated, then free
charge carriers (electron and hole) are generated. Now if the intensity is increased above a
certain value then it leads to turn ON of SCR. Such SCR are known as Light activated SCR
(LASCR).

Some definitions:

Latching current

The latching current may be defined as the minimum value of anode current which at must
attain during turn ON process to maintain conduction even if gate signal is removed.

Holding current

It is the minimum value of anode current below which if it falls, the SCR will turn OFF.

Switching characteristics of thyristors

The time variation of voltage across the thyristor and current through it during turn on
and turn off process gives the dynamic or switching characteristic of SCR.

Switching characteristic during turn on

Turn on time

It is the time during which it changes from forward blocking state to ON state. Total turn
on time is divided into 3 intervals:

1. Delay time
2. Rise time
3. Spread time

Delay time

If and represent the final value of gate current and anode current. Then the delay time
can be explained as time during which the gate current attains 0.9 to the instant anode
current reaches 0.1 or the anode current rises from forward leakage current to 0.1 .

1. Gate current 0.9 to 0.1 .

2. Anode voltage falls from to 0.9 .
3. Anode current rises from forward leakage current to 0.1 .
Rise time ( )

Time during which

1. Anode current rises from 0.1 to 0.9

2. Forward blocking voltage falls from 0.9 to 0.1 . is the initial forward blocking
voltage.

Spread time ( )

1. Time taken by the anode current to rise from 0.9 to .

2. Time for the forward voltage to fall from 0.1 to on state voltage drop of 1 to 1.5V.
During turn on, SCR is considered to be a charge controlled device. A certain amount
of charge is injected in the gate region to begin conduction. So higher the magnitude
of gate current it requires less time to inject the charges. Thus turn on time is reduced
by using large magnitude of gate current.

How the distribution of charge occurs?

As the gate current begins to flow from gate to cathode with the application of gate
signal. Gate current has a non uniform distribution of current density over the cathode
surface. Distribution of current density is much higher near the gate. The density decrease
as the distance from the gate increases. So anode current flows in a narrow region near
gate where gate current densities are highest. From the beginning of rise time the anode
current starts spreading itself. The anode current spread at a rate of 0.1mm/sec. The
spreading anode current requires some time if the rise time is not sufficient then the anode
current cannot spread over the entire region of cathode. Now a large anode current is
applied and also a large anode current flowing through the SCR. As a result turn on losses
is high. As these losses occur over a small conducting region so local hot spots may form
and it may damage the device.

Switching Characteristics During Turn Off

Thyristor turn off means it changed from ON to OFF state. Once thyristor is oON there is
no role of gate. As we know thyristor can be made turn OFF by reducing the anode
current below the latching current. Here we assume the latching current to be zero
ampere. If a forward voltage is applied across the SCR at the moment it reaches zero then
SCR will not be able to block this forward voltage. Because the charges trapped in the 4-
layer are still favourable for conduction and it may turn on the device. So to avoid such a
case, SCR is reverse biased for some time even if the anode current has reached to zero.

So now the turn off time can be different as the instant anode current becomes zero to the
instant when SCR regains its forward blocking capability.

= +

Where,
 is the turn off time, is the reverse recovery time, is the gate recovery time

At anode current is zero. Now anode current builds up in reverse direction with same
slope. This is due to the presence of charge carriers in the four layers. The reverse
recovery current removes the excess carriers from and between the instants and .
At instant the end junction and is recovered. But still has trapped charges which
decay due to recombination only so the reverse voltage has to be maintained for some
more time. The time taken for the recombination of charges between and is called
gate recovery time . Junction recovered and now a forward voltage can be applied
across SCR.

The turn off time is affected by:

1. Junction temperature
2. Magnitude of forward current during commutation.

Turn off time decreases with the increase of magnitude of reverse applied voltage.

GTO(Gate turn off thyristor)

A gate turn off thyristor is a pnpn device. In which it can be turned ON like an ordinary SCR
by a positive gate current. However it can be easily turned off by a negative gate pulse of
appropriate magnitude.

Conventional SCR are turned on by a positive gate signal but once the SCR is turned on gate
loses control over it. So to turn it off we require external commutation circuit. These
commutation circuits are bulky and costly. So due to these drawbacks GTO comes into
existence.

The salient features of GTO are:

1. GTO turned on like conventional SCR and is turned off by a negative gate signal of
sufficient magnitude.
2. It is a non latching device.
3. GTO reduces acoustic and electromagnetic noise.

It has high switching frequency and efficiency.

A gate turn off thyristor can turn on like an ordinary thyristor but it is turn off by negative
gate pulse of appropriate magnitude.

Disadvantage

The negative gate current required to turn off a GTO is quite large that is 20% to 30 % of
anode current

Advantage

It is compact and cost less

Switching performance
1. For turning ON a GTO first TR1is turned on.
2. This in turn switches on TR2 so that a positive gate current pulse is applied to turn on the
GTO.
3. Thyristor is used to apply a high peak negative gate current pulse.

Gate turn-on characteristics

1. The gate turn on characteristics is similar to a thyristor. Total turn on time consists of
delay time, rise time, spread time.
2. The turn on time can be reduced by increasing its forward gate current.
GATE TURN OFF

Turn off time is different for SCR.Turn off characteristics is divied into 3 pd

1. Storage time
2. Fall time
3. Tail time
Tq=ts+tf+tt
At normal operating condition gto carries a steady state current.The turn off process
starts as soon as negative current is applied after t=0.

STORAGE TIME

During the storagepd the anode voltage and current remains constant.The gate current rises
depending upon the gate circuit impedance and gate applied voltage.The beginning of pd is as soon
as negative gate current is applied.The end of storage pd is marked by fall in anode current and
rise in voltage,what we have to do is remove the excess carriers.the excess carriers are removed by
negative carriers.
FALL TIME

After ts, anode current begins to fall rapidly and anode voltage starts rising.After falling to a certain
value,then anode current changes its rate to fall.this time is called fall time.

SPIKE IN VOLTAGE

During the time of storage and fall timethere is achange in voltage due to abrupt current change.

TAIL TIME

During this time ,the anode current and voltage continues towards the turn off values.The transient
overshoot is due to the snubber parameter and voltage stabilizes to steady state value.
THE TRIAC

As SCR is a unidirectional device,the conduction is from anode to cathode and not from
cathode to anode. It conducts in both direction.It is a bidirectional SCR with three terminal.

TRIAC=TRIODE+AC

Here it is considered to be two SCRS connected in anti parallel.As it conducts in both

direction so it is named as MT1,MT2 and gate G.

SALIENT FEATURES

1.Bi directional triode thyristor

2.TRIAC means triode that works on ac

3.It conduct in both direction

4.It is a controlled device

5.Its operation is similar to two devices connected in anti parallel with common gate
connection.

6.It has 3 terminals MT1,MT2 and gate G

Its use is control of power in ac.

POWER BJT

Power BJT means a large voltage blocking in the OFF state and high current carrying capability in the
ON state. In most power application, base is the input terminal. Emitter is the common terminal.
Collector is the output terminal.

SIGNAL LEVEL OF BJT

n+ doped emitter layer ,doping of base is more than collector.Depletion layer exists more towards
the collector than emitter
POWER BJT CONSTRUCTION

The maxium collector emitter voltage that can be sustained across the junction, when it is
carrying substantial collector current.

Vceo=maxium collectorand emitter voltage that can be sustain by the device.

Vcbo=collector base breakdown voltage with emitter open

PRIMARY BREAKDOWN

It is due to convention avalanche breakdown of the C-B junction and its associated large
flow of current.The thickness of the depletion region determines the breakdown voltage of
the transistor.The base thickness is made as small as possible,in order to have good
amplification capability. If the thickness is too small, the breakdown voltage is
compromised.So a compromise has to be made between the two.
THE DOPING LEVELS-

1.The doping of the emitter layer is quite large.

2.The base doping is moderate.

3.n- region is lightly doped.

4.n+ region doping level is similar to emitter.

1.THICKNESS OF DRIFT REGION-

It determines the breakdown length of the transistor.

2.THE BASE THICKNES

Small base thickness- good amplification capability

Too small base thickness- the breakdown voltage of the transistor has ti be compromised.

For a relatively thick base,the current gain will be relatively small.so it is increase the
gain.Monolithicesigns for darlington connected BJT pair have been deveploed.

SECONDARY BREAKDOWN

Secondary breakdown is due to large power disspation at localized site within the semi
conductor.

PHYSICS OF BJT OPERATION-

The transistor is assumed to operate in active region. There is no doped collector drift
region. It has importance only in switching operation, in active region of operation.

B-E junction is forward biased and C-B junction is reverse biased. Electrons are injected into
base from the emitter. Holes are injected from base into the emitter.

QUASI SATURATION-

Intially we assume that, the transistor is in active region. Base current is allowed to increase
then lets see what happens.first collector rises in response to base current.So there is a
increase voltage drop across the collector load.So C-E voltage drops.

Because of increase in collector current, there is a increase in voltage in drift region. This
eventually reduces the reverse biased across the C-B junction.so n-p junction get
smaller, at some point the junction become forward bised. So now injection of holes from
base into collector drift region occurs. Charge neutrality requires the electron to be injected
in the drift region of the holes. From where these electron came. Since a large no of
electron is supplied to the C-B junction via injection from emitter and subsequent
diffusion across the base. As excess carrier build up in the drift region begins to occur
quasi saturation region is entered. As the injected carrires increase in the drift region is
gradually shotred out and the voltage across the drift region drops. In quasi saturation the
drift region is not completely shorted out by high level injection.Hard saturation obtained
when excess carrier density reaches the n+ side.

During quasi saturation, the rate of the collector fall.Hard saturation occurs when excess
carriers have completely swept across the drift region .

THYRISTOR PROTECTION

OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION

Over voltage occurring during the switching operation causes the failure of SCR.

INTERNAL OVERVOLTAGE

It is due to the operating condition of SCR.

During the commutation of SCR ,when the anode current decays to zero anode current
reverses due to stored changes. First the reverse current rises to peak value, then reverse
current reduces abruptly with large . During series inductance of SCR large
transient large voltage i.e . is generated.

EXTERNAL OVER VOLTAGE

This is due to external supply and load condition. This is because of

1. The interruption of current flow in an inductive circuit.

2. Lightening strokes on the lines feeding the thyristor systems.

Suppose a SCR converter is fed from a transformer, voltage transient occur when
transformer primary will energise or de-energised.

This overvoltages cause random turn ON of a SCR.

The effect of overvoltage is minimized using
1. RC circuits
2. Non linear resistor called voltage clamping device.

Voltage clamping device is a non linear resistor.It is connected between

cathode and anode of SCR. The resistance of voltage clamping device
decreases with increasing voltages. During normal working condition Voltage
clamping (V.C) device has high resistance, drawing only leakage current.
When voltage surge appears voltage clamping device offers a low resistance and it
create a virtual short circuit across the SCR. Hence voltage across SCR is
clamped to a safe value.
 When surge condition over voltage clamping device returns to high resistance
state.
e.g. of voltage clamping device
1.Seleniumthyrector diodes
2.Metal Oxide varistors
3.Avalanche diode supressors

OVER CURRENT PROTECTION

Long duration operation of SCR, during over current causes the
1.junction temp. of SCR to rise above the rated value,causing permanent
damage to device.
SCR is protected from overcurrent by using
1.Circuit breakers
2.Fast acting fuses
Proper co-ordination is essential because
1..fault current has to be interrupted before SCR gets damaged.
2.only faulty branches of the network has to be replaced.
In stiff supply network,source has negligible impedance.So in such system
the magnitude and rate of rise of current is not limited.Fault current hence
junction temp rises in a few miliseconds.
POINTS TO BE NOTED-
1. Proper coordination between fast acting fuse and thyristor is essential.
2. The fuse is always rated to carry marginal overload current over
definite period.
3. The peak let through current through SCR must be less than sub cycle
rating of the SCR.
4. The voltage across the fuse during arcing time is called arcing or
recovery voltage and is equal to sum of the source voltage and emf
induced in the circuit inductance during arcing time.
5. On abrupt interruption of fuse current, induce emf would be high, which
results in high arcing voltage.

Circuit Breaker (C.B)

C.B. has long tripping time. So it is used for protecting the device against continuous
overload current or against the surge current for long duration. In order that fuse
protects the thyristor realiably the rating of fuse current must be less than that of
SCR.

ELECTRONIC CROWBAR PROTECTION

For overcurrent protection of power converter using SCR, electronic crowbar are
used. It provide rapid isolation of power converter before any damage occurs.

HEAT PROTECTION-

To protect the SCR

1. From the local spots

2. Temp rise
SCRs are mounted over heat sinks.

GATE PROTECTION-

Gate circuit should also be protected from

1. Overvoltages
2. Overcurrents

Overvoltage across the gate circuit causes the false triggering of SCR
Overcurrent raise the junction temperature. Overvoltage protection is by zener diode across
the gate circuit.

INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR(IGBT)-

BASIC CONSTRUCTION-

The n+ layer substrate at the drain in the power MOSFET is substituted by p+ layer substrate
and called as collector. When gate to emitter voltage is positive,n- channel is formed in the
p- region.This n- channel short circuit the n- and n+ layer and an electron movement in n
channel cause hole injection from p+subtrate layer to n- layer.
 POWER MOSFET
A power MOSFET has three terminal device. Arrow indicates the direction of current
flow. MOSFET is a voltage controlled device. The operation of MOSFET depends on flow
of majority carriers only.

(Circuit diagram) (circuit symbol)

Switching Characteristics:-

The switching characteristic is influenced by

1. Internal capacitance of the device.

2. Internal impedance of the gate drive circuit.

Total turn on time is divided into

1.Turn on delay time

2.Rise time

Turn on time is affected by impedance of gate drive source. During turn on delay time gate
to source voltage attends its threshold value .

After and during rise time gate to source voltage rise to a voltage which is
sufficient to drive the MOSFET to ON state.

The turn off process is initiated by removing the gate to source voltage. Turn off time is
composed of turn off delay time to fall time.

Turn off delay time

To turn off the MOSFET the input capacitance has to be discharged . During the input
capacitance discharge from to During , fall time ,the input capacitance discharges
from to . During drain current falls from to zero.

So when , MOFSET turn off is complete.

Fig. Switching waveform of power MOSFET

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)

IGBT has high input impedance like MOFFSET and low on state power lose as in BJT.

IGBT Characteristics

Here the controlling parameter is gate emitter voltage As IGBT is a voltage controlled device.

When is less than that is gate emitter threshold voltage IGBT is in off state.
Fig. a Fig. b. Fig. c

Fig. a (Circuit diagram for obtaining V-I characteristics) Fig. b (Static V-I
characteristics)

Fig. c (Transfer characteristic)

Switching characteristics: Figure below shows the turn ON and turn OFF characteristics of
IGBT

Turn on time
 Time between the instants forward blocking state to forward on -state .

Turn on time = Delay time + Rise time

Delay time = Time for collector emitter voltage fall from to 0.9

=Initial collector emitter voltage

=collector current to rise from initial leakage current to 0.1Ic

Ic= Final value of collector current

Rise time

Collector emitter voltage to fall from 0.9 to 0.1

0.1Ic to Ic

After the device is on state the device carries a steady current of Ic and the collector
emitter voltage falls to a small value called conduction drop .

Turn off time

1) Delay time
2) Initial fall time
3) Final fall time

Time during which the gate emitter voltage falls to the threshold value .

Collector current falls from Ic to 0.9Ic at the end of the collector emitter voltage begins to
rise.

Turn off time = Collector current falls from 90% to 20% of its initial value Ic OR The time
during which collector emitter voltage rise from to 0.1 .

During this collector emitter voltage rise 0.1 to final value of .

Series and parallel operation of SCR

SCR are connected in series for h.v demand and in parallel for fulfilling high current
demand. Sting efficiency can be defined as measure of the degree of utilization on SCRs in a
string.

String efficiency < 1.

Derating factor (DRF)

1 string efficiency.

If DRF more then

no. of SCRs will more, so string is more reliable.

Let the rated blocking voltage of the string of a series connected SCR is as shown in the
figure below, But in the string two SCRs are supplied a maximum voltage of .

Significance of string efficiency .

Two SCRs are have same forward blocking voltage ,When system voltage is more then the
voltage rating of a single SCR. SCRs are connected in series in a string.

There is a inherent variation in characteristics. So voltage shared by each SCR may not be
equal. Suppose, SCR1 leakage resistance > SCR2 leakage resistance. For same leakage
current in the series connected SCRs. For same leakage current SCR1 supports a voltage
, SCR2 supports a voltage

So string for two SCRs = = ( ) .

So,

The above operation is when SCRs are not turned ON. But in steady state of operation , A
uniform voltage distribution in the state can be achieved by connect a suitable resistance
across each SCRs , so that parallel combination have same resistance.

But this is a cumbersome work. During steady state operation we connect same value of
shunt resistance across each SCRs. This shunt resistance is called state equalizing circuit.

Suppose,
 Let SCR1 has lower leakage current , It will block a voltage comparatively larger than
other SCRs.

Voltage across SCR1 is = .

Voltage across (n-1)SCR is (n-1) , so the voltage equation for the series circuit is
Vs = = + (n-1)R ( )

As

So, Vs = + (n-1)R [ )]

If

Then Vs = +(n-1)R ( )

Vs = + (n-1)R -(n-1)R

R =

So, Vs = + (n-1) -(n-1)R

=n - (n-1)R

R=

SCR data sheet usually contain only maximum blocking current ,

so we assume

So =

So the value of R calculated is low than actually required.

SCRs having unequal dynamic characteristics:

 It may occur that SCRS may have unequal dynamic characteristics so the voltage
distribution across the SCR may be unequal during the transient condition.

SCR 1 and SCR 2 have different dynamic characteristics. Turn ON time of SCR 2 is more
than SCR 1 by time .

As string voltage is so voltage shared by each SCRs be /2. Now both are gated at same
time so SCR 1 will turn ON at its voltage fall nearly to zero so the voltage shared by SCR
2 will be the string voltage if the break over voltage of SCR 2 is less than then SCR 2 will
turn ON .

* In case is less than the breakoverer voltage, SCR 2 will turn ON at instant 2. SCR 1
assumed to have less turn off time then SCR 2, so < . At SCR 1 has recovered
while SCR 2 is developing recovery voltage at both are developing different reverse
recovery voltage.
At SCR 1 has recovered while SCR2 is developing reverse recovery voltage .

Conclusion :

* Series connected SCR develop different voltages during turn ON and turn OFF
process. Till now we connect a simple resistor across the diode for static voltage equalizing
circuit .

* During turn ON and turn OFF capacitance of reverse biased junction determine the
voltage distribution across SCRs in a series connected string . As reverse biased junction
have different capacitance called self capacitance , the voltage distribution during turn ON
and turn Off process would be different.
 * Under transient condition equal voltage distribution can be achieved by employing
shunt capacitance as this shunt capacitance has the effect of that the resultant of shunt and
self capacitance tend to be equal. The capacitor is used to limits the dv/dt across the SCR
during forward blocking state. When this SCR turned ON capacitor discharges heavy current
through the SCR . The discharge current spike is limited by damping resistor . also
damps out high frequency oscilation that may arise due to series combination of ,C and
series inductor . C are called dynamic equalizing circuit

Diode D is used during forward biased condition for more effective charging of the capacitor.
During capacitor discharge comes into action for limiting current spike and rate of change
of current di/dt .

The R, & C component also provide path to flow reverse recovery current. When one SCR
regain its voltage blocking capability. The flow of reverse recovery current is necessary as it
facilitates the turning OFF process of series connected SCR string. So C is necessary for both
during turn ON and turn OFF process. But the voltage unbalance during turn OFF time is
more predominant then turn ON time. So choice of C is based on reverse recovery
characteristic of SCR .
 SCR 1 has short recovery time as compared to SCR 2. is the difference in reverse
recovery charges of two SCR 1 and SCR 2. Now we assume the SCR 1 recovers fast . i.e it
goes into blocking state so charge can pass through C . The voltage induced by is
/C , where is no voltage induced across .

The difference in voltage to which the two shunt capacitor are charged is /C .

Now thyristor with least recovery time will share the highest transient
voltage say ,

So, - = /C

So, = - /C

As =

= +

= +( - /C)

=2 - /C

= - /C

[ - /C]

Now suppose that there are n series SCRs in a string.

 Let us assume that if top SCR has similar to characteristic SCR 1. Then SCR 1 would
support a voltage

* If the remaining (n-1) SCR has characteristic that of SCR 2 .Then SCR 1
would recover first and support a voltage . The charge (n-1) from the remaining (n -
1) SCR would pass through C.

= - /C

Voltage across (n-1) slow thyristors

= (n-1) ( - /C)

So, = +(n-1)

= + (n-1) ( - /C)

By simplifing we get ,

= [ +(n-1) /C ]

C =[ (n-1) /( n - )

=( - /C )/ n .

Parallel operation:

When current required by the load is more than the rated current of single thyristor ,
SCRs are connected in parallel in a string .
For equal sharing of current, SCRs must have same characteristics during forward
conduction. across them must be same. For same , SCR 1 share and SCR 2 share .

If is the rated current

<

The total current + and not rated current 2 .

Thus string efficiency ,

Middle conductor will have more inductance as compared to other two nearby conductor. As
a result less current flow through the middle conductor. Another method is by magnetic
coupling.

Thyristor gate characteristics:-

= +ve gate to cathode voltage.

= +ve gate to cathode current.

As the gate cathode characteristic of a thyrister is a p-n junction, gate characteristic of the
device is similar to diode.

Curve 1 the lowest voltage value s that must be applied to turn on the
SCR.
Curve 2 highest possible voltage values that can be safely applied to get circuit.

= Maximum limit for gate voltage .

= Maximum imilt for gate current.

= Rated gate power dissipation for each SCR.

These limits should not be crossed in order to avoid the permanent damage of the
device junction .

OY = Minimum limit of gate voltage to turn ON .

OX = minimum limit of gate current to turn ON.

If , are exceeded the thyristor will damage so the preferred gate drive area
of SCR is bcdefghb.

oa = The non triggering gate voltage , If firing circuit generates +ve gate
signal prior to the desired instant of triggering the SCR.It should be ensured that this un
wanted signal should be less than the non triggering voltage oa.

= +

=Gate source voltage

= Gate cathode voltage

= Gate current

= Gate source resistance

= The internal resistance of the trigger source

is connected across the gate cathode terminal, which provides an easy path to the flow of
leakage current between SCR terminal. If , are the minimum gate current and gate
voltage to turn ON the SCR.

=( + / ) +
MODULE-II
 RECTIFIER
Rectifier are used to convert A.C to D.C supply.

Rectifiers can be classified as single phase rectifier and three phase rectifier. Single phase
rectifier are classified as 1- half wave and 1- full wave rectifier. Three phase rectifier are
classified as 3- half wave rectifier and 3- full wave rectifier. 1- Full wave rectifier are
classified as1- mid point type and 1- bridge type rectifier. 1- bridge type rectifier are
classified as 1- half controlled and 1- full controlled rectifier. 3- full wave rectifier are
again classified as 3- mid point type and 3- bridge type rectifier. 3- bridge type rectifier
are again divided as 3- half controlled rectifier and 3- full controlled rectifier.

Single phase half wave circuit with R-L load

Output current rises gradually. After some time reaches a maximum value and then
begins to decrease.

=0 but
biased but load current is not less then the holding current.

reduces to zero and SCR is turned off.

 nction angle.

v conduction angle

Analysis for

At ,

During , ;

When , ;

di0
Vm sin t Ri0 L
dt

Vm
is sin( t )
R2 X2

Where,

1 X
tan
R

X L

Where is the angle by which lags .

The transient component can be obtained as

di0
Rit L 0
dt

So

Where

At

;
Therefore,

So

The average load voltage can be given by

1
V0 Vm sin td ( t )
2

Average load current

Vm
I0 (cos cos )
2 R

Single phase full converter

1
V0 Vm sin( t )d ( t )

2Vm
cos
Single phase half wave circuit with RLE load

The minimum value of firing angle is

Vm sin( t ) E

So,

1 E
1 sin
Vm

Maximum value of firing angle

2 2

The voltage differential equation is

di0
Vm sin( t ) Ri0 L E
dt

is is1 is 2

Due to source volt

Vm
is1 sin( t )
Z

Due to DC counter emf

is 2 (E / R)

( R / L )t
it Ae

Thus the total current is given by

is1 is 2 it

Vm E (R/L)t
sin( t ) Ae
Z R

Vm E (R/L)t
is 0 sin( t ) Ae
Z R

At t i0 0

E Vm R L
A [ sin( )]e
R Z
So

R R
Vm { ( t )} E { ( t
i0 [sin( t ) sin( )e L
[1 e L
]
Z R
Average voltage across the inductance is zero. Average value of load current is

1
I0 (Vm sin t E ) d( t )
2 R

1
[Vm (cos cos )]
2 R

Conduction angle

1
I0 [Vm (cos cos( v) v)]
2 R

A B A B
cos A cosB 2sin sin
2 2

So

1 v v
I0 [2Vm sin( )sin E. ]
2 R 2 2
 E I0 R

1 v v
E [2Vm sin( )sin E. ]
2 2 2

v V v v
E(1 ) [ m sin( )sin ]
2 2 2

If load inductance L is zero then

And
v 2

But 2 1

So 2 1

And
v 1

So average current will be

1
I0 [Vm (cos cos( 1 )) E ( 1 )]
2 R

So V0=E+I0R

Vm E 1
(cos cos 1 ) (1 )
2 2

For no inductance rms value of load current

1
I0 [ (Vm sin( t ) E ) 2d t ]1/2
2 R2

Power delivered to load

P I or2 R I 0 E

Supply power factor

I or2 R I 0 E
Pf
Vs I or

Single phase full wave converter:

 1
V0 Vm sin( t )d ( t )

2Vm
sin

Single phase semi converter:

1
V0 Vm sin( t )d ( t )

Vm
cos

full converter:
steady state analysis

di0
Vs Rio L E
dt

V0 RI 0 E

2Vm
V0 cos

So in case of DC motor load

V0 ra I a m m

2Vm
cos ra I a
m
So m

T I
m a

Te
Ia
m

Te
Ia
Put m

2Vm
( ) cos
raTe
m 2
So m m
MODULE - III
CHOPPER
A chopper is a static device that converts fixed DC input voltage to variable output voltage
directly. Chopper are mostly used in electric vehicle, mini haulers.

Chopper are used for speed control and braking. The systems employing chopper offer
smooth control, high efficiency and have fast response.

The average output voltage is

t1
1 1
Va V0 dt Vs (t1 ) ft1Vs Vs
T 0 T

The average load current

Va Vs
Ia
R R

Where, T=chopping period

Duty cycle of chopper =

t1
T

f=chopping frequency

The rms value of output voltage is

1
1
V0 ( V0 2 dt ) 2 Vs
T 0

If we consider the converter to be loss less then the input power is equal to the output power and is
given by
 T T 2
1 1 Vo
Pi V0idt dt
T 0
T 0
R
2 2
1V s V s
( T)
T R R
The effective input resistance seen by the P source is

Vs Vs R
Pi
Ia Vs
R

Constant frequency operation:

1)The chopping period T is kept constant and on time is varied.

The pulse width modulation ,the width of the pulse is varied.

2) Variable frequency operation, the chopping frequency f is varied.

Frequency modulation, either on time or off time is kept constant.

This type of control generate harmonics at unpredictable frequency and filter design is often
difficult.

TYPES OF CHOPPER:
FIRST QUADRANT OR TYPE A CHOPPER:

When switch ON

V0 Vs .
So, average value of both the load and the current are positive.

SECOND QUADRANT OR TYPE B CHOPPER:

Ton
When switch are closed the load voltage E drives current through L and switch. During

L stores energy.

When switch off

V0 exceeds source voltage Vs .

di
V0 E L
dt

chopper is called step up chopper.

di
V0 E L
dt

TWO QUADRANT TYPE A CHOPPER OR, TYPE C CHOPPER:

Both the switches never switch ON simultaneously as it lead direct short circuit of the
supply.

CURRENT ANANLYSIS:

When CH1 is ON current flows along i0. When CH1 is off current continues to flow along i0
as FD is forward biased. So i0 is positive.

Now when CH2 is ON current direction will be opposite to i 0. When sw2 is off D2 turns ON.

Load current is i0. So average load voltage is always positive. Average load current may be
positive or negative.

TWO QUADRANT TYPE B CHOPPER, OR TYPE D CHOPPER:

When CH1 and CH2 both are on then V0=Vs.

When CH1 and CH2 are off and D1 and D2 are on V 0=-Vs.

The direction of current is always positive because chopper and diode can only conduct in
the direction of arrow shown in fig.

Average voltage is positive when Ton>Toff

FOUR QUADRANT CHOPPER, OR TYPE E CHOPPER

FIRST QUADRANT:

CH4 is kept ON

CH3 is off

CH1 is operarted

V0=Vs

i0 = positive

when CH1 is off positive current free wheels through CH4,D2

so V0 and I2 is in first quadrant.

SECOND QUADRANT:

CH1,CH3,CH4 are off.

CH2 is operated.

Reverse current flows and I is negative through L CH2 D4 and E.

When CH2 off D1 and D4 is ON and current id fed back to source. So

di
E L
dt is more than source voltage Vs.

As i0 is negative and V0 is positive, so second quadrant operation.

THIRD QUADRANT:

CH1 OFF, CH2 ON

CH3 operated. So both V0 and i0 is negative.

When CH3 turned off negative current freewheels through CH2 and D4.

FOURTH QUADRANT:
CH4 is operated other are off.

Positive current flows through CH4 E L D2.

Inductance L stores energy when current fed to source through D3 and D2.V0 is negative.

STEADY STATE ANALYSIS OF PRACTICAL BUCK CHOPPER:

The voltage across the inductor L is ei=Ldi/dt.

d (i2 i1 ) i
Vs Va L L
t1 t1

iL
t1
Vs Va .

The inductor current falls linearly from I2 to I1 in time t2 as Vs =0.

So

L(i1 i2 )
Va
t2

If I2-I1

L I
Va
t2

L I
t2
Va .

2-I1= peak to peak ripple current.

(Vs Va ) t1 Vat2
I
L L

Now t1 2=(1-

t1
Va Vs Vs
T

If the circuit is lossless then VsIs=Va Ia= a

Is a.

Now switching period T can be expressed as

T=1/f= t1+ t2 s-Va a)

s/Va(Vs-Va)

So peak to peak ripple current

Va (Vs Va )
I
fLVs

Va (1 )
I
fL

The peak to peak voltage of the capacitor is

I
Vc
8 fc

So from above equation

Va (Vs Va ) Vs (1 )
Vc .
8Lcf 2Vs 8 Lcf 2

Condition for continuous inductor current and capacitor voltage :

If IL is the average inductor current

IL 2I L

Va Vs

Vs (1 )
fL

I2 I1
IL
As 2

I 2IL
So

Vs (1 )
fL

Vs (1 ) 2 Vs
2I L 2Ia
fL R
 Vs
V
As a
Vs so I a R

2 Vs
2Ia
R

So equation 4 gives

(1 )R
Lc
2f

Which is the critical value of inductor

Vc 2Va

Vs (1 )
2Va 2 Vs
8Lcf 2

1
c
16 Lf 2

Peak to peak ripple voltage of capacitor:

Vc Vc Vc (t 0)

1 t1 1 t1 I at1
I c dt Ia
c 0 c 0 c

Va Vs
t1
Vaf
So

Va Vs
t1
Vaf

Vs
1
Va

t1 Vs
1
T Va

Va Vs
t1
Va f

I a Va Vs
Vc ( )
c Vaf
So
 Ia
Vc
fc

Condition for continuous imductor current and capacitor voltage:

If IL= average inductor current then

I
IL
2

Vs 2Vs
I 2I L 2I a
fL (1 )R

Vs
Va
As 1

2Vs
2I a
(1 ) R

2Vs Vs
IL 2I L 2I a
So (1 )R fL

(1 a) R
Lc
2f

Vc 2Va

Ia
2Va 2I a R
cf

c
2 fR
MODULE IV
 INVERTERS

The device that converts dc power into ac power at desired output voltage and frequency is
called an inverter.

Single phase voltage source inverters

dt =

Due to symmetry along x-axis

The instantaneous output voltage

=0, n=2,4.....

The rms value of the fundamental output voltage

=0.45
So if

DC Supply Current

Assuming a lossless inverter, the ac power absorbed by the load must be equal to the
average power supplied by the dc source.

Fundamental rms output output voltage

=rms load current

=the load angle at the fundamental frequency

Single phase full bridge inverter

For n=1, =0.9 (The rms of fundamental)

Instantaneous load current for an RL load

sin(n

The rms output voltage is

= =
The instantaneous output voltage in a fourier series

Single phase bridge inverter

INVERTER

Inverters are of the two types

1) VSI
2) CSI
Pulse width model

The VSI can be further divided into general 3 categories:

1.Pulse width modulated inverters

2.Square wave inverters
3.Single phase inverter with voltage cancellation
Pulse width modulated inverters

The input dc voltage is of constant magnitude . The diode rectifier is used to rectify the line
voltage.The inverter control the magnitude and frequency of the ac output voltage.

This is achieved by PWM technique of inverter switches and this is called PWM inverters.

The sinusoidal PWM technique is one of the PWM technique to shape the output voltage to
as close as sinusoidal output.

Basic concepts of switch mode inverter

During interval 1 and both are positive

During interval 3 and both are negative

Therefore during 1 and 3 the instantaneous power flow is from dc side to corresponding to
inverter mode of operation.

In contrast during interval 2 and 4 and are of opposite sign i.e. power flows from ac
side to dc side corresponding to rectifier mode of operation.

Pulse width modulated switching scheme

We require the inverter output to be sinusoidal with magnitude and frequency controllable.

In order to produce sinusoidal output voltage at desired frequency a sinusoidal control

signal at desired frequency is compared with a triangular waveform as show.

The frequency of the triangular waveform established the inverter switching frequency.

The triangular waveform is called carrier waveform. The triangular waveform establishes
switching frequency , which establishes with which the inverter switches are applied.

The control signal has frequency and is used to modulate the switch duty ratio.

is the desired fundamental frequency of the output voltage.

The amplitude modulation ratio is defined as

=
 is the peak amplitude of control signal.

peak amplitude of triangular signal.

The frequency modulation ratio

=
When is ON

is ON

So the following inferences can be drawn

The peak amplitude of fundamental frequency is times

The foregoing arguments shown why is chosen to be sinusoidal to provide sinusoidal

output voltage with fewer harmonics

Let the vary sinusoidal with frequency ,which is the desired frequency of the
inverter output voltage.

Let = sin t
 =

At t= , =

So =

= *

=2 +

= =

= + (

Three phase inverter

When three single-phase inverters are connected in parallel a three phase inverter is
formed.

The gating signal has to be displaced by 12 with respect to each other so as achieve three
phase balanced voltages.

A 3-phase output can be achieved from a configuration of six transistors and six diodes.
Two type of control signal can be applied to transistors, they are such as 18 or 12
conduction.

180-degree conduction

When is switched on, terminal a is connected to the positive terminal of dc input voltage.

When is switched on terminal a is brought to negative terminal of the dc source.

There are 6 modes of operation is a cycle and the duration of each mode is .

The conduction sequence of transistors is 123,234,345,456,561,612. The gating signals are

shifted from each other by to get 3- balanced voltages.

Switching states for the three phase voltage inverters

 4,5,6 5,6,1

3,4,5 6,1,2

2,3,4 1,2,3

0 V -V

-V V 0

-V 0 0

0 -V 0

Fourier analysis

If we go for harmonic analysis

All even harmonics are zero all triple n harmonics are zero.

The rms nth component of the line voltage is

= sin = sin(60)

For n=1

=0.7797

Three phase 12 mode VSI

The circuit diagram is same as that for 18 mode of conduction.

Here each thyristor conducts for 12 .There are 6 steps each of 6 duration, for
completing one cycle of ac output voltage.

5,6 6,1

4,5 1,2

3,4 2,3
Step 1: 6,1 conducting

, , =0
Step 2: 1,2 conducting

, , =

Step 3: 2,3 conducting

=0, = , =

Step 4: 3,4 conducting

, = , =0

Step 5: 4,5 conducting

= , , =

Step 6: 5,6 conducting

=0, , =

12 conduction mode

Step Thyristor
conducting
1 6,1 0

2 1,2 0

3 2,3 0

4 3,4 0

5 4,5 0

6 5,6 0