Chapter 2:

Water and Hydrology

Lecture 3
Lecture
Lecture
Content
Content

-Porosity of Rocks
-Hydrological Cycle
-Rock Fracture Patterns
-Soil Properties and Water
-Joints
-Water Table
-Faults
-Aquifers
-Wells
-Porosity of Rocks

What is Porosity?
Classification of Porosity
Factors affecting Porosity
Determination of Porosity
-Porosity of Rocks

What is a Porosity?
Porosity of Reservoir Rocks
Reservoir rocks are rocks that have the
ability to store fluids inside their pores,
so that the fluids (water, oil, and gas) can
be accumulated.

In petroleum geology, reservoir is one of

the elements of petroleum system that
can accumulate hydrocarbons (oil or gas).

A fundamental property of a reservoir

rock is its porosity
Rocks look solid to the naked eye but
a microscopic examination can reveal
the existance of tiny openings in the
rock
Porosity is the ratio of pore volume in
a rock to the bulk volume of that rock
Mathematical form of Porosity is:

it's a good measure of how much

water the ground can hold
The value of porosity lies between 0
and 1
-Porosity of Rocks

Classification of Porosity
Porosity can be classfied (in terms of origin of
porosity) as:
1. Original Porosity
2. Induced Porosity

Original Porosity (Primary) is formed during the deposition of rock materials.

eg: porosity between granular in sandstone, porosity among crystal, and limestone
Induced Porosity (Secondary) is developed by some geological process on the deposited rock
material. eg: Fractures or vugs cavity in limestone
Porosity can be classified (in terms of Fluid
properties) as:
1. Effective Porosity
2. Ineffective Porosity
3. Total/Absolute Porosity

Absolute and Effective Porosity are distinguished by their access capabilities to reservoir fluids
Effective Porosity:
Effective Porosity is the measure of the
void space that is filled by recoverable oil
and gas; or the amount of pore space that
is suffciently interconnected to yield its oil
and gas for recovery

Is the ratio between the volume of

interconnected pores and the bulk volume
Ineffective/Isolated
Porosity :

Ineffective Porosity is the ratio of the

volume of isolated or completely
disconnected pores to the total or bulk
volume
Total/Absolute Porosity :
Total/Absolute Porosity is the ratio of the entire void spaces to the bulk volume of the rock
-Porosity of Rocks

Factors affecting Porosity

-Porosity of Rocks
Sorting

Factors affecting Porosity Packing

Grain shape
Sorting : the amount of uniformity in the size of
the rock or sediment

Well-sorted
Sediment are all about the same size

Great
porosity
Poorly-sorted

Sediment contains particles of many sizes

Less
porosity
Packing: the more closely packed the particles
are the lower the porosity
Loosely packed particles: many open spaces that can store liquid, so the rock has
high porosity
Tightly packed particles: few open spaces, so has low porosity

Less Great
porosity porosity
Grain shape: well rounded particles have a
greater porosity than angular particles
-Porosity of Rocks

Determination of Porosity
 Porosity measurement methods

Indirect method Direct methods- Laboratory

1. Well logging measurement on rock cores
a. Sonic log 1. Fluid displacement method (effective
b. Density log porosity)
2. Gas expansion method (effective
porosity)
Fluid displacement method:
Gas expansion method:
Example:

A clean and dry core sample weighting 425g was 100% saturated with a 1.07 specific
gravity brine. The new weight is 453g. The core sample is 12cm long and 4 cm in
diameter. Calculate the porosity of the rock sample
Answer:
The bulk volume of the core sample is:

The pore volume is:

Porosity of the core is:

-Rock Deformations

Deformation of Rocks
Stress
Strain
How do rocks deform?
Fracture
-Rock Deformations

Deformation of Rocks
Deformation refers to all changes in the shape or position of a rock body in response to
applied stresses. Deformation results from forces generated by the interactions of tectonic
plates. This includes deformation features like:

1.Folds 2.Faults 3.Joints

-Rock Deformations

Stress
Definition: Stress is the force that deforms rock.

Stress = (Force applied / Given Area)

When stresses acting on a rock exceed its strength, the rock will deform by folding,
fracturing or faulting
 Stress

Uniform stress in all directions: Unequal stress in all directions: changes

responsible for volumetric change in one direction that is not the same as in
other direction. These stresses are the
causes of faults, fractures and joints
 1. Tensional Stress - pulls apart a rock unit and lengthens it
2. Compressional Stress - squeezes a rock and shortens a rock body
3. Shear Sress - produces a motion similar to slippage that occurs when the top of the
stack is moved relative to the bottom

Tensional Compressional
stress stress
1. Tensional Stress - pulls apart a rock unit and lengthens it
2. Compressional Stress - squeezes a rock and shortens a rock body
3. Shear Sress - produces a motion similar to slippage that occurs when the top of the
stack is moved relative to the bottom

Shear stress
-Rock Deformations

Strain
Definition: Strain is a change in shape caused by Stress

Strain is the change in shape of a rock caused by differential stress

-Rock Deformations

How do rocks deform?

1. Elastic deformation:
The rock returns to nearly its original
shape when the stress is removed

2. Ductile deformation
3. Brittle deformation

Once the elastic limit of a rock is

surpassed, it strains by either bending
(ductile deformation) or breaking (brittle
deformation) plastically
Ductile or Brittle?

1. Ductile deformation
2. Brittle deformation
Ductile deformation:

1. Folds:

Rocks bent into a series of

wavelike undulations are
called Folds

Folds result from

compressional stresses

Folds are formed by ductile

deformation
Brittle deformation:

2. Faults
are formed by Brittle Deformation
3. Joints
-Rock Deformations

Fracture
Fractures are mechanical breaks that separate a rock body into two or more parts. They
form when stresses in the rock reach the rock strength.

before fracture After fracture

-mechanical breaks

breaking of rocks into smaller pieces by physical forces are known as mechanical
breaks. These smaller pieces are just like the bigger rock, just smaller. That means the
rock has changed physically without changing its composition.
A fracture is brittle when little or no plastic deformation takes place prior to fracture,
but ductile if considerable plastic deformation occurs prior to fracture.

Mechanically, brittle fracture are of two main types: Extensional fractures (Joints). Shear
fractures (Faults)
-Rock Fracture Modes

Extensional Fractures (Joints) - Mode I

Shear Fractures (Faults) - Mode II (Strike Slip)
Shear Fractures (Faults) - Mode III (Dip Slip)
Mode I is an Extensional fracture (Joints) that
is formed by opening with no displacement
parallel to the fracture plane

Mode II and Mode III are shear fractures.

These are faults like fractures one of them is
strike slip and the other is dip-slip
Joints
Joints are fractures along which there has been no appreciable displacement parallel to the
fracture and only slight movement normal to the fracture plane
Faults
Shear fractures, which are also referred to as faults, are shear displacement discontinuities where
the fracture surfaces move predominantly parallel to each other.
Fractures can provide permeability for fluid movement, such as water or
hydrocarbons. Highly fractured rocks can make good aquifers or hydrocarbon
reservoirs
-Rock fracture patterns

Faults
Joints
-Rock fracture patterns
Faults

-Dip-slip Faults

-Strike-slip Faults
Dip-Slip Faults:
Dip-slip faults occur when movement is parallel to the inclination of the fault.
The hanging wall is the rock surface above the fault
The footwall is the rock surface below the fault

1. Normal Fault
2. Reverse Faults
Normal Faults
Normal faults are characterized by the hanging wall moving down relative to the footwall.
This fault motion is caused by tensional forces as the rock is pulled apart
Reverse Faults
Reverse faults are characterized by the hanging wall moving up relative to the footwall
This fault motion is caused by compressive forces and results in shortening
Strike-Slip Faults:

Blocks of rock moves sideways or horizontally on either side of the fault plane

1. Right-lateral Strike-Slip Fault

2. Left-lateral Strike-Slip Fault
Right-lateral Strike-slip Faults

As you face the fault, the opposite side of the fault moves to the right
Left-lateral Strike-slip Faults

As you face the fault, the opposite side of the fault moves to the left
Connection between Faults and Groundwater
-Rock fracture patterns

Joints
Introduction
Joint set and Joint system
Types of Joints
Importance
Joints result from brittle fracture of the rock body as the result of tensile
stresses
When this happens, rock fracture in a plane parallel to the maximum
principle stress and perpendicular to minimum principal stress
Joints may be either open or closed
Joints in which the blocks are seperated or opened out for some small
widths in a direction at right angles to the fracture surface are called open
joints
Closed joints have no such seperations
Joint set

A joint set is a group of joints with similar

orientation and morphology. Several sets
usually occur at the same place with no
apparent interaction, giving exposures a
blocky or fragmented appearance

Joint system
Two or more sets of joints present
together in an exposure compose a joint
system
 Joints

3.Basis of origin
1.Genetic Types 2.Geometric Types Tectonic
Mural Joints Dip Joints
Hydaulic
Sheet Joints Strike Joints
Unloading
Columnar Joints Oblique Joints
Release Joints
Master Joints Bedding Joints
Extension and Release Joints
Mural Joints

Sheet Joints / Exfoliation joints

Columnar Joints

Sheet Joints / Exfoliation joints

Master Joints

Bedding Joints
Importance of studying joints and shear Fractures

Joints and fractures serve as a plumping system for ground water flow in many area that they are
the only routes by which ground water can move through igneous and metamorphic rocks

Joints and fractures porosity and permeability is very important for water supplies and hydrocarbon
reservoirs

Joints orientations in road cuts greatly affect both construction and maintenance. Those oriented
parallel to dip into a highway cut become hazardous during construction and later because they
provide potential movement surfaces