RRB 1 History Ancient Medieval Art and Culture

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HISTORY 1- ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL, ART & CULTURE
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RAPID REVISION BOOKS- TITLES
BOOKLET NAME
1 HISTORY 1- ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL, ART & CULTURE
2 HISTORY 2- MODERN INDIA
3 INDIAN POLITY AND GOVERNANCE
4 ECONOMY AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
5 GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT
6 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
7 IMPORTANT GOVT. SCHEMES
8 INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
RECOMMENDATION OF OUR SELECTED STUDENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
45
ANCIENT INDIA NANDA DYNASTY
CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA 47
PALAEOLITHIC-SITES 01
ASOKA 47
CHALCOLITHIC-SITES 02
MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION 52
PREHISTORIC ART 03
MAURYAN PILLARS AND 54
INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION 05
SCULPTURES
SITES
INDO-GREEKS 57
PAINTED GREY WARE 12
KUSHAN DYNASTY 59
NORTHERN BLACK POLISHED 13
WARE (NBPW) SATAVAHANA DYNASTY 59
OCHRE COLORED POTTERY (OCP) 13 SAKAS 63
RIG VEDIC PERIOD (1500 BC – 1000 13 POST MAURYAN AGE 64
BC) TEMPLE ART AND 72
LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000 BC – 18 ARCHITECTURE
600 BC) NAGARA STYLE IN VARIOUS 73
VEDIC LITERATURE 20 REGIONS
ORTHODOX SCHOOLS OF INDIAN 24 SANGAM AGE 77
PHILOSOPHY GUPTA EMPIRE 84
UNORTHODOX SCHOOLS OF 26 VAKATAKA DYNASTY 89

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY 96
POST GUPTA PERIOD
BUDDHISM 27
HARSHAVARDHANA 98
BUDDHIST COUNCILS 28
PALLAVAS DYNASTY 99
SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM 29
CHALUKYA DYNASTY 101
BUDDHIST TEXTS 30
GURJARA-PRATIHARA 103
BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE 32
RASHTRAKUTA DYNASTY 105
JAINISM 33
PALA DYNASTY 107
JAIN ARCHITECTURE 37
TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE 108
GRECO-BUDDHIST ART OF 39
KAKATIYAS 108
GANDHARA
16 MAHAJANAPADAS 41
43
MEDIEVAL INDIA
HARYANKA DYNASTY
EARLY MEDIEVAL- SOUTH INDIA 111
SISUNAGA DYNASTY 44
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CHOLA DYNASTY 111 IMPORTANT FOREIGN 171
114 TRAVELLERS
CHERA DYNASTY
PANDYA DYNASTY 115
HOYSALA DYNASTY 116 MOSAIC- ART & CULTURE

MEDIEVAL- SOUTH INDIA 117 CLASSICAL DANCES 172
BAHMANI KINGDOM (1347-1526 117 FOLK DANCES 175

A.D.) PAINTINGS 176
DECCAN SULTANATES 119
THEATRE 177
VIJAYNAGARA EMPIRE 124
PUPPET FORMS 178
SUFI ORDERS 130
CLASSICAL LANGUAGES 180
BHAKTI SAINTS 131
MARTIAL ARTS 180
DELHI SULTANATE 133
INDIAN MUSIC 181
MUGHALS 149
SHERSHAH (INTERREGNUM) 151

PRACTICE QUESTIONS 185
AKBAR (1556-1605 AD) 152 ANSWER KEY
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ANCIENT INDIA
(SPECIAL EDITION FOR PRELIMS 2023)
 PALAEOLITHIC-SITES
Palaeolithic Age
o The term Palaeolithic was coined by
archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865.
o Palaeolithic Age spanned from
500,000 years ago {when tool
making members of Homo erectus
had arrived} till 10,000 BC.
o It is divided into three periods viz.
lower Palaeolithic, middle
Palaeolithic and upper
Palaeolithic ages. The transition
from each of these phases to
successive phases was slow and
marked by increased fineness in the
stone tools and technology of the
time as follows:
 Lower Palaeolithic age tools –
Handaxe and cleaver
 Middle Palaeolithic ager tools –
Flakes
 Upper Palaeolithic tools – Flakes
and blades
o Further, this division is not uniform
around the world because of several
factors such as time lag, climatic
vagaries, great distances, numerous
geographical and physical barriers
etc. Palaeolithic age finally ended
with the end of Ice Age in about 10,000 BC.
Cultures in Lower Palaeolithic era

o Soan Culture: Extensive deposits of pebble tools and choppers found in the Soan river (a tributary of
Indus) valley in Pakistan along with some other similar sites in nearby area are collectively called Soan
culture or Sohan culture.
o Madrasian Culture: Father of Indian Pre-history Robert Bruce Foote had discovered hand axes near
Chennai and called it Madrasian culture. Foote was a geologist of the Geological Survey of India.
o Nevasan Culture: Some Middle Palaeolithic era flake tools, scrappers, borers etc. were found at
Nevasa site (Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra) in the valley of river Godavari and are called
Nevasan culture.
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ANCIENT INDIA - ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL AND ART & CULTURE
o Acheulian culture: Most of the sites in India including those in peninsular India, Deccan,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, East and North East have been categorized in Acheulian culture.
Cultures in Middle Palaeolithic era

o Important Middle Palaeolithic Sites in India included Luni valley, around Didwana, Budha Pushkar in
Rajasthan; Valleys of the Belan, Son river, Narmada river and their tributaries in central India
{including Bhimbetka} and some sparse sites in Chota Nagpur plateau, Deccan plateau and Eastern
Ghats.
Cultures in Upper Palaeolithic era
o The most opulent archaeological evidence of this period comes from the Belan and Son valleys in
the northern Vindhyas , Chota Nagpur plateau in Bihar , upland Maharashtra, Orissa and from the
Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh.
 CHALCOLITHIC-SITES
o Chalcolithic or Eneolithic period marks the use of the metals among which the Copper was first.
Chalcolithic means use of
copper and stone.
o Copper was probably the first
metal used by humans and the
period of Copper Age was from
1800-800 BC. Thus, chalcolithic
period was transition between
Stone Age and metal age.
o Start: Around 6000 BC, the
smelting of metals such as Copper
began which was used for raw
material to be used in tool
production. Later, Tin was mixed
with cooper and bronze appeared
which stronger metal than both tin
and copper was. Use of bronze for
tools led to the invention of wheel
which revolutionized transport and
pottery production.
Main features
o The economy of this period was
based upon agriculture, stock raising, hunting and fishing.
o Limited number of Copper and bronze tools have also been recovered.
o The presence of painted pottery is a hall mark of the Chalcolithic period.
o The burial practice was another striking feature and the dead were buried in a particular
direction all over a particular area.
o The pottery ranges from Red ware , deep red ware to deep brown and black, Pictographic red and black
and polished red.
Main Chalcolithic cultures / sites of India

Ahara-Banas The sites of Ahar-Banas Culture were Aahar, balathal, Gilund etc in the vicinity of
Culture Banas River in Rajasthan. The distinctive feature is black and red ware.

Located in Rajasthan near Chambal and its tributaries, the sturdy red slipped ware
Kayatha Culture
with chocolate designs is main feature.
Narmada & its tributaries in Gujarat. The largest site of the Chalcolithic period is
Diamabad situated on the left bank of the Pravara River.
Malwa Culture Major sites of Malwa Culture include Daimabad, Inamgaon, Kayatha, Nagda,
Vidisha, Eran, Mandsaur, and Navdatoli (near Maheshwar). A massive fortification
wall and a moat have been discovered at Eran.
Svalda Culture The well-known sites are in Dhulia district of Maharashtra.
Prabhas &
Both of them are derived from the Harappa culture. The polished red ware is the
Rangpur
hall mark of this culture.
Culture
Chalcolithic sites belonging to the Jorwe culture (ca. 1300–700 BCE) have been
discovered throughout Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and other states. The key
Jorwe Culture
features of this culture include red pottery, generally with matt surface bearing
paintings in black.
PRACTICE QUESTION
Q1. Navada Toli, Jorwe, and Bhramgiri were the sites belonging to which of the following
age?
a) Neolithic age b) Mesolithic age c) Chalcolithic age d) None of the above
Notes
 PREHISTORIC ART
Prehistory: The time period in the past when there was no paper or the written word and hence no
books or written accounts of events. Information about such an age is obtained from excavations which
reveal paintings, pottery, habitat, etc.
Drawings and paintings were the oldest form of artistic expression practised by humans. Reasons for such
drawings: Either to decorate their homes or/and to keep a journal of events in their lives.
Lower and Middle Palaeolithic Periods have not shown any evidence of artworks so far.
The Upper Palaeolithic Age shows a lot of artistic activities.
Earliest paintings in India are from the Upper Palaeolithic Age.
o The first discovery of rock paintings in the world was made in India by archaeologist Archibald
Carlleyle in 1867 – 68 (in Sohagighat, Mirzapur District, Uttar Pradesh).
o Rock paintings have been found in the walls of caves at Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar and Karnataka, some in the Kumaon Hills of Uttarakhand.
o Paintings at the rock shelters at Lakhudiyar on the banks of the Suyal River (Uttarakhand).
o 3 categories of paintings: man, animal and geometric patterns in black, white and red ochre.
Humans in stick-like forms, a long-snouted animal, a fox, a multiple-legged lizard, wavy lines, groups of
dots and rectangle-filled geometric designs, hand-linked dancing humans.

Paintings in Kupgallu (Telangana), Piklihal and Tekkalkota (both in Karnataka)

Mostly in white and red ochre.
Subjects are bulls, sambhars, elephants, sheep, gazelles, goats, horses, stylised humans and tridents.
Paintings in the Vindhya ranges at Madhya Pradesh extending into Uttar
Pradesh
About 500 rock shelters at Bhimbetka in the Vindhya Hills at Madhya Pradesh.
Two major sites of prehistoric rock/cave paintings in India: Bhimbetka Caves and Jogimara Caves
(Amarnath, Madhya Pradesh).
Bhimbetka Paintings
Continuous occupation of these caves from 100000 BC to 1000 AD.
Discovered by archaeologist V S Wakankar in 1957 – 58.
One of the oldest paintings in India and the world.
o Linear representations of animals like bison, tigers, elephants, rhinos, and

Period I boars; stick-like human figures.
(Upper
o Paintings in green and dark red.
Palaeolithic)
o Green paintings are of dancers and red ones are of hunters.
o The largest number of paintings in this period.
o More themes but paintings reduce in size.
o Mostly hunting scenes – people hunting in groups with barbed spears, arrows,
and bows, and pointed sticks. Also, show traps and snares to catch animals.
Period II
o Hunters wear simple clothes; some men are shown with headdresses and masks.
(Mesolithic)
Women have been shown both clothed and in the nude.
o Animals seen – elephants, bisons, bears, tigers, deer, antelopes, leopards,
panthers, rhinos, frogs, lizards, fish, squirrels, and birds.
o Children are seen playing and jumping. Some scenes depict family life.
o Paintings indicate an association of these cave-dwellers with the
agricultural communities settled at Malwa.
o Cross-hatched squares, lattices, pottery, and metal tools are depicted.
o Colours used in Bhimbetka paintings – white, yellow, orange, red ochre, purple,
brown, green, and black. Most common colours – white and red.
o Red obtained from haematite (geru); green from chalcedony; white
Period III
probably from limestone.
(Chalcolithic)
o Brushes were made from plant fibre.
o In some places, there are many layers of paintings, sometimes 20.
o Paintings can be seen in caves that were used as dwelling places and also in caves
that had some other purpose, perhaps religious.
o The colours of the paintings have remained intact thousands of years perhaps due
to the chemical reaction of the oxide present on the rock surface.
PRACTICE QUESTION
Q2. Consider the following statements with respect to pre-historic rock paintings:
1. In India, the earliest paintings have been reported from the lower Palaeolithic stage.
2. During the upper Palaeolithic period the themes were multiple but the painting were smaller in
size with predominantly hunting scenes.

3. The painting of Mesolithic phase were linear representation of huge animals and stick-like
human figures.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1, 2 and 3 b) 2 only c) 3 only d) None
Notes
 INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION

PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS
Q. Which one of the following is not a c) 1, 2 and 3 d) None of them

Harappan site? (UPSC Prelims 2019)
Q. Regarding the Indus Valley
a) Chanhudaro b) Kot Diji
Civilization, consider the following
c) Sohgaura d) Desalpur
statements: (UPSC Prelims 2011)
Q. Which of the following characterizes 1. It was predominantly a secular
/characterize the people of the Indus civilization and the religious
Valley Civilization? (UPSC Prelims element, though present, did not
2013) dominate the scene.
1. They possessed great palaces and 2. During this period, cotton was used
temples for manufacturing textiles in India.
2. They worshipped both male and Which of the statements given above is/
female deities are correct?
3. They employed horse-drawn a) 1 only b) 2 only
chariots c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
Select the correct statement/statements
using the codes given below:
a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 only
Notes

 ABOUT IVC
o The Indus Valley Civilization was established around 3300 BC.
o It flourished between 2600 BC and 1900 BC (Mature Indus Valley Civilization). It started
declining around 1900 BC and disappeared around 1400 BC.
o This is also called Harappan Civilization after the first city to be excavated, Harappa (Punjab,
Pakistan).
o Pre-Harappan civilization has been found in Mehrgarh, Pakistan which shows the first
evidence of cotton cultivation.
o Geographically, this civilization covered Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat and
Western Uttar Pradesh. It extended from Sutkagengor (in Baluchistan) in the West to Alamgirpur
(Western UP) in the East; and from Mandu (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad (Ahmednagar,
Maharashtra) in the South. Some Indus Valley sites have also been found as far away as Afghanistan
and Turkmenistan.
Site Location River Findings
Fortified wall, R-37 cemetery, Copper Chariot with

canopy, Evidence of pre-Harappan to mature
Punjab- Harappan stage, Workmen’s quarter, Copper
Harappa Ravi
Pakistan specimen of bullock cart, Cubical Limestone Weight,
Sandstone statues of Human anatomy, Coffin burials
(Only founded in Harrapa)
Great Granary, A small fragment of cotton, Bronze

dancing girl, Well known for the Great Bath, Unicorn
Mohenjo- Sindh- Seals (Most numbers of it in here), Seal of a man with
Indus
daro Pakistan deers, elephants, tiger and rhinos around- Considered
to be Pashupati Seal), Steatite statue of beard man,
Bronze buffalo
Mud-brick fortification, Evidence of earliest datable

earthquake, Discovery of a plough field, Camel’s bone,
Kalibangan Rajasthan Ghaggar
Fire alters, Furrowed land, Copper Ox, Evidence of
earthquake
A manufacturing site during the Harappan period,

Chanhu- Sindh-
Indus Bangle Factory, the footprint of a dog chasing a cat,
Daro Pakistan
Cart with a seated driver, Bead makers shop
Pre -Harappan and Harappan sites, Remain of streets

and drains, Beads, Barley, Oval shaped settlement, the
Banawali Haryana Saraswati
only city with radial streets, Toy plough, the largest
number of barley grains
Trade point between Harappa and Babylon situated

on natural rock, Flint Blades, Stone Vessels, Stone
Suktagendor Baluchistan Dasht Arrowheads, Shell Beads, Pottery, Bactria-Margiana
Archaeological Complex (BMAC) associated Copper-
Bronze Disc

A coastal site, Dockyard built with brick, Pottery with

the painting of ‘clever fox’, Port Town, Graveyard,
Lothal Gujarat Bhogawa
Ivory weight balance, Copper dog, Dockyard, Rice
husk, Fire alters, Chess-playing
Flourishing urban centers, Fossils remain of horses,

Surkotada Gujarat --
Stone Covered Beads
Rangpur Gujarat Bhandar Plant remains (rice, millets and possibly bajara)
Rakhigarhi Haryana -- Well planned city
Unique water management, Largest Harappan

Dholavira Gujarat -- inscription, use of fire-altars, only site to be divided
into three parts, Giant water reservoir, Dams
 FACTS IN BRIEF
o The civilization was first discovered during an excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert
Marshall in 1921–22 at Harappa following the discovery of seals by J Fleet.
o Harappan ruins were discovered by Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho
Sarup Vats.
o Mohenjodaro ruins were excavated for the first time by R.D. Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay and
Marshall.
o The Indus Valley cities show a level of sophistication and advancement not seen in other contemporary
civilizations.
o Most cities had similar patterns. There were two parts: a citadel and the lower town.
o Most cities had a Great Bath.
o There were also granaries, 2-storied houses made of burnt bricks, closed drainage lines,
excellent stormwater, and wastewater management system, weights for measurements,
toys, pots, etc.
o A large number of seals have been discovered.
o Agriculture was the most important occupation.
o The first civilization to cultivate cotton.
o Animals were domesticated like sheep, goats, and pigs.
o Crops were wheat, barley, cotton, ragi, dates, and peas.
o Trade was conducted with the Sumerians.
o Metal products were produced including those with copper, bronze, tin, and lead. Gold and silver were
also known. Iron was not known to them.
o No structures like temples or palaces have been found.
o The people worshipped male and female deities. A seal which was named ‘Pashupati Seal’ has been
excavated and it shows an image of a three-eyed figure.
o Marshall believed this to be an early form of Lord Shiva.
o Excellent pieces of red pottery designed in black have been excavated.
o Faience was used to make beads, bangles, earrings, and vessels.
o Civilization also was advanced in making artworks. A statuette named ‘Dancing Girl’ has been found
from Mohenjodaro and is believed to be 4000 years old. A figure of a bearded Priest-King has also
been found from Mohenjodaro.
o Lothal was a dockyard.

o Disposal of the dead was by burial in wooden coffins. Later on, in the H Symmetry culture, bodies were
cremated in urns.
o The Indus Valley script has not yet been deciphered.
 ECONOMIC LIFE
o The main source of income for them was agriculture, animal husbandry, industry, trade and
commerce.
o Granaries are found at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan, and Lothal.
o Large granaries were located near each citadel, which suggest that the state stored grain for ceremonial
purposes and possibly the regulation of grain production and sale.
o The Harappans conducted considerable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc., within the Indus culture zone.
However, their cities did not have the necessary raw material for the commodities they produced.
o They did not use metal money.
o In weights and measures mostly 16 or its multiple were used.
o Pots, weaving tools, and pieces of metals were also found by archaeologists, indicating that they traded
these goods with other cities.
o Seals belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization also shows their involvement in exports.
o The main occupation of the Indus Valley people was agriculture, and the second was the domestication
of animals. The land received a good amount of rainfall and was rich in natural vegetation.
Agriculture
o The land was pretty fertile when the Harappans used to live there. In the cities of Harappa and
Mohenjodaro, leftovers of large granaries were found that suggest that they produced more than
their requirements.
o The furrows discovered in the pre-Harappan phase at Kalibangan (Rajasthan) indicate that
the fields were ploughed during the Harappan period.
o The Harappans probably used the wooden plough drawn by oxen and camels.
o Harappan villages, mostly situated near the flood plains, produced sufficient food grains not only for
their inhabitations but also the town’s people.
o The Indus people produced wheat, barley, ragi, peas etc. A substantial quantity of barley was
discovered at Banawali (Haryana). In addition, sesamum and mustard were grown.
o The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton and because of this, the Greeks
called the area Sindon which is derived from Sindh.
o Barley and wheat were grown by them on a large scale. They also grew some other crops such as
pulses, cotton, cereals, dates, melons, pea, etc.
o There was no clear evidence of rice, but some grains of rice were found in Rangpur and
Lothal.
o The Indus Valley Civilization is said to be an agro-commercial civilization as most of the people
were peasants. The Harappan were the first people to grow cotton.
Domestication of Animals
o Animal husbandry was another occupation for the sustenance.
o The seals depicted animals and suggested that they domesticated cows, buffalo, goats, sheep, pigs,
etc.
o Camels and jackasses were also domesticated and were used as beasts of burden. Bones of camels have
been obtained in large numbers from many sites, but there is no sign of them on the seals.
o During the excavation in Surkotado in Gujarat, the jawbone of a horse was found.
o Terracotta figures of a horse have been found at Nausharo and Lothal.

Crafts and Industries

o The Indus Valley people were highly skilled. They made pottery, metal vessels, tools and weapons,
weaving and spinning, dyeing and other crafts. The weavers wore clothes of cotton and wool. They
knew about leather, but there is no evidence of silk to be found.
o The people of this civilization belonged to the bronze age and used tools made of stone, but
they knew about gold, silver, copper, lead, and bronze.
o Ornaments making was also an occupation of the Indus Valley people. They made very fine-
looking and artistic ornaments using gold, silver, precious stones, etc.
o Many people were engaged in bead-making at Mohenjodaro, Chanhodaro, and Lothal. They used
various precious stones such as Carnelian, Lapis, Lazuli, Agate, and Jasper to make beads.
o Shell-working was also a prosperous industry for the Indus Valley Civilization.
o They used a potter’s wheel to make glossy pottery.
o Some structures were made of burnt or mud bricks, which means bricklaying was an
essential craft.
o To produce crafts, they needed a variety of raw materials. Clay was available locally, but they had to
acquire metal outside the alluvial plain. Raw materials were brought into town through trade routes by
traders and craftsmen.
 SOCIAL LIFE
o The family of the Indus residents was matriarchal, this is estimated from the number of female
idols found in excavations.
o Small and big houses have been found nearby in the excavation of Harappa, which proves that there
was no discrimination between the poor and the rich.
o The society of the Indus civilization was divided into many classes on the basis of occupation such
as - traders, priests, craftsmen, workers, etc.
o Utensils made of clay, gold, silver, and copper were used.
o Tools and implements made of metal and stone (stone) were used for agriculture.
o Indus people used to eat both vegetarian and non -vegetarian food. Wheat, rice, barley, sesame,
and pulses were mainly consumed as vegetarian food.
o The Indus people used to do activities like hunting, singing, dancing, and gambling for
entertainment.
o Dice was the dominant game of this era.
o Fishing and bird hunting were regular activities. This activity was done for both entertainment and
food.
o In the excavations of the Indus Valley Civilization, many small terracotta sculptures have been found,
possibly used as revered statues or as toys. Miniature sculptures (small-sized clay idols) of both men
and women have been found, but the number of women's idols is more.
o Armor, Kada, Kanthahar, Hansuli, etc. were used in ornaments that were made of gold, silver,
copper, oyster, ivory, etc.
Religious practices
o In Harappa numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found. In one figurine, a plant is shown
growing out of the embryo of a woman. This image probably represents the goddess of Earth and
was intimately connected with the origin and growth of plants. The Harappan, therefore, looked upon
the earth as a fertility goddess and worshiped her.
o The male deity is represented on a seal. This god has three-horned heads, and is represented in
the sitting posture of a yogi, with one leg placed above the other. This god is surrounded by an
elephant, a tiger, and a rhinoceros and below his throne there is a buffalo and at his feet
two deer. It is identified as Pashupati seal.

o The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees. The depiction of a deity is represented on a
seal amidst branches of the Pipal. This tree continues to be worshipped to this day.
o Animals were also worshipped in Harappan times and many of them are represented on seals.
The most important of them is the one-horned animal unicorn which may be identified with the
rhinoceros.
o Evidence of fire altar at Kalibangan.
o Despite the depiction of the divine on seals and figurines, we find no architectural structure that
can be pointed as a place of worship
 ART FROM IVC

Stone statues
o Two male statues in stone – the Bearded Man (priest-king) and a torso in red sandstone.
Bearded man (Priest)
o Appears to be of a priest
o A shawl is draped over the left shoulder
o Slightly elongated eyes as if in half-meditation
o Well-formed nose, with a moustache, short beard and whiskers
o Wearing an armlet and probable other jewellery.
Bronze casting
o The bronze statues found in Harappa were made by the technique called Lost Wax technique.
o First, wax figures were made and then covered with clay. The clay as allowed to dry and then the
figure was heated to melt the wax.
o This wax was drained out through a hole in the clay. After that, the hollow clay was filled with the
metal of choice. After cooling the metal, the clay was removed revealing the desired metal figurine.
o Both animal and human figures were made this way.
o Examples of bronze figures: Dancing Girl, Buffalo with uplifted head.
Dancing Girl
o 4-inch bronze figure
o Cowrie shell necklace around the neck
o Right hand on the hip and the left hand in a traditional Indian dancing gesture
o Large eyes and a flat nose
o Found from Mohenjodaro.
Terracotta
o Terracotta images were also created but they were less refined as compared to the stone
statues.
o Most important terracotta images are those of the mother goddess.
o Male figures are also found with similar features and positioning in all the figures indicating perhaps
the image of a god.
o Terracotta toys have also been found (wheels, whistles, rattles, gamesmen, discs, birds and animals).
Seals
o They were mostly made of steatite (a kind of soft stone).
o Some seals were also made using chert, agate, copper, terracotta, faience, gold and ivory.
o Standard Harappan seals were square plaques with 2X2 dimension.
o Purpose of the seals: chiefly commercial.
o Some seals were carried in the form of amulets, perhaps as identity cards.

o Every seal has a picture of an animal and some writings in a pictographic script (which is not yet
deciphered).
o Animals represented include tigers, bulls, elephants, goats, bison, etc.
o Pashupati Seal: A seal with a figure seated cross-legged in the centre with animals around; an
elephant and a tiger to the right of the figure and a rhino and a buffalo to its left.
o Copper tablets, square or rectangular in shape have been found which were used as amulets.
Pottery
o Plain and painted pottery are found – plain is more common.
o Plain pottery: generally made of red clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip.
o Black painted pottery: has a fine coating of red slip with painted geometric and animal designs.
o Perforated pottery was also found, perhaps to use as a sieve.
o Pottery of various sizes has been excavated.
Beads and ornaments

o Made from precious metals, gemstones, bone and baked clay.
o Ornaments worn by men and women: fillets, necklaces, finger-rings, armlets.
o Ornaments worn by women: earrings, girdles, anklets.
o Cemetery found in Farmana (Haryana) – where dead bodies were buried with ornaments.
o Bead factories at Lothal and Chanhudaro.
o Beads made from cornelian, amethyst, lapis lazuli, quartz, crystal, jasper, turquoise, steatite, etc.
Metals were also used like gold, bronze and copper. Beads were also made from shells and terracotta.
o Beads were of various shapes disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, and segmented.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q3. Consider the following statements regarding the sites of the Harappan Civilization:
1. Rakhigarhi is known as the Manchester of Harappan civilization for its cotton trade.
2. Lothal is the only site of the civilization with an artificial dockyard.
3. Kalibangan is located on the banks of River Ghaggar.
Which of the above statements are correct?
a) 1 and 2 only b) 1 and 3 only c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
Q4. Consider the following statements:

1. The evidence of the furrowed field during the Harappan age has come from Kalibangan.
2. The stone was not used in the buildings and houses during Harappan age.
Which of the above statement/s is/are correct?
a) 1 only b) 2 only c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
Q5. Consider the following statements regarding the Indus Valley Civilization:
1. The people of this civilization worshipped trees.
2. Animals were also worshiped and many of them are represented on seals. The most important
of them is the one-horned animal unicorn.
3. There was no social differentiation in this civilization.
a) 1 only b) 2 only c) 1 and 3 only d) 1 and 2 only
Q6. Which one of the following statements regarding Harappan civilization is correct?
a) The standard Harappan seals were made of clay.
b) The inhabitants of Harappa had neither knowledge of copper nor bronze.
c) The Harappan civilization was rural based.
d) The inhabitants of Harappa grew and used cotton.

Notes
 PAINTED GREY WARE

o It is an Iron Age Indian culture of the western Gangetic plain and the Ghaggar-Hakra
valley in the Indian
subcontinent, conventionally
dated 1200 to 600–500
BCE
o It is characterized by a style
of fine, grey pottery
painted with geometric
patterns in black.
o PGW culture is associated
with village and town
settlements, domesticated
horses, ivory-working, and the
advent of iron metallurgy
o Pottery generally has a red
surface and is wheel thrown
although handmade ones too
exist
o Polished wares were well
o Most of the pottery is
polychrome meaning more than two colours are used to colour the pottery.
o Most of the pottery is such that they usually have flat bases
o Geometrical design along with paintings depicting flora and fauna are observe
o Perforated pottery was also found may be used for straining liquor.
o Pottery throughout the civilization was uniform (mass thrown) revealing some form of control and
leaving less space of individual creativity
o Presence of luxurious pottery obtained from certain sites reveals economic stratification in the society.

 NORTHERN BLACK POLISHED WARE

(NBPW)
o It is an urban Iron Age Indian culture of the Indian Subcontinent, lasting c. 700–200 BCE (proto
NBPW between 1200 and 700 BCE).
o It developed beginning around 700 BCE, in the late Vedic period, and peaked from c. 500–300
BCE, coinciding with the emergence of 16 great states or Mahajanapada in Northern India, and the
subsequent rise of the Mauryan Empire.
Some notable NBPW sites in India are-

o Charsada (ancient Pushkalavati) and Taxila, in Pakistan
o Delhi or Indraprastha
o Hastinapura, Mathura, Kampil/Kampilya, Ahichatra, Ayodhya, Sravasti, Kausambi, Varanasi, all in
Uttar Pradesh
o Vaishali, Rajgir, Pataliputra, and Champa in Bihar
o Ujjain and Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh
o It is a glossy shiny type of pottery.
o It is made of fine fabric and served as tableware for richer class. It is considered as deluxe pottery only
found with the elites revealing societal stratification which was a result of Brahmanical hegemony.
o It is classified into two- bi-chrome and monochrome.
o Monochrome pottery has a fine and thin fabric. Potted on fast wheel and have a strikingly lustrous
surface. 90% of this type is jet black, brownish black and bluish black and 10% have colours like pink,
golden, brown among others.
o Bi-chrome pottery is found less. It shows all the features of monochrome except that it shows
combination of two colours.
 OCHRE COLORED POTTERY (OCP)

o It is a Bronze Age culture of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, generally dated 2000-1500 BCE, extending
from eastern Punjab to northeastern Rajasthan and western Uttar Pradesh.
o Artefacts of this culture show similarities with both the Late Harappan culture and the Vedic
culture.
o As its name implies, its main distinguishing feature is its ochre colour, which gives the appearance of
being badly fired.
o Its other characteristic feature is a porous texture and a weathering out of the edges of sherds (broken
piece of ceramic material)
o It was sometimes decorated with black painted bands and incised patterns. It is often found in
association with copper hoards, which are assemblages of copper weapons and other artifacts such as
anthropomorphic figures.
 RIG VEDIC PERIOD (1500 BC – 1000 BC)

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION
Q. With reference to the difference which of the following statements

between the culture of Rigvedic is/are correct ? (UPSC Prelims 2017)
Aryans and Indus Valley people,

1. Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of 3. Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated

mail and helmet in warfare whereas the horse whereas there is no
the people of Indus Valley evidence of Indus Valley people
Civilization did not leave any having been aware of this animal.
evidence of using them. Select the correct answer using the code
2. Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver given below :
am copper whereas Indus Valley a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only
people knew only copper and iron. c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
Notes
o Initially, the Aryans lived in the land known as “Sapta Sindhu” (Land of the Seven Rivers).
o These seven rivers were: Sindhu (Indus), Vipash (Beas), Vitasta (Jhelum), Parushni (Ravi), Asikni
(Chenab), Shutudri (Satluj) and Saraswati.
 POLITICAL STRUCTURE
Early Vedic age had a tribal polity in which the tribal chief led wars (for cattle) and was also a protector
of the entire group.
Instead of a standing army, the entire village participated in wars. Kingship was hereditary.
The king or the chief enjoyed a position of pre-eminence in the tribe. He was required to be ‘Indra’ in
valour, ‘Mitra’ in kindness and ‘Varuna’ in virtues.
o Monarchical form of government with a king known as Rajan.
o Patriarchal families. Jana was the largest social unit in Rig Vedic times.
o Social grouping: kula (family) – grama – visu – jana.
o Tribal assemblies were called Sabhas and Samitis.
o Examples of tribal kingdoms: Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus.
Administration
o The tribal chief or the Rajan was at the centre of the administrative machinery of the Aryans.
o In the work of administration, the king was assisted by a number of functionaries like the Purohita
(priest), the Senani (General of the Army), the Gramani (village headman) and the spsa
(spies).
o Purohita was the most important officer of the state.
o The king did not maintain any regular or standing army, but during times of war he mustered
militias. The military element was strong in the tribal system of the government.
o The army mainly consisted of Patti (infantry) and Rathins (chariot warriors).
o The soldiers were organised into units known as Sardha, Vrata and Gana.
o We do not come across any officer responsible for tax collection. There was a very limited role for
collection of regular tax as the economy was mainly pastoral and not food producing.

o However, bali, the voluntary offerings from the people, was probably received by the chiefs. Presents
and spoils of war were perhaps distributed among some Vedic assemblies.
o There was no special officer for justice. But spies were employed to keep an eye on theft or
burglary.
o Vrajapati was the officer who enjoyed authority over a large land or pasture ground.
o He led Gramanis to the battle. Gradually Gramani became identical to Vrajapati.
Popular Assemblies
o The Aryans had their own folk assembly known as Vidhata meant for the economic, social and
military purpose. Though the king enjoyed substantial power, yet he was not an autocrat. In the work
of administration, he consulted two bodies and acted according to their decision. These were:
o It was a select body of elders and advised the king on administration. It also
Sabha functioned as a court of law and tried criminal cases.
o The head of the sabha was known as ‘Sabhapati’.
o It was the most popular assembly and included common people.
o The Samiti mainly dealt with the political business of the state.
Samiti
o It also used to elect the king.
o The head of Samiti was known as ‘Pati’.
 SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Society
o Kinship was the basis of the social structure and the identity of the man was decided by his
clan. People gave their primary loyalty to the tribe or jana.
o There are indications which point towards the consciousness of physical appearance among the
people. Varna was the term used for colour which provided the identity mark for the social
orders.
o Rig Veda mentions arya and dasa varna.
o It seems that Aryan people were fair in colour while the indigenous population were dark.
o The dasas and the dasyus conquered by the Aryans, were treated as slaves.
o Slaves and mainly women slaves meant for domestic purposes, were given as gifts to priests.
o Social inequality in the tribes emerged as tribal chiefs and the priests acquired a large share of booty at
the cost of their kinsmen. Gradually, the society came to be divided into three groups – warriors,
priests and the people.
o However, differentiation of society based on occupation was not very sharp. The society was largely
tribal and egalitarian.
Family
o The family was patriarchal and was regarded as the social and the political unit. The father
was the head of the family and he was known as “grihapati”.
o Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy was prevalent among the royal and noble families.
There are few indications of polyandry. There are also indications of matrilineal traces. The wife took
care of the household and participated in all the major ceremonies.
o Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual development. There
were women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa, Lopamudra and Gargi during the Rig Vedic
period.
o Women could even attend the popular assemblies. There was no child marriage and the practice of sati
was absent. The marriageable age seems to have been 16 to 17.

o Women could offer sacrifices along with their husbands.

o Widow remarriage and the practice of levirate was present in the Rig Vedic society.
Clothing
o The Aryans wore dresses made from cotton, wool and deer skin.
o The garments consisted of three parts—an undergarment called ‘Nivi’, a garment called ‘Vasa’ or
‘Paridhan’ and a mantle known as ‘adhivasa’.
o Both men and women wore gold ornaments. The women used earrings, necklace, bangles and anklets.
Food
o Wheat and barley, milk and its products like curd and ghee, vegetables and fruits were the chief
articles of food.
o Fish, birds, goats, rams, bulls and horses were slaughtered for their food.
o Slaughter of the cow was prohibited since it was considered a sacred animal. People also drank
intoxicating liquor, “Sura”.
Caste System
o In the early Vedic age, there was no caste system. Instead, they were divided into classes.
o Member of the same family could pursue different occupations, arts, crafts and trades and
could change it at will. There was hardly any restriction in intermarriage and change of occupation.
Education
o There were Gurukulas which imparted education to the disciples after their sacred thread ceremony.
Entire instruction was given orally.
o The disciples were taught about ethics, art of warfare, art of metal and concept of Brahma and
philosophy, and basic sciences like agriculture, animal husbandry, and handicrafts.
 ECONOMIC STRUCTURE
o Rigvedic society was pastoral and Agriculture was secondary occupation. Cattle was main form of
the wealth;
o Agriculture production was for consumption only. They had better knowledge of agriculture.
o Rigveda mentions about wooden ploughshare.
o ‘Yava’ was the common name for any grain.
o ‘Bali’ was voluntary gift from producers to the ‘Rajana’.
o Neither tax was imposed nor treasury was maintained.
o Currency or coins are not reported; a gold piece ‘niska’ finds mention but has more ornamental
value than currency.
o Barter system was prevalent and cows were the most favoured medium of exchange.
o Copper tools of this era are reported from Punjab and Haryana.
o ‘Ayas’ is the common name used for any metal. Gold was called Hiranya.
o Pottery type: Ochre Colored Pottery and Painted Grey Ware (PGW).
o Aryan introduced spoked wheels.
o Horse played significant role in their life.
o They did not live in cities.
o Economic activities – Hunting, carpentry, tanning, weaving, chariot-making, metal smeltry etc.
o Iron (krishna/shyama ayas) was discovered and use of fire for clearing forest for cultivation
increased.
o Agriculture of multiple crops put limitation on nomadic nature; cattle rearing continued.
o Wheat, Barley, Rice, Beans, Moong Urad and Sesamum were cultivated.

 RELIGION
o They worshipped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain, thunder, etc. by personifying them into
deities.
o Indra (thunder) was the most important deity. Other deities were Prithvi (earth), Agni (fire),
Varuna (rain) and Vayu (wind).
o Female deities were Ushas and Aditi.
o There were no temples and no idol worship.
Deity About
o God of Lightening
Indra o Most Mention, 250 hymns, known as Purandhar or destroyer of forts
o Lost prominence in the Later Vedic Phase
Vayu o God of Air
o God of Fire
Agni
o For purity and Yajna
o God of Life Source
Surya o Had Vishnu, Savitri (Gayatri), Mitra and Pushan (vegetation, cattle-wealth, and marriage)
as its attributes.
o God of Destruction
Rudra o Also worshiped for healing from diseases
o Merged with Shiva in the later Vedic phase
Aditi o Mother of Gods
Usha o Goddess of Dawn
o God of Water and Morals
Varun o Most Powerful, maintained cosmic order/laws
o Lost prominence in the Later Vedic Phase
Marut o God of Wind
Prithvi o Goddess of Fertility
Aranyani o Goddess of Forest
Parjanya o God of Rain
Prajapati/ o Supreme God
Adipurush o Most prominent during the Later Vedic period
o God of the Shudras
Pushan
o Supposed to look after cattle
o In spite of worshipping various deities, the Vedic age saw the prevalence of monotheism. The idea of
single supreme power governing and controlling the universe seems to have emerged.
o Indra was the most important God and was also known as Purandara (the destroyer of forts)
and God of rain.
o Agni was second in importance only to Indra. He acted as the intermediary between the Gods
and the worshipper.

o Soma was the God of plants. The Maruts personified storm. There were also female gods like Aditi and
Ushas. However the male gods were more important than female gods in the patriarchal set-
up of the period.
Nature of Worship
o There were no temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic period. Prayers were offered to the
gods in the expectation of rewards. Ghee, milk and grain were given as offerings. Elaborate rituals were
followed during the worship.
o Worship was not meant for the spiritual uplift or ending miseries, but it was intended mainly for praja
(children), pashu (cattle), food, wealth, health etc.
o The magical power of the word was not considered so important as it came to be in later
Vedic times.
o Animals like horses, buffaloes, rams, bulls, and even cows were also sometimes sacrificed. There was
no priestly class for performing the religious rites.
o The theory of reincarnation or rebirth was not completely formed. The Rig Vedic hymns had
no consistent theory regarding life after death.
 LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000 BC – 600 BC)

During this time, the Aryans moved eastwards and occupied western and eastern UP (Kosala)
and Bihar.
 POLITICAL STRUCTURE
o Larger kingdoms were formed during the later Vedic period.
o Many jana or tribes were amalgamated to form Janapadas or Rashtras (the term first
appeared in this period) in the Later Vedic period. Hence, the royal power increased along with the
size of the kingdom. The wars were no longer fought for the cows but for the territories.
o The king was usually a Kshatriya and the office of the monarch was made almost
hereditary. Traces of election of the chief or king appear in later Vedic texts but hereditary
kingship was emerging. The king gradually emerged as the controller of the social order too.
o The king was addressed by different names across different regions. For instance, in northern regions,
he was known as Virat, in eastern regions, he was called Samrat while in western and
southern regions he was addressed as Svarat and Bhoja respectively.
o The influence of the king was enhanced by rituals. He performed various rituals like the Rajasuya
(that was believed to confer on him supreme power), the Asvamedha (to give absolute power
over the territory where the royal horse ran), and the Vajapeya (where the royal chariot was made to
race and win against others). These rituals boosted the king’s power and prestige.
o In later Vedic times, popular assemblies lost their importance and royal power increased at its
cost. The vidhata completely disappeared. The sabha and samiti continued to hold the ground,
but their character changed. They came to be dominated by princes and rich nobles. Women were no
longer permitted to sit on the sabha and it was now dominated by nobles and the Brahmanas.
o Even in the later Vedic times, kings did not possess a standing army. During times of war, tribal
units were mobilised. The king also had to partake meals from the same plate as his people to win
wars.
 SOCIAL STRUCTURE
o The later Vedic society was divided into four varnas called the Brahmanas, Rajanyas or Kshatriyas,
Vaisyas and Sudras.

o The growing cult of sacrifices greatly added to the Brahmanas’ power. They conducted rituals and
sacrifices for their clients and for themselves, and also officiated at the festivals associated with
agricultural operations.
o All the three higher varnas had a common feature – they were entitled to Upanayana or
investiture with the sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras.
o The fourth varna was deprived of the sacred thread ceremony.
o This period saw the start of the enforcement of disabilities on the Sudras. The prince, who
represented the Rajanya order, tried to assert his power over all the other three varnas.
o According to Aitareya Brahmana, in relation to the Prince, the Brahmana is described as a seeker of
livelihood and an acceptor of gifts but removable at will. A Vaisya is called tribute paying, and the
worst position is reserved for the sudra. He is called the servant of another, to be made to work at will
by another and to be beaten at will.
o In the family, a patrimonial (authority of father) system developed and women were generally
given a lower rank. Although some women theologians took part in philosophical discussions and
some queens participated in coronation rituals, generally, women were thought of as inferior and
subordinate to men. There are references to Sati and child marriages as well.
o According to Aitareya Brahmana, a daughter has been described as a source of misery.
o The institution of gotra appeared in the later Vedic age.
o Literally, it means the “cow pen” or the place where cattle belonging to the whole clan is kept, but
over time, it signified descent from a common ancestor. No marriage could take place between persons
belonging to the same gotra or having the same ancestor.
o Caste exogamy was widely practised. There is mention of Chandrayana penance for men
marrying women of the same gotra. Gotras were named after legendary seers like Kashyapa,
Bharadvaja, Gautama, Bhrigu, among others.
o Ashrams or four stages of life were not well established in Vedic times. In the post-Vedic
texts, we hear of four Ashrams- Brahmachari (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (partial
retirement), and Sanyasa (complete retirement from the world). But only three are mentioned in the
later Vedic texts, the last one or the fourth stage had not been well established in the later Vedic times.
o In later Vedic age, certain craft groups like Rathakaras enjoyed a special status and had the right
to wear the sacred thread.
 ECONOMIC STRUCTURE
o Agriculture was the chief means of livelihood and people led a settled life in the late Vedic age.
Ploughing was done with the help of wooden ploughshare.
o The Satapatha Brahmana speaks at length about the ploughing rituals. Even kings and princes did
not hesitate to take to manual labour. Balarama, the brother of Krishna, is called Haladhara or wielder
of the plough. However, in the late times ploughing was prohibited for the upper varnas.
o The Vedic people continued to produce barley, but during this period rice (vrihi) and wheat
(godhuma) became their chief crops. In subsequent times, wheat became the staple food of the
people in Punjab and western Uttar Pradesh. Various kinds of lentils were also produced in the later
Vedic age. The agricultural produce came to be offered in the rituals (especially rice).
o Iron was used extensively in this period (around 1000 BCE), and this enabled people to clear
forests (upper Gangetic basin) and bring more land under cultivation. The metal is called Syama or
Krishna Ayas in the later Vedic texts.
o Diverse arts and crafts proliferated during the later Vedic age and craft specialisation took deep roots.
The later Vedic people were good smiths and smelters as a lot of copper objects have been
found at PGW sites.
o Tin, lead, silver, bronze, gold, iron and copper were known to the people. Many occupational
groups have been mentioned in this period e.g., stone breakers, jewellers, astrologers, physicians, etc.
On the whole, both Vedic texts and excavations indicate the cultivation of specialised crafts.

o Weaving was confined to women but was practised on a large scale. Leatherwork, pottery and
carpenters’ work made great progress.
o The later Vedic people were acquainted with four types of pottery – Black and Red ware,
Black Slipped ware, Painted Grey ware (PGW) and Red Ware. The most distinctive pottery of the
period is PGW.
o The society was largely rural. However, towards the end of the period, there are traces of the beginning
of urbanisation, as the “nagar” word used in the sense of a town is mentioned in the Taittiriya
Aranyaka.
o Exchange was still via barter, but nishka was used as a convenient unit of value although not as
a typical currency.
o In the later Vedic age, collection of taxes and tributes was made compulsory and was done by
Sangrihitri. It is worth mentioning that the Vaisyas were the tribute payers in the later Vedic times.
 RELIGION
o The two outstanding gods, Indra and Agni lost their former importance. On the other hand,
Prajapati (The Creator) came to occupy the supreme position in the later Vedic age.
o Some of the other minor gods of the Rigvedic period also became prominent, such as Rudra (the god
of animals) and Vishnu (the preserver and protector of people).
o Some of the social orders came to have their own deities – Pushan, who was supposed to look
after cattle, came to be known as the god of the Sudras.
o There are also signs of idolatry in the later Vedic times.
o The cult of sacrifices was the cornerstone of this culture and was accompanied by numerous
rituals and formulae. Sacrifices became far more important and they assumed both public and
domestic character.
o Public sacrifices involved the kings and the whole community while private sacrifices were
performed by individuals in their houses as people led a settled life and maintained well-established
households.
o Sacrifices involved the killing of animals on a large scale and especially the destruction of
cattle wealth.
o The guest was known as goghna or one who was fed on cattle. The sacrificer was known as
Yajamana, the performer of yajna. Some of the important yajnas were Ashvemedha, Vajapeya,
Rajasuya, etc.
o The Brahmanas claimed a monopoly of priestly knowledge and expertise. They were rewarded
generously for officiating the sacrifices. Dakshinas in the form of cows, gold, cloth and also horses
were given. Sometimes the priests claimed a portion of territory as Dakshina.
 VEDIC LITERATURE
There are broadly two types of Vedic literature:
o The word ‘Shruti’ from the term ‘Shruti Literature’ means ‘to hear’ and describes
Shruti the sacred texts which comprise of Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, & Upanishads.
Literature o Shruti Literature is canonical, consisting of revelation and unquestionable truth, and is
considered eternal.
o Whereas the word ‘Smiriti’ literally means to be remembered and which is
supplementary and may change over time.
Smriti
o Smriti Literature is the entire body of the post-Vedic Classical Sanskrit literature and
Literature
consists of Vedanga, Shad darsana, Puranas, Itihasa, Upveda, Tantras, Agamas,
Upangas.

The Vedic literature can be classified into the following categories:

o The four Vedas i.e. the Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva, and their Samhitas.
o The Brahmanas
o The Aranyakas
o The Upanishads
The word ‘Veda’ originated from the root ‘vid’ which means spiritual knowledge/subject of
knowledge/means of acquiring knowledge.
The four Vedas are: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.
 RIG VEDA
o It was composed during the Early Vedic Age. The other three were written in the Later Vedic Age.
o Rig Veda contains 1028 hymns and is classified into 10 mandalas. 1028 hymns deal with deities
including Agni, Indra and are attributed and dedicated to a sage rishi. The ninth Rigvedic
book/mandala is solely dedicated to Soma.
o It is the oldest text in any Indo-European language
o It has originated from early as 1700 BC.
o The Angiras (rishi family) has composed 35% of the hymns and the Kanva family who has
composed 25% of Rig Veda.
o Many verses of the Rig Veda are still used as very significant Hindu prayers and during rituals.
o It contains numerous secrets and clarifications about the origin of the world, the importance of the
Gods and a lot of advice for living a satisfying and successful life.
o As per to the Rig Veda, the Universe devised from Prajapati, the initial God and the principle basis
of creation.
o The hymns are known as Sukta that were composed to be used in rituals.
o Indra is the chief deity cited in the Rig Veda.
o The sky God Varuna, fire God Agni, and the Sun God Surya were some of the other chief deities who
were important in the Rig Veda beside older Aryan deities.
o The God of storms and mountains Rudra, as cited in the Rig Veda is the origin for Lord Shiva, the
Hindu God.
o Lord Vishnu who is one of the Trimurti of Hindu Gods was also a minor deity, as mentioned in the Rig
Veda.
o The universally famous Gayatri mantra (Savitri) is also in Rig-Veda.
o The varna system, Four-fold division of society, ‘Sudra’, Purusha Shukta Hymns are mentioned in this
Vedic text.
 YAJUR VEDA
o Stands to mean ‘Worship Knowledge’, Yajurveda dates back to 1100-800 BCE; corresponding
with Samaveda.
o It compiles ritual-offering mantras/chants. These chants were offered by the priest alongside a
person who used to perform a ritual (in most cases yajna fire.)
o It has two types – Krishna (Black/Dark) & Shukla (White/Bright)
o Krishna Yajurveda has an un-arranged, unclear, motley collection of verses
o Shukla Yajurveda has arranged and clear verses
o The oldest layer of Yajurveda has 1875 verses mostly taken up from Rigveda
o The middle layer of the Veda has Satapatha Brahmana which is a commentary of Shukla Yajurveda
o The youngest layer of Yajurveda consists of various Upanishads – Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Isha
Upanishad, the Taittiriya Upanishad, the Katha Upanishad, the Shvetashvatara Upanishad and the
Maitri Upanishad
o Vajasaneyi Samhita is the Samhita in the Shukla Yajurveda

o There are four surviving recensions of the Krishna Yajurveda – Taittiriya saṃhita, Maitrayani saṃhita,
Kaṭha saṃhita, and Kapisthala saṃhita.
 SAMA VEDA
o Indian music is said to be originated from Sama Veda. There are two Upanishads embedded in
Samaveda – Chandogya Upanishad and Kena Upanishad.
o There are 1549 verses (except 75 verses, all have been taken from Rigveda)
o There are two Upanishads embedded in Samaveda – Chandogya Upanishad and Kena
Upanishad
o The Samaveda is considered as the root of the Indian classical music and dance.
o It is considered as the storehouse of the melodious chants.
o Though it has lesser verses than Rigveda, however, its texts are larger
o There are three recensions of the text of the Samaveda – Kauthuma, Raṇayaniya and Jaimaniya
o Samaveda is categorised into two parts – Part-I includes melodies called Gana & Part-II
includes three verses book called Archika.
o Samaveda Samhita is not meant to be read as a text, it is like a musical score sheet that must be heard
 ATHARVA VEDA – CONTAINS SPELLS AND MAGICAL FORMULA.

o Paippalada and the Saunakiya are two surviving recensions of Atharvaveda
o Called a Veda of magical formulas, it includes three primary Upanishads – Mundaka Upanishad,
the Mandukya Upanishad, and the Prashna Upanishad.
o The daily procedures of life are very well enumerated in this Veda
o It has 730 hymns/suktas, 6000 mantras, and 20 books
o The 20 books are arranged by the length of hymns they contain
o Unlike Samaveda where hymns are borrowed from Rigveda, hymns of Atharvaveda are unique except a
few
o This Veda contains hymns many of which were charms and magic spells which are meant to be
pronounced by the person who seeks some benefit, or more often by a sorcerer who would say it on his
or her behalf.
o Other Vedic texts were the
o Brahmanas (explains the meaning of sacrifices);
o Upanishads (also called Vedantas, 108 in number, source of Indian philosophy); and
o Aranyakas (books of instructions)
o The great Indian epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana were also composed during this period.
 BRAHAMANAS
o They are the prose texts that explain the hymns in the Vedas and are also the classification of
Sanskrit texts that are embedded within each Veda, incorporating myths and legends to explain and
instruct Brahmins on the performance of Vedic rituals.
o In addition to explaining the symbolism and meaning of the Samhitas, Brahmana literature
also expounds scientific knowledge of the Vedic Period, including observational astronomy
and, particularly in relation to altar construction, geometry.
o Divergent in nature, some Brahmanas also contain mystical and philosophical material that
constitutes Aranyakas and Upanishads.
o Each Veda has one or more of its own Brahmanas, and each Brahmana is generally associated with a
particular Shakha or Vedic school. Less than twenty Brahmanas are currently extant, as most have
been lost or destroyed. Dating of the final codification of the Brahmanas and associated Vedic texts is
controversial, as they were likely recorded after several centuries of oral transmission.
o The oldest Brahmana is dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest is dated to around 700 BCE.

 ARANYAKAS
o These are called Forest Books
o Sacrificial rituals are interpreted by Aranyakas in a symbolic and philosophical way.
 UPANISHADS
o There are 108 Upanishads
o Satyameva jayate, the national motto of India, is taken from a hymn of the ancient Indian wisdom text,
the Mundaka Upanishad (III. 1.6), which reads: satyameva jayate nanritam/ satyena pantha vitato
devayanah/ yenakramantyrishayo hyaptakama/ yatra tat satyasya paramam nidhanam 'Truth alone
triumphs, not untruth.
o Out of 108 Upanishads, 13 are considered the major ones.
o The concepts of ‘Atman’ and ‘Brahman’ are majorly explained by Upanishads
o It contains philosophical ideas about the following concepts too:
o Sacrifice
o Body
o Univers
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q7. The word ‘Sathyameva Jayate’ is taken from
a) Yajur Veda b) Atharva Veda c) Mundaka Upanishad d) Sam Veda
Q8. Consider the following statement about the Rig Vedic period:
1. The impact of trade on the economy was negligible.
2. There has been limited evidence of horse in the Indus Valley Civilization, however the horse was
the important animal of this age.
3. There is no sign of urbanization during this period.
4. The houses of this period were made up of mud bricks
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
a) 1 and 2 only b) 2, 3 and 4 c) 1, 2 and 3 d) All of the above
Q9. Consider the following statement about the Later Vedic age:
1. There was limited use of iron during this period mainly as weapon.
2. Concept of land as private property did not develop during this period.
3. Brahamans and Rajnas claimed grain from Vaisyas, the peasant class.
4. The coins of this age are found from sites in upper Gangetic basin.
Which of the above statements is/are true?
a) 1 and 2 only b) 1, 2 and 3 only c) 2 and 3 only d) All of the above

1. Sutras were composed in both prose and verse.
2. Smritis were composed only in prose.
3. Sutras and Smriti are together called Shastras.
a) 1 and 3 only b) 1 only c) 2 and 3 only d) All of the above
Notes

 ORTHODOX SCHOOLS OF INDIAN

PHILOSOPHY
Q. Which one of the following pairs (a) Mimamsa and Vedanta

does not form part of the six systems (b) Nyaya and Vaisheshika
of Indian Philosophy? (UPSC (c) Lokayata and Kapalika
Prelims 2014) (d) Sankhya and Yoga
Notes
Orthodox (astika) schools, originally called sanatana dharma, are collectively referred to as Hinduism
in modern times. The ancient Vedas are their source and scriptural authority. Hinduism consists of six
systems of philosophy & theology.
 SAMKHYA (KAPILA)
o Samkhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems, and it postulates that everything in
reality stems from purusha (self, soul or mind) and prakriti (matter, creative agency, energy).
o Purush cannot be modified or changed while prakriti brings change in all objects.
 YOGA (PATANJALI)
o Yoga literally means the union of two principal entities. Yogic techniques control body, mind &
sense organs, thus considered as a means of achieving freedom or mukti.
o This freedom could be attained by practising self-control (yama), observation of rules (niyama),
fixed postures (asana), breath control (pranayama), choosing an object (pratyahara) and fixing the
mind (dharna), concentrating on the chosen object (dhyana) and complete dissolution of self, merging
the mind and the object (Samadhi).
o Yoga admits the existence of God as a teacher and guide.

 NYAYA (GAUTAMA MUNI)

o Nyaya Philosophy states that nothing is acceptable unless it is in accordance with reason and
experience (scientific approach).
o Nyaya is considered as a technique of logical thinking.
o Nyaya Sutras say that there are four means of attaining valid knowledge: perception, inference,
comparison, and verbal testimony.
 VAISHESHIKA (KANADA)
o The basis of the school's philosophy is that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite
number of atoms and Brahman is regarded as the fundamental force that causes consciousness in
these atoms.
o Vaisheshika system is considered as the realistic and objective philosophy of universe.
o The reality according to this philosophy has many bases or categories which are substance, attribute,
action, genus, distinct quality and inherence.
o Vaisheshika thinkers believe that all objects of the universe are composed of five elements–
earth, water, air, fire and ether.
o They believe that God is the guiding principle.
o The living beings were rewarded or punished according to the law of karma, based on
actions of merit and demerit.
o The Vaisheshika and Nyaya schools eventually merged because of their closely related metaphysical
theories (Vaisheshika only accepted perception and inference as sources of valid knowledge).
 PURVA MIMAMSA (JAIMINI)

o This philosophy encompasses the Nyaya-vaisheshika systems and emphasises the concept of valid
knowledge. According to Purva Mimamsa, Vedas are eternal and possess all knowledge.
o According to Mimamsa philosophy Vedas are eternal and possess all knowledge, and
religion means the fulfilment of duties prescribed by the Vedas.
o It says that the essence of the Vedas is dharma. By the execution of dharma one earns merit which
leads one to heaven after death.
 VEDANTA
o The Vedanta, or Uttara Mimamsa, school concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the
Upanishads (mystic or spiritual contemplations within the Vedas), rather than the Brahmanas
(instructions for ritual and sacrifice).
o The school separated into six sub-schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its
own series of sub-commentaries:
Advaita (Adi o It states that both the individual self (Atman) and Brahman are the same, and knowing this
Shankara) difference causes liberation.
Visishtadvaita
o It believes that all diversity is subsumed to a unified whole.
(Ramanuja)
Dvaita o It considers Brahman and Atman as two different entities, and Bhakti as the route to
(Madhvacharya) eternal salvation.
Dvaitadvaita
o It states that the Brahman is the highest reality, the controller of all.
(Nimbarka)
Shuddhadvaita o It states that both God and the individual self are the same, and not different.

(Vallabhacharya)
Achintya Bheda
o It emphasizes that the individual self (Jīvatman) is both different and not different from
Abheda (Chaitanya
Brahman.
Mahaprabhu)
 UNORTHODOX SCHOOLS OF INDIAN

PHILOSOPHY
Schools that do not accept the authority of Vedas are by definition unorthodox (nastika) systems.
The following schools belong to heterodox schools of Indian Philosophy.
o Charvaka is a materialistic, sceptical, and atheistic school of thought.

Charvaka o According to Charvaka there is no other world. Hence, death is the end of humans
(Brihaspati) and pleasure is the ultimate object in life.
o It is also known as the Lokayata Philosophy-the philosophy of masses.
o Buddhism is a non-theistic philosophy whose tenets are not especially concerned
Buddhist with the existence or nonexistence of God.
philosophy
o Buddha considered the world as full of misery and considered a man’s duty to seek
(Siddhartha
liberation from this painful world.
Gautama)
o He strongly criticized blind faith in the traditional scriptures like the Vedas
o A basic principle is anekantavada, the idea that reality is perceived differently from
Jain
different points of view, and that no single point of view is completely true.
philosophy
o According to Jainism, only the Kevalins, those who have infinite knowledge, can know
(Mahavira)
the true answer, and that all others would only know a part of the answer.
PRACTICE QUESTION
Q11. What is / are main propositions of the “advaita” Vedanta school of Hindu Philosophy?
1. It says that Supreme Cosmic Spirit is the One, the whole and the only reality.
2. It advocates the neti-neti approach.
3. It opposes Mimamsa school of thought.
Select the correct option from the codes given below:
a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only c) 1 and 3 only d) All of the above
Notes

 BUDDHISM
Q. With reference to the religious 1) Avoidance of extremities of penance

history of India, consider the and enjoyment
following statements: (UPSC 2) Indifference to the authority of the
Prelims 2020) Vedas
1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana 3) Denial of efficacy of rituals
Buddhism. Select the correct answer using the codes
2. Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot given below :
of Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only
3. The deification of Buddha by c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
Mahasanghikas fostered the
Q. Which of the following Kingdoms
Mahayana Buddhism.
were associated with the life of the
Which of the statements given above
Buddha? ( UPSC Prelims 2014)
is/are correct?
a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only 1) Avanti 2) Gandhara
c) 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 3) Kosala 4) Magadha
Select the correct answer using the code
Q. With reference to the history of given below.
ancient India, which of the following a) 1, 2 and 3 b) 2 and 4
was/were common to both c) 3 and 4 only d) 1, 3 and 4
Buddhism and Jainism?( UPSC
Prelims 2012)
Notes
 GAUTAM BUDDHA
o Sidhartha was born (c. 563 BC; Kapilavastu, Nepal) into the Gautama family of the Shakaya clan. The
Shakayas were members of the priestly-warrior caste.
o In fact, Sidhartha's father(Shuddhodhana) was the head of the tribe.
o Her mother’s name was Mahamaya. He got married to Yashodhara and got a son named Rahul.
o He left his home at the age of 29 years to live a life of an ascetic which is known as
Mahabhinishkramana (the great departure).
o At the age of thirty-five, under a papal tree, Siddhartha reached enlightenment at Gaya and became an
"enlightened one"--a Buddha (c. 528 BC) and Tathagata (he who has attained the truth).

o He delivered his first sermon known as Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (turning of the Wheel of
Law) at Sarnath in which he dealt with the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path, the very
base of Buddhist teaching.
o Kaundinya and four others became his first disciples.
o His ten chief disciples were Upali, Rahula, Punna, Mahakaccana, Subhoti, Mahamoggallana,
Mahakasyapa, Ananda, Sariputta and Anuruddha.
o Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana( died) at Kushinagar in 483 BC.
 BUDDHIST COUNCILS
 FIRST BUDDHIST COUNCIL
o Conducted under the patronage of King Ajatasatru of Haryanka dynasty.
o The council was established in order to arrive at a consensus on how the teachings of the Buddha could
be spread further.
o It was held in 483 BC just after Buddha’s demise.
o It was held at Sattapani caves (Sattaparnaguha) in Rajagriha.
o The monk who presided over the first council was Mahakassapa.
o Main objective was to preserve the Buddha’s teachings.
o At this council, Ananda composed the Suttapitaka (Buddha’s Teachings) and Mahakassapa
composed the Vinaypitaka (monastic code).
 SECOND BUDDHIST COUNCIL

o Conducted under the patronage of King Kalasoka of Sisunaga dynasty.
o It was held in 383 BC, i.e., a hundred years after the Buddha’s death.
o It was held at Vaishali.
o Sabakami presided over the council.
o The main objective was to discuss ten disputed points under the Vinaypitaka.
o The first major split happened here – two groups that would later evolve into Theravada and
Mahayana.
o The first group was called Thera (meaning Elder in Pali). They wanted to preserve the teachings of
Buddha in the original spirit.
o The other group called Mahasanghika (Great Community) interpreted the Buddha’s teachings more
liberally.
 THIRD BUDDHIST COUNCIL

o Conducted under the patronage of Emperor Ashoka of Maurya dynasty.
o It was held in 250 BC at Pataliputra.
o The council was presided over by Mogaliputta Tissa.
o Main objective was to purify Buddhism from opportunistic factions and corruption in the Sangha.
o The Abhidhamma Pitaka was composed here making the almost completion of the modern Pali
Tipitaka.
o Buddhist missionaries were sent to other countries.
o Buddhism preached by Emperor Ashoka was Hinayana.
 FOURTH BUDDHIST COUNCIL

o Conducted under the patronage of King Kanishka of Kushan dynasty.
o It was held in the 1st century AD (72 AD) at Kundalvana in Kashmir.
o Vasumitra and Ashvaghosha presided over this council.

o All deliberations were conducted in Sanskrit.

o Here, Abhidhamma texts were translated from Prakrit to Sanskrit.
o This council resulted in the division of Buddhism into two sects namely, Mahayana (the Greater
Vehicle) and Hinayana (the Lesser Vehicle).
 SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM
 HINAYANA (THERAVADA)
o It literally means “The Lesser path” and Theravada signifies “Doctrine of the Elders”.
o Hinayana is true to the teachings of The Buddha.
o Theravada was the original school of Buddhist philosophy.
o Its scriptures are in Pali.
o Doesn’t believe in idol worship.
o Believes an individual can attain salvation through self-discipline & meditation.
o At present, it is found in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and other parts of South-East Asia.
o Ashoka patronised Hinayana.
 MAHAYANA
o It literally means “The Greater Path”.
o The terms Hinayana & Mahayana were given by the Mahayana school.
o Mahayana has two main philosophical schools – the Madhyamika & Yogachara.
o Its scriptures are in Sanskrit.
o This school of Buddhism considers Buddha as God and worships idols of Buddhas & Bodhisattvas.
o It believes in universal liberation from sufferings for all beings, and spiritual upliftment.
o Salvation can also be attained by means of faith and devotion to the mindfulness of the Buddha. It
believes in mantras.
 VAJRAYANA
o It literally means “Vehicle of Thunderbolt”.
o The Vajrayana or “Diamond Vehicle” is also called Mantrayana, Tantrayana or Esoteric Buddhism.
o It was established in Tibet in the 11th century.
o The “Two Truth Doctrine” is the central concept of Vajrayana. The two truths are identified as
‘conventional’ & ‘ultimate’ truths. Conventional truth is the truth of consensus, reality and common
sense notions of what does exist and does not exist. Ultimate truth is the reality as perceived by an
enlightened mind.
o Vajrayana texts use a highly symbolic language “sandhya-bhasa” or “twilight language”. It aims to
evoke experiences considered to be most valuable, in their followers.
o Vajrayana believes that salvation can be attained by acquiring magical powers called vajra.
o It also lays importance on the role of Buddhistavas but favours fierce deities known as Taras.
o The rituals and devotion employ mantras (esoteric verbal formulas), mandalas (diagrams & painting
for visualisation practices) and a complex array of other rituals.
o Much importance is given to the role of the guru called Lama who has mastered the philosophical and
ritual traditions. There is a long lineage of lamas. The Dalai Lama is a well known Tibetan Lama.
o It is predominant in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan and Mongolia.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HINAYANA AND MAHAYANA

o Mahayana worships the bodhisattvas and read the Mahayana sutras.

o Mahayana Buddhism followers think that The Buddha is a God because they think that the Buddha
came down to earth to help people cross the sea of life. So the Buddha can be worshipped as a God
because he is eternal and comes down to earth.
o On the other hand Hinayana Buddhists think that The Buddha was a Human instead of a God
because they think The Buddha was simply a man who found a way to Nirvana.
o Hinayana think that The Buddha is an ordinary person because he has many human-like
characteristics such as looking like a person, being born like a person, living like a person besides if
he was a God he would have already known about old-aged people, diseased people and dead people.
o So Siddhartha Gautama is an ordinary person who devoted most of his life to finding the truth of life,
to reach enlightenment. Also the fact that Siddhartha Gautama didn’t know how to meditate before
reaching the Meditation Masters suggests that Siddhartha Gautama didn’t know how to meditate and
so couldn’t have been a God.
 BUDDHIST TEXTS
 SUTTA PITAKA
o It has around 10 thousand sutras related to Buddha and his close associates.
o It also deals with the first Buddhist council, held shortly after Buddha’s death.
o Sutta Pitaka is divided under following sections:
 Anguttara Nikaya which comprises the numerical.
 Digha Nikaya, which comprises the long discourses.
 Khuddaka Nikaya which comprises the minor collection.
 Majjhima Nikaya, which comprises the middle length.
 Samyutta Nikaya which comprises the connected discourses of Buddha.
o Also known as book of discipline, it deals with the monastic rules for
monks and nuns.
Vinaya Pitaka
o It is further divided into three books namely Suttavibhanga, Khandhaka
and Parivara.
o It comprises the philosophy and doctrine of Buddhism.
Abhidhammapitaka o It is divided into seven books namely Dhammasangani, Dhatukatha,
Kathavatthu, Patthana, Puggalapannatui, Vibhanga and Yamaka.
Jatakas o It comprises the stories of previous births of Buddha in the form of poems.
o It contains the dialogue between Buddhist monk Nagasena and Indo-
Milinda Panha
Greek king Menander.
o Dipavamsa means Chronicle of Island. In fact, it is the oldest historical
Dipavamsa record of Sri Lanka.
o It is considered one of the most important works in Pali Literature.
o Its literal meaning is Great Chronicle.
o It is the most important Pali epic poem. Its tone is historical, and it describes
Mahavamsa
the kings of Sri Lanka.
o The book is one of the longest historical account.
o It is written by Ashavaghosa in Sanskrit language.
Buddha Charita
o It depicts primarily the life of Buddha.

 BUDDHIST SCHOLARS
o Asanga and Vasubandhu were half-brothers, and they were from Peshawar in
Asanga and Pakistan.
Vasubandhu o They were the proponents of Yogachara and Abhidhamma teachings. The
most important work of Vasubandhu was Abhidharmamoksha.
o Prior to Kalidasa, Asvaghosa was considered the greatest Indian poet.
o In fact, he was the first Sanskrit dramatist.
o He was in the court of Kushana king Kanishka as a court writer and religious
Asvaghosa
adviser.
o His main works included Mahalankara (Book of Glory),
Saundaranandakavya (describes life of Nanda) and Buddhacharita.
o Buddhaghosa’s name means voice of Buddha.
o He lived around 5th century AD and was one of the greatest Pali scholar.
o He was considered one of the most important commentators of the
Buddhaghosa Theravada and his life has been described in Mahavamsa and
Buddhaghosuppatti.
o He had visited Sri Lanka from Magadha kingdom and had settled there. The
most important work is Visuddhimagga.
o He was a scholar at the Nalanda University and was a disciple of Nagarjuna.
Chandrakirti
o His main work was Prasannapada.
o He lived around 7th century AD and theorist of Buddhist Sankya.
Dharmakirti o He was a poet as well as a teacher at the Nalanda University.
o Seven Treatises was written on Valid Cognition by Dharmakirti.
Dinnaga o He is known as the founder of Buddhist logic.
o Nagarjuna was contemporary of Satavahana King Gautmiputra.
o He was the founder of Madhyamika school of Mahayana Buddhism.
Nagarjuna o His most important work is Mulamadhyamakakarika. It means
Fundamental verses on the Middle way.
o He propagated a theory known as Shunyawad or Emptiness.
Causes of the spread of Buddhism

o Buddha’s magnetic personality.
o He taught in Pali which the masses understood as opposed to Sanskrit.
o He admitted people into the Sangha irrespective of caste distinctions.
o Initial Sanghas were democratic and disciplined organisations.
o The monks travelled to different places preaching the teachings of Buddha.
o It received royal patronage including from Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Ashoka, Kanishka and
Harshavardhana.
Causes of the decline of Buddhism in India

o Split into Mahayana and Hinayana weakened the religion.
o There was corruption among the latter monks. They gave up austerity and indulged in luxuries. Moral
standards deteriorated.
o Royal patronage for Buddhism declined after the end of the Gupta dynasty around 650 AD.

o Orthodox Hinduism became more popular especially due to the works of Kumarila Bhatt and
Adi Shankara.
o The invasions by the Huns and later by the Islamic armies further declined the influence of Buddhism
in the subcontinent.
 BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
o Along with Hindu art and architecture, Buddhist temple building and artwork also went on along with
other religions.
o Ellora has Buddhist, Jain and Hindu monuments.
Bodh Gaya (or Bodhgaya)

o Most important Buddhist site because Prince Siddhartha achieved enlightenment here to
become Gautama Buddha.
o The Bodhi Tree is important.
Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya

o The first shrine situated at the base of the Bodhi tree was probably built by Emperor Ashoka.
o The vedika around the shrine is post-Mauryan built during 100 BC.
o Many sculptures in the niches in the temple belong to the Pala Period (8th century CE).
o It is a 7th-century design. It is neither nagara or Dravida in style.
Nalanda University
o It was a monastic university.
o It is a Mahavihara since it is a complex of many monasteries.
o Only a small portion of the place has been studied as most of it lies buried under present civilisation
and impossible to excavate.
o The records of the Chinese traveller Xuan Zang (Hsuan-Tsang) gives a huge amount of
information about Nalanda.
o As per the records, the foundation of the learning centre was laid down by Kumaragupta I, the
Gupta king in the 5th century CE. Later kings added to the original centre.
o Evidence for all three Buddhist doctrines of Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana taught
here.
o Monks came from China, Tibet and Central Asia in the north; and from Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand,
and other countries in Southeast Asia.
o Nalanda was a centre for art production and Buddhist sculptures and manuscripts were taken from
here by monks to their countries. So, art in Nalanda had a profound impact on art in all the Buddhist
countries.
o The Nalanda School of sculpture was influenced by Buddhist Gupta art of Sarnath, the local Bihar
tradition and Central India. This synthesis emerged during the 9th century.
Features of Nalanda School of sculpture:

Sculptures have an ordered appearance with little effect of crowding.
 They are depicted in three-dimensional forms.
 Delicate ornamentations.
 Back slabs of the sculptures are detailed.
Nalanda bronzes: dating from the 7th and 8th centuries to the 12th century; outnumber the metal
images from entire eastern India.

o Initially depict Mahayana Buddhist deities like standing Buddhas, bodhisattvas like Manjusri
Kumara, Naga-Nagarjuna and Avalokiteshvara seated on a lotus.
o In the late 11th and 12th centuries, Nalanda became an important tantric centre. Then, Vajrayana
deities dominated such Vajrasharada (a form of Saraswati), Avalokiteshvara, Khasarpana, etc.
o Many Brahmanical images have also been found at Nalanda. Many such images are still worshipped at
nearby villages.
o Buddhist sites: Sirpur in Chhattisgarh (550 – 800 CE); Lalitagiri, Vajragiri and Ratnagiri
in Odisha.
o Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu was also a Buddhist centre until the Chola Period. A reason could be
that it was a port-town and there were trade activities with Sri Lanka which was and continues to be
predominantly Buddhist.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q12. In Buddhism, what does “Patimokkha” stand for?
a) A description of Mahayana Buddhism b) A description of Hinayana Buddhism
c) The rules of the Sangha d) The questions of Ming Menander
Q13. Third Buddhist Council was presided by

a) Sabakami b) Mahakasyapa c) Moggaliputta Tissa d) Vasumitra and
Asvaghosha
Q14. With reference of Indian literary works, what is ‘Digha Nikaya’?

a) An important Buddhist test in Pali.
b) Miscellaneous work in prose and verse associated with Mudrarakshasha.
c) Collection of long sermons ascribed to Mahavira.
d) Collection of short stories ascribed to Kautilya.
Notes
 JAINISM
Q. The Jain philosophy holds that the c) Universal Faith

world is created and maintained by d) Universal Soul
(UPSC Prelims 2011)
Q. With reference to the history of
a) Universal Law
ancient India, which of the following
b) Universal Truth

was/were common to both 3) Denial of efficacy of rituals

Buddhism and Jainism? (UPSC Select the correct answer using the codes
Prelims 2012) given below :
1) Avoidance of extremities of penance a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only
and enjoyment c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
2) Indifference to the authority of the
Vedas
Notes
 VARDHAMAN MAHAVIRA
o Vardhamana Mahavira was born in 599 BCE in a village near Vaishali (Capital of Videha). He is
considered to be a contemporary of the Buddha.
o His father was the head of a famous Kshatriya clan and his mother, a Lichchhavi princess.
o They were connected with the royal family of Magadha; high connections made it easy for Mahavira to
approach princes and nobles in the course of his mission.
o In the beginning, Mahavira led the life of a householder but in search of the truth, he abandoned the
world at the age of 30 and became an ascetic.
o He wandered for 12 years practising severe austerities, fasting and meditation. At the age of 42, he
attained perfect/infinite knowledge (kevalajnana), on the banks of the Rijupalika river. He
propagated his religion for 30 years.
o Through kevalajnana, he conquered misery and happiness.
o Because of this conquest, he is known as ‘Mahavira’ or The Great Hero or ‘Jina’ i.e, the
conqueror and his followers as ‘Jainas’.
o He passed away and became a Siddha (fully liberated) at the age of 72 in 527 BCE at Pavapuri
near Patna.
 DOCTRINES OF JAINISM
o The Jaina doctrine is much older than Buddhism.
o In Jainism, ‘Tirthankara’ refers to 24 enlightened spiritual masters who are believed to have
achieved perfect knowledge through asceticism.
o Jainas don’t see Mahavira as the founder of their religion but as the 24th Tirthankara in a long history
of spiritual masters.
o The first Tirthankara Rishabhadeva (symbol-bull) is believed to be the first founder and has
references in Rig Vega and Vayu Purana.
o Neminantha belonging to Saurashtra (Gujarat) is believed to be the 22nd Tirthankara, and the
23rd Tirthankara is believed to be Parshvanatha (of Banaras).

 ANEKANTAVADA
o According to this doctrine, the objects have infinite modes of existence and qualities so they
cannot be completely grasped in all aspects and manifestations by finite human perception.
o Only the Kevalins- the omniscient beings can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations;
others are capable of only partial knowledge.
o Anekantavada is literally the doctrine of “non- onesidedness” or “manifoldness”, it is often
translated as “non-absolutism”.
 SYADAVADA
o According to this doctrine, all judgements are conditional, holding good only in certain conditions,
circumstances, or senses.
o As reality is complex no single proposition can express the nature of reality fully.
o Thus the term “syat” (meaning – maybe) should be prefixed before each proposition giving it a
conditional point of view and thus removing any dogmatism.
 NAYAVADA
o Nayavada is the theory of partial standpoints or viewpoints.
o The doctrine of Nayavada signifies the system of describing reality from different points of
view.
o “Naya” can be understood as partially true statements but they cannot lay claim to absolute validity.
o It can also be defined as a particular opinion framed with a viewpoint, a viewpoint which does not rule
out other viewpoints and is, therefore, an expression of a partial truth about an object.
 TRIRATNA
The three jewels of Jaina ethics must be followed to achieve the liberation of the soul. These are:
o Samyag Darshana (Right faith) – This means seeing (hearing, feeling, etc.) things properly,
avoiding preconceptions and superstitions that get in the way of seeing clearly.
o Samyag Jnana (Right knowledge) – This means having an accurate and sufficient knowledge of
the real universe. This requires a true knowledge of the five substances and nine truths of the universe
with the right mental attitude.
o Samyag Charitra (Right conduct) – This means to avoid harming living beings and freeing oneself
from the attachment and other impure thoughts and attitudes.
 PANCHA MAHAVRATA (FIVE GREAT VOWS)

In order to attain Triratna, one has to observe Pancha Mahavrata (five great vows).
Ahimsa (Non-violence) – Ahimsa parmo dharma
o Non-violence is the supreme religion. Non-violence is the cornerstone of Jainism, no living being has
the right to injure, harm or kill any other living being including animals, plants and even insects.
o There are four forms of existence in Jainism – gods (deva), humans (manushya), hell beings
(naraki), and animals and plants (tiryancha).
o Tiryancha are further divided into ekendriyas (having only one sense) and nigodas (having only
sense of touch, they occur in clusters).
o The general laity following Jainism should avoid harming organisms with two or more senses while
monks/renunciants are supposed to refrain from harming even ekendriyas and sthavara (element
bodies), who are slightly higher than nigodas.
o Jainism strictly preaches vegetarianism as it prohibits harming/killing animals with two or more
senses. In Jainism, it is the intention to harm, the absence of compassion, unawareness and ignorance
that makes a person violent. Non-violence is to be observed in action, speech as well as thought.

Satya (Truth)
o There is no place for lies in Jainism, one should always speak up the truth and only those who have
conquered greed, fear, jealousy, anger, ego an frivolity can speak the truth.
Achaurya or Asteya (Non-stealing)

o Jainism is against stealing/grabbing property by unjust/immoral methods. Even while accepting help,
aid, alms one should not take more than what is required.
Brahmacharya (Celibacy, Chastity – this vow was added by Mahavira)

o Celibacy refers to the total refraining from sensual pleasures.
o Even the thought of sensual pleasure is prohibited in Jainism.
o Monks are required to observe this vow completely while the general laity following Jainism should
not indulge in any physical relationship other than with one’s own spouse and that too of limited
nature.
Aparigraha (Non-attachment/Non-possession) –
o One who seeks spiritual liberation should withdraw from all attachments to objects that please any of
the five senses.
o Mahavira has said that “wants and desires have no end, and only the sky is the limit for
them”. The wealth which a common man desires to attain creates attachment which will continuously
result in greed, jealousy, selfishness, ego, hatred, violence, etc.
o For a common man, to observe all the above five vows are difficult and they can practise them as far as
their condition permits. The vows or “vratas” partially observed are called “Anuvratas” i.e, small or
partial vow.
 DIFFERENT SCHOOLS OF JAINISM
Digambara Shvetambara
Major sub-sects:
Murtipujaka
Major sub-sects:
Sthanakvasi
Bisapantha
Terapanthi
Terapanth
Minor sub-sects:
Taranapantha/Samaiyapantha
Gumanapantha
Totapantha
 JAINA COUNCILS
First Second
o Time Period: 310 BCE o Time Period: 453 or 466 CE
o Chairman: Sthulabhadra o Chairman: Derridhiganj
o Place: Pataliputra (Bihar) o Place: Vallabhi (Gujarat)
o Outcome: Compilation of 12 angas to replace 14 purvas o Outcome: Compilation of 12 angas and 12 upangas.
 SOME IMPORTANT TERMS IN JAINISM

Ganadharas Chief disciples of Mahavira
Siddha Fully liberated
Jiva Soul
Chaitanya Consciousness
Virya Energy

Nirjara Wearing out

Gunasthanas Stages of purification
Arhat One who has entered the stage of kevalajnana
Tirthankara Arhat who has acquired the capability of teaching
the doctrine
Basadis Jaina monastic establishment
 PROMINENT TIRTHANKARAS
Rishabhnath
o He is said to exist before Indus Valley Civilization
o It is mentioned that in Bhagavata Purana, he is referred to as Lord Vishnu.
o Vedas also mention the name of Rishabhnath.
o He had many sons including – Bharat and Bahubali (Note: The Gomateshwara Statue is dedicated
to Bahubali; and is the tallest statue of the world. It is located in Shravanabelagola in Karnataka.)
o It is also believed that the name of the script ‘Brahmi’ is inspired by his daughter’s name.
Mallinath
o Malli was the 19th Tirthankara.
o It is often debated that Malli was a woman however, some Digambara sect Jains believe that she was
reborn as a man and then became a Tirthankara.
Neminatha
o He is the 22nd Tirthankara.
o He is stated to be the cousin of Lord Krishna (A Hindu God.)
o In paintings, he is depicted to adorn dark complexion.
Parsvanath
o Parsvanath was the 23rd tirthankar.
o It is believed that he existed two centuries before Vardhamana Mahavira.
o He was apparently born in Banaras (Uttar Pradesh) around 817 BCE.
o He is said to have propounded Jain religion which was later revived by Mahavira.
o He attained Kaivalya on Mount Sammeta (Parasnath) in Jharkhand.
o Navagraha Jain Temple in Karnataka houses the tallest statue of Parsvanath.
o According to Svetambaras Sect (White-Clad Sect of Jainism); Parsvnath founded four-fold restraints:
 Ahimsa
 Satya
 Asteya
 Aparigraha (The fifth one, ‘Brahmacharya’ was added by Mahavira.)
 JAIN ARCHITECTURE
Areas of Gandhara School of art Mathura School of Art
differences
Reign Kushana Dynasty Kushana Dynasty
Area Gandhara (Now located in the Mathura

Peshawar Valley of Modern-day

Pakistan)
Outside Greek and possibly Macedonian Entirely indigenous
influences influence No external influence
Buddhism Hinduism
Religious
Buddhism
influence
Jainism
Bluish- Grey sandstone Spotted red sandstone
Material Used
Grey sandstone
Spiritual Buddha Smiling Buddha
Sad Buddha Less emphasis on spiritual aspects
Bearded Buddha Shaven head and face
Less ornamentation Muscular Physique
Great detailing Graceful posture of Buddha
Features of
Buddha Buddha in Yogi postures Seated in Padmasana
sculptures Greek factors like wavy hair, large Buddha surrounded by two monks: Padmapani
forehead, long ears (holding Lotus) and Vajrapani (Holding Vajra)
Halo around the head of Buddha decorated with
geometrical motifs
The Standing Buddhas of the Sravasti, Sarnath,
and Kausambhi
Abhayamudra- Don’t fear
Various Bhumisparshamudra -Touching the
Mudras of earth
Buddha in Dhyana mudra- Meditation
Gandhara Art Dharmachakramudra- A preaching
mudra
o Jain temples are found all over India.

o Oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are in Bihar.
o In the Deccan: Ellora and Aihole.
o In central India: Khajuraho, Deogarh, Chanderi and Gwalior.
o Karnataka has many Jain shrines.
o Statue of Gomateshwara: Granite statue of Lord Bahubali commissioned by Camundaraya, the
prime minister of the Ganga kings; located at Shravanabelagola; 18m or 57 feet high; world’s tallest
monolithic free-standing structure.
o Gujarat and Rajasthan have a rich Jain heritage continuing to this day.
o Jain bronze images found from Akola (near Baroda) belong to the late 5th – late 7th century CE;
made using the lost-wax process; the images have been inlaid with silver and copper for
embellishments.
o Jain bronze sculptures are also found from Chausa (Bihar), Hansi (Haryana) and many places in
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
o Jain Temples at Mount Abu, Rajasthan, constructed by Vimal Shah.
o Also called Dilwara temples. Built between the 11th and 13th centuries.
o Every ceiling has unique patterns. Richly sculptured on white marble. The exteriors are simple but the
interiors are finely carved and exquisitely decorated.

 GRECO-BUDDHIST ART OF GANDHARA

o An art form that was an amalgamation of Greek and Buddhist cultures.
o Region: Gandhara art developed in north-western Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan
(Gandhara region) during the Kushana rule in India.
o Patron: Particularly, Kanishka, the greatest of the Kushanas, was a great patron.
o Time period: Its time period was between the 1st century BC and the 5th century AD.
o The main centres: were Taxila, Peshawar, Begram and Bamiyan.
o The Greek invaders brought with them the traditions of the Greek and Roman sculptors, which
influenced the local traditions of the region.
o Thus, Gandhara School also came to be known as Greco-Indian School of Art.
o It was contemporary to the Mathura School of Art (Uttar Pradesh, India).
o The most important contribution was the evolution of beautiful images of the Buddha and
Bodhisattavas.
Bodhisattva
o A Bodhisattva is a person who has achieved Enlightenment or Buddhahood, but has vowed to
return to the samsara (world) to aid all sentient beings on their paths to Buddhahood.
o The Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, the Bodhisattva of Compassion, is the quintessential Bodhisattva.
Features
o The subject was Indian and the form of art was foreign.
o In this art, there was tendency to mould human body in a realistic manner with great attention
to physical details.
o The Gandhara sculptors made images of Lord Buddha in the Greco-Roman style. The images of
Buddha resembled Greek God Apollo.
o Much attention was paid in depicting each and every fold and turn of the dress.
o Rich ornaments, costumes and drapery were used most enthusiastically in this School and much
attention was paid towards imparting physical beauty to the artist specimens.
o In earlier phase: The materials used were green phyllite and gray-blue mica schist
o Post 3rd century A.D.: Use of stucco became prominent.
o The sculptures were originally painted and gilded (covering of thin layer of gold).
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BUDDHISM AND JAINISM

Buddhism Jainism
o Rebirth is one of the principal beliefs in o Jainism believes that the circle of rebirths and
Buddhism. deaths will continue due to good or bad deeds
o It is thought that the endless cycle of birth and re- until liberation is achieved
birth can only be broken by attaining Nirvana
(Enlightenment)
o Scriptures include Tripitaka, which is a vast o Jain religious texts are called Agamas
text consisting of 3 sections: the Discipline, the
Discourse, and the Commentaries.
o The principal teaching of Buddhism is that life is o Jainism lays emphasis on the respect of all
suffering and to escape suffering (end cause of living beings.
desire) one needs to dispel ignorance by realizing o Liberation from the cycle of rebirths is attained
the Four Noble Truths and practising the by taking the Five Vows and following the
Eightfold Path

principles of the Three Jewels

o Sin is not a concept in Buddhism o Sin is defined as harm to others
o Buddhism is divided into two major sects upon the o Svetambara and Digambara are the two major
death of Gautama Buddha. They are the sects of Jainism
Mahayana and the Theravada
o According to some texts in Buddhism, there are o Deities in Jainism are known as “Tirthankara”.
beings in heaven, but they are bound by But they are not worshipped in the conventional
“samsara”. They suffer less but they have, not sense as they are regarded as wise teachers
yet achieved salvation whose teachings must be followed.
o Buddhism was founded in modern-day Nepal by o Scholars of religion generally hold that Jainism
Prince Siddhartha in the 6th century B.C originated in the 7th–5th century BC in
Northern India. Mahavira, also known as
Vardhamana, was the 24th Tirthankara
(Spiritual Teacher) of Jainism
o Followers of Buddhism can be found mainly in o Followers of Jainism are found mainly in
Thailand, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, India, Nepal, India.
Bhutan, Tibet, Japan, Myanmar (Burma), Laos,
Vietnam, China, Mongolia, Korea, Singapore,
Hong Kong, and Taiwan
 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN BUDDHISM AND JAINISM

Factors Explanation
Rejection of o Buddhism and Jainism rejected the notion of grand rituals along with the authority of
Vedas the Vedas and the priestly class
o Just like his contemporary, Gautama Buddha, Mahavir Jain was born into a royal family.
Founders
Both of them renounced their comfortable lifestyle to attain enlightenment
o Both Buddhism and Jainism also stressed the principle of non-violence against animals,
Animal Rights
and they must also be given equal respect as one gives to a fellow human being
o Both Buddhism and Jainism believe in the concept of karma, which is an attachment of
positive and negative forces to the soul based on a person’s actions, beliefs, and spiritual
Karma
attachments.
o Reincarnation carries this force forward and requires effort to purify the soul.
o Neither religion believes in God as the creator of the universe.
God and
o They acknowledge all creation as being part of the universe’s divinity. As such, their holy
Scripture
texts are not considered the word of a god or sacred stories.
o Buddhism and Jainism believe in the concept of reincarnation, which is the rebirth of the
Reincarnation
soul in a new body after the death of the previous body.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Jainism in ancient India condemned the Varna system.
2. Jain religious literature was written in Ardhamagadhi.
3. Mahavira admitted women into the order of his followers.

Which of these statements is/are correct?

a) 1, 2 and 3 b) 1 and 2 c) 3 only d) 2 and 3
Q16. Which of the following is/are not part of the three jewels or Triratna of Jainism:
a) Right action (Conduct) b) Right Knowledge
c) Right Faith d) Right Character
Q17. Who among the following was the Third Jain Tirthankara?
a) Ajinath b) Sambhavnath c) Rishabhanatha d) Sumatinath
Notes
 16 MAHAJANAPADAS
o Anga Mahajanapada finds reference in the Mahabharata and Atharva Veda.
o During the rule of Bimbisara, it was taken over by Magadha Empire.
Anga
o It is situated in present-day Bihar and West Bengal.
Capital:
o Its capital Champa was located at the confluence of the Ganga and the Champa rivers.
Champa
o It was an important commercial centre on the trade routes and merchants sailed from
here to Suvarnabhumi (Southeast Asia).
Magadha o Magadha finds mention in the Atharva Veda.
Capital: o It was located in present-day Bihar close to Anga, divided by river Champa.
Girivraja/ o Later, Magadha became a centre of Jainism, and the first Buddhist Council was held in
Rajagriha Rajagriha.
Kasi/Kashi o It was located in Varanasi.
Capital: o This city got its name from rivers Varuna and Asi as cited in the Matsya Purana.
Kasi o Kasi was captured by Kosala.
o Vatsa is also known as Vamsa.
o Located on the banks of the Yamuna.
o This Mahajanapada followed the monarchical form of governance.
Vatsa
o The capital was Kausambi/Kaushambi (which was at the confluence of Ganga and
Capital:
Yamuna).
Kausambi
o This was a central city for economic activities.
o Trade and business prospered in the 6th century. After the rise of Buddha, the ruler
Udayana made Buddhism a state religion.

Kosala o It was located in modern Awadh region of Uttar Pradesh.

Capital: o The area also included Ayodhya; an important city associated with the Ramayana.
Shravasti o Kosala also included the tribal republican territory of Sakyas of Kapilavastu. Lumbini
(northern), in Kapilavastu is the birthplace of Gautama Buddha.
Kushavati o Important king – Prasenajit (Buddha’s contemporary)
(southern)
o This place was a centre of Krishna worship at the time of Megasthenes.
Shurasena
o There was a dominance of the Buddha’s followers also.
Capital:
o Important king – Awantipura (Disciple of Buddha).
Mathura
o Its capital Mathura was on the banks of the Yamuna.
Panchala o Its capital for northern Panchala was Ahichchatra (modern Bareilly) and Kampilya
Capital: (modern Farrukhabad) for its southern regions.
Ahichchatra o The famous city of Kannauj was situated in the Kingdom of Panchala.
and o Later the nature of governance shifted from monarchy to republic.
Kampilya
Kuru o The area around Kurukshetra was apparently the site for Kuru Mahajanapada.
Capital: o It moved to a republic form of governance.
Indraprasth o The epic poem, the Mahabharata, tells of a conflict between two branches of the
a reigning Kuru clan.
Matsya o It was situated to the west of the Panchalas and south of the Kurus.
Capital: o The capital was at Viratanagara (modern Bairat).
Viratanagar o It is situated around present-day Jaipur, Alwar and Bharatpur area of Rajasthan.
a o Founder – Virata
o This was cited in the Rigveda.
Chedi o The capital was Sothivati/Shuktimati/Sotthivatinagara
Capital: o It located in the present-day Bundelkhand region (Central India).
Sothivati o King – Shishupala. He was killed by Vasudeva Krishna during the Rajasuya sacrifice of
the Pandava king Yudhishthira.
o Avanti was significant in relation to the rise of Buddhism.
Avanti o The capital of Avanti was located at Ujjaini (northern part) and Mahismati (southern
Capital: part).
Ujjaini or o It was situated around present-day Malwa and Madhya Pradesh.
Mahismati o Important king – Pradyota.
o Father-in-law of Udayana (King of the Vatsas).
o The capital was at Taxila (Takshashila).
o Present-day location – Modern Peshawar and Rawalpindi, Pakistan, and the Kashmir
valley.
Gandhara
o Gandhara is cited in the Atharva Veda.
Capital:
o The people were highly trained in the art of war.
Taxila
o It was significant for international commercial activities.
o Important king – Pushkarasarin.
o Gandhara was conquered by Persians in the latter part of the sixth century BCE.
Kamboja o The capital of Kamboja was Poonch.

Capital: o It is situated in present-day Kashmir and Hindukush.

Poonch o Several literary sources mention that Kamboja was a republic.
o Kambojas had an excellent breed of horses.
Asmaka or o It was located on the banks of Godavari.
Assaka o It was the only Mahajanapada situated to the south of the Vindhya Range and was in
Capital: Dakshinapatha.
Potali/Poda o It included the region of Pratisthan or Paithan.
na
o North of Ganga in the division of Tirhut was the state of the Vajjis.
Vajji o It included eight clans, the most powerful being the Lichchhavis (Capital – Vaishali),
Capital: Videhans (Capital – Mithila), Jnatrikas (based in Kundapura).
Vaishali o Mahavira belonged to the Jnatrikas clan.
o The Vajjis were defeated by Ajatashatru.
o It finds a reference in Buddhist and Jain texts and in the Mahabharata.
o Malla was a republic.
Malla
o Its territory touched the northern border of the Vajji state.
Capital:
o Capitals – Kusinara and Pava.
Kusinara
o Both capitals are important in the history of Buddhism. The Buddha took his last meal
at Pava and went to Mahaparinirvana at Kusinara.
PRACTICE QUESTION
Q18. One of the important reasons for the rise of Mahajanpada of Magadha is attributed to
the policies and ambitions of kings like Ajatsatru, Bimbasara etc. This is corroborated
by which of the following sources:
1. Jaina Sources 2. Buddhist Sources 3. Ashokan Rock edicts
Choose the correct code:
a) 1 only b) 2 only c) 2 and 3 d) 1 and 2
Notes
 HARYANKA DYNASTY
The first important and powerful dynasty in Magadha was the Haryanka dynasty.
Bimbisara (558 BC – 491 BC)

o Son of Bhattiya.
o According to Buddhist chronicles, Bimbisara ruled for 52 years (544 BCE – 492 BCE).
o Contemporary and follower of the Buddha. Was also said to be an admirer of Mahavira, who was
also his contemporary.

o Had his capital at Girivraja/Rajagriha (Rajgir).

o It was surrounded by 5 hills, the openings of which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This made
Rajagriha impregnable.
o Also known as Sreniya.
o Was the first king to have a standing army. Magadha came into prominence under his leadership.
o He had a rivalry with Avanti king Pradyota, but later became friends and Bimbsara even sent his
royal physician Jivaka to Ujjain, when Pradyota had jaundice.
o He started the practice of using matrimonial alliances to strengthen his political position.
o He had three wives: Kosaladevi (King of Kosala’s daughter and the sister of Prasenjit), Chellana
(daughter of the Lichchavi chief of Vaisali) and Khema (daughter of the king of Madra, Punjab).
o He followed a policy of conquest and expansion. Most notable conquest by Bimbisara was that of Anga.
o He had an effective and excellent administrative system. The officers occupying high posts were
divided into three – executive, military and judicial.
Ajatasatru (492 BC – 460 BC)

o Son of Bimbisara and Chellana.
o He killed his father and became ruler.
o Embraced Buddhism.
o He convened the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha just after the death of Buddha in 483 BCE.
Read more on Buddhist Councils here.
o Won wars against Kosala and Vaishali.
o Ajatashatru waged a war against Vaishali despite the fact that his mother was a Lichchhavi princess. It
took him 16 long years to destroy Vaishali and add it to his empire.
o He used a war engine to throw stones like catapults. He also possessed chariots to which
maces were attached which facilitated mass killings.
o The ruler of Avanti tried to invade Magadha and to thwart this danger Ajatashatru began the
fortification of Rajgriha. However, the invasion did not materialise during his lifetime.
Udayabhadra/Udayin (460 BCE – 444 BCE)

o Son of Ajatasatru.
o Shifted the capital to Pataliputra (Patna).
o Last of the major Haryanka rulers.
o Udayin’s reign is important because he built the fort upon the confluence of the rivers Ganga
and Son at Pataliputra. This was done because Patna lay in the centre of the Magadha Kingdom,
which now extended from the Himalayas in the north to the hills of the Chotanagpur in the south.
o He was killed at the behest of Palaka, the king of Avanti.
o Succeeded by three kings – Aniruddha, Manda and Nagadasaka.
 SISUNAGA DYNASTY
o According to Sri Lankan chronicles, the people of Magadha revolted during the reign of Nagadasaka
and placed an amatya (minister) named Sisunaga as the king. Sisunaga dynasty lasted from 413 BCE to
345 BCE.
Sisunaga
o Was the viceroy of Kasi before becoming king of Magadha.
o The capital was at Girivaraja.
o The most important achievement of Shishunaga was the destruction of the power of Avanti with
its capital at Ujjain. This brought to an end the 100-year-old rivalry between Magadha and Avanti.

o Avanti became a part of the Magadha empire and continued to be so till the end of the Mauryan
rule.
o Later shifted the capital to Vaishali.
Kalasoka
o Son of Sisunaga. Also known as Kakavarna.
o Kalasoka shifted the capital to Pataliputra.
o He conducted the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali.
o He was killed in a palace revolution that brought the Nanda dynasty to the throne.
 NANDA DYNASTY
o This was the first non-Kshatriya dynasty and it lasted from 345 BCE to 321 BCE.
o The first ruler was Mahapadma Nanda who usurped the throne of Kalasoka.
Mahapadma Nanda
o He is called the “first historical emperor of India.” (Chandragupta Maurya is the First Emperor
of India)
o He murdered Kalasoka to become the king.
o His origins are not clear. As per the Puranas, he was the son of the last Sisunaga king from a Sudra
woman. As per some Jain texts and Greek writer Curtius, he was the son of a barber and a courtesan.
o Thus, the Nandas were considered adharmika (those who don’t follow the norms of Dharma).
Buddhist texts describe the Nandas as belonging to annatakula (unknown lineage).
o His reign lasted for twenty-eight years.
o He is also called “Sarva Kashtriyantaka” (destroyer of all the Kshatriyas) and “Ekrat” (sole
sovereign who destroyed all other ruling princes).
o The empire grew under his reign. It ran from the Kuru country in the north to the Godavari Valley in
the south and from Magadha in the east to Narmada on the west.
o He conquered many kingdoms.
o He added Kalinga to Magadha and brought an image of Jina as a victory trophy.
o He also acquired Kosala which had probably rebelled against him.
o Also called Ugrasena in Pali texts because of his large army. The Nandas were fabulously rich and
enormously powerful.
o They maintained 200,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry and 6000 war elephants. Such a huge army could
be maintained only through an effective taxation system.
Dhana Nanda
o He was the last Nanda ruler.
o He is referred to as Agrammes or Xandrames in Greek texts.
o Alexander invaded North-Western India during his reign, but he could not proceed towards the
Gangetic plains because of his army’s refusal.
o Dhana Nanda inherited a huge empire from his father. He possessed a standing army of 200,000
infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 3000 elephants and 2000 chariots. He became a powerful ruler because of
this.
o He is said to be one of the 8 or 9 sons of Mahapadma Nanda.
o He is credited with the invention of Nandopakramani (a particular measure).
o He became unpopular with his subjects owing to an oppressive way of extorting taxes. Also, his Sudra
origins and an anti-Kshatriya policy led to a large number of enemies.
o Finally, he was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya along with Chanakya, who took advantage of the
public resentment and established the Maurya Empire in Magadha.

 CAUSES FOR THE RISE OF MAGADHA

Geographical factors
o Magadha was located on the upper and lower parts of the Gangetic valley.
o It was located on the mainland route between west and east India.
o The area had fertile soil. It also received enough rainfall.
o Magadha was encircled by rivers on three sides, the Ganga, Son and Champa making the region
impregnable to enemies.
o Both Rajgir and Pataliputra were located in strategic positions.
Economic factors
o Magadha had huge copper and iron deposits.
o Because of its location, it could easily control trade.
o Had a large population which could be used for agriculture, mining, building cities and in the army.
o The general prosperity of the people and the rulers.
o The mastery over Ganga meant economic hegemony. Ganga was important for trade in North India.
o With the annexation of Anga by Bimbisara, river Champa was added to the Magadha Empire.
Champa was important in the trade with South-East Asia, Sri Lanka and South India.
Cultural factors
o Magadhan society had an unorthodox character.
o It had a good mix of Aryan and non-Aryan peoples.
o The emergence of Jainism and Buddhism led to a revolution in terms of philosophy and thought. They
enhanced liberal traditions.
o Society was not so much dominated by the Brahmanas and many kings of Magadha were ‘low’ in
origins.
Political factors
o Magadha was lucky to have many powerful and ambitious rulers.
o They had strong standing armies.
o Availability of iron enabled them to develop advanced weaponry.
o They were also the first kings to use elephants in the army.
o The major kings also developed a good administrative system.
PRACTICE QUESTION
Q19. Consider the following statements with regard to the Haryanka Dynasty:
1. Ajatasatru was the king of Magadha at the time of Maha parinirvana of Buddha.
2. Bimbisara was the 1st Indian King to maintain a standing army.
3. Bimbisara, was the contemporary of Buddha and not Mahavira.
4. Ajatasatru introduced Ratnamasula in army.
a) 2 and 3 only b) 1 and 3 only c) 1 and 2 only d) 3 and 4 only
Notes

 CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA
o The Greek sources (which are the oldest) mention him to be of non-warrior lineage.
o The Hindu sources also say he was a student of Kautilya of humble birth (probably born to a Shudra
woman). Most Buddhist sources say he was a Kshatriya.
o It is generally accepted that he was an orphaned boy born into a humble family who was trained by
Kautilya.
o Greek accounts mention him as Sandrokottos.
o Alexander had abandoned his India conquest in 324 BC and within a year, Chandragupta had defeated
some of the Greek-ruled cities in the north-western part of the country.
o Kautilya provided the strategy while Chandragupta executed it. They had raised a mercenary army of
their own.
o Then, they moved eastward into Magadha.
o In a series of battles, he defeated Dhana Nanda and laid the foundations of the Maurya
Empire in about 321 BC.
o In 305 BC, he entered into a treaty with Seleucus Nicator in which Chandragupta acquired
Baluchistan, eastern Afghanistan and the region to the west of Indus. He also married Seleucus
Nicator’s daughter. In return, Seleucus Nicator got 500 elephants.
o Seleucus Nicator avoided a full-scale war with the mighty Chandragupta and in return got war assets
that would lead him to victory against his rivals in the Battle of Ipsus, fought in 301 BC
o Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador at Chandragupta’s court.
o Chandragupta led a policy of expansion and brought under one control almost the whole of present
India barring a few places like Kalinga and the extreme South.
o His reign lasted from 321 BC to 297 BC.
o He abdicated the throne in favour of his son, Bindusara, and went to Karnataka with Jain monk
Bhadrabahu. He had embraced Jainism and is said to have starved himself to death according to the
Jain tradition at Shravanabelagola.
 ASOKA
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
Q. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC (c) Only three pairs

Prelims 2022) (d) All four pairs
Site of Ashoka's
Location in the Q. Who among the following rulers
major rock
State of advised his subjects through this
edicts
inscription?
1. Dhauli - Odisha “Whosoever praises his religious
2. Erragudi - Andhra sect or blames other sects out of
Pradesh excessive devotion to his own sect,
with the view of glorifying his own
3. Jaugada - Madhya
sect, he rather injures his own sect
Pradesh
very severely.” (UPSC Prelims 2020)
4. Kalsi - Karnataka a) Ashoka
How many pairs given above are correctly b) Samudragupta
matched ? c) Harshavardhana
(a) Only one pair d) Krishnadeva Raya
(b) Only two pairs

Notes
o Ashoka was not the eldest son of Bindusara and so was not the heir presumptive.
o Bindusara wanted his elder son Susima to be crowned the next king.
o But Ashoka was trained in military and weapons and showed great skills as an administrator when he
was made the governor of Ujjain.
o In the war of succession that followed Bindusara’s death in 272 BC, Ashoka emerged victorious
aided by his father’s ministers.
o When he became the king, he was said to be bad-tempered, ruthless and very cruel.
o He even built a torture chamber to torture his prisoners to death. This earned him the moniker
Chandashoka (cruel Ashoka).
o Once he became the king, he started expanding his empire by conquest. In the ninth year of his reign,
he waged war with Kalinga (in present-day Odisha).
Conversion to Buddhism
o The war with Kalinga, which ended in 261 BC, completed in the eighth year of Ashoka’s reign,
according to his own Edicts of Ashoka, was personally led by Ashoka and he was able to vanquish the
Kalingas.
o Whole cities were destroyed and more than a hundred thousand people were killed in the war.
o The horrors of war disturbed him so much that he decided to shun violence for the rest of his life and
turned to Buddhism.
o Ashoka’s 13th Rock Edict describes the Kalinga war vividly.
o He now became Dharmashoka (the pious Ashoka) from Chandashoka.
o He converted to Buddhism. Moggaliputta Tissa, a Buddhist monk, became his mentor.
o Ashoka even conducted the third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra in 247 BC under
Moggaliputta Tissa’s presidency.
 ASHOKA DHAMMA
o Ashoka established the idea of paternal kingship.
o He regarded all his subjects as his children and believed it the king’s duty to look after the welfare of
the subjects.
o Through his edicts, he said everybody should serve parents, revere teachers, and practice ahimsa and
truthfulness.
o He asked everyone to avoid animal slaughter and sacrifice.
o He expounded humane treatment of animals, servants and prisoners.
o He advocated tolerance towards all religions.
o He sought conquest through Dhamma and not war.
o He sent missions abroad to spread the word of the Buddha. Notably, he sent his son Mahinda and
daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka.

o Most of his edicts are written in Pali and Prakrit in Brahmi script. Some are written in the
Kharoshti and Aramaic scripts also. There are some edicts written in Greek as well. The language
depends on the location of the pillar.
o There are two main sources: Buddhist sources and Ashoka’s edicts.
o James Prinsep, a British antiquary and colonial administrator, was the first person to decipher
Ashoka’s edicts.
o Ashokavadana (Sanskrit) written in the second century AD, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa (Sri
Lankan Pali chronicles) give most of the information about Ashoka.
 EDICTS OF ASOKA
o The Edicts of Ashoka are 33 inscriptions engraved on pillars, large stones, and cave walls by Ashoka
the Great (268-232 BCE), the third king of the Mauryan Empire (322-185 BCE) of India.
o One set, the so-called Major Rock Edicts, are consistent in their message that the people should
adhere to the concept of Dhamma, defined as “right behavior”, “good conduct” and “decency toward
others”.
o The edicts were inscribed throughout Ashoka's realm which included the areas of modern-day
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan and most were written in Brahmi Script
(though one, in Afghanistan, is also given in Aramaic and Greek). The edicts are comprised of:
 Minor Rock Edicts
 Minor Pillar Edicts
 Major Rock Edicts
 Major Pillar Edicts.
o It is thought there were
originally many Pillar
Edicts (each between 40
and 50 feet high and
weighing up to 50 tons
each). These were topped
with capitals of lions (facing
in four directions), bulls,
and horses.
o The four-facing lion capital
was adopted as the national
emblem of India following
its independence in 1947.
o The Minor Rock Edicts
and Minor Pillar Edicts
deal with Ashoka's
early reign, the Major
Pillar Edicts treat the
end of his reign, while
the Major Rock Edicts
address Ashoka's vision
of peaceful existence
through Dhamma.
o The Major Rock Edicts are
the most famous of them all
and include Edict 13 which describes the dramatic turning point in Ashoka's life following the Kalinga
War.

o The purpose of the edicts was not only to instruct the people in Dhamma but to show Ashoka's
contrition over his earlier behavior and his commitment to peace through Buddhist principles.
o After his conversion to Buddhism, Ashoka lived his faith, encouraged others to live theirs – whatever
form their belief took – and sent missionaries to other countries (such as China, Greece, Sri Lanka, and
Thailand) to peacefully introduce people to Buddhist concepts.
o In doing so, Ashoka transformed the minor philosophical-religious sect of Buddhism into a world
religion.
o Ashoka's empire fell not even 50 years after his death, and his edicts were forgotten afterwards.
o The pillars fell and were buried, and the Brahmi Script of the rock edicts had been neglected so that,
finally, they could no longer be read. It was not until the 19th century CE that the British scholar and
orientalist James Prinsep (1799-1840 CE) deciphered the script, identified Ashoka as the king
referenced as Devanampiya Piyadassi (“Beloved of the Gods” and “Gracious of Mien”) in the edicts,
and brought the king's remarkable story to light.
Major Rock Edict I o Prohibition of animal sacrifice, especially during festive seasons.
o Medical treatment of humans and animals, planting of fruits,
Major Rock Edict
medicinal herbs, and the digging of wells.
II
o Mentions the Pandyas, Satyapuras and Keralaputras of South India.
o Generosity to Brahmins.
Major Rock Edict
o About Yuktas, Pradeshikas and Rajukas who would go every five
III
years to different parts of his empire to spread Dhamma.
o Dhammaghosha (sound of Dhamma/righteousness) over Bherighosha
Major Rock Edict
(sound of war).
IV
o The King Ashoka attached greatest value to his duty.
o About Dhammamahamatras. Talks about treating slaves right.
Major Rock Edict
o A special cadre of officials, Dhamma Gosha were appointed and entrusted
V
with the duty of spreading Dhamma within the kingdom.
Major Rock Edict o King’s desire to know about his people’s conditions. About welfare
VI measures.
Major Rock Edict o Tolerance towards religions among all sects and welfare measures for
VII the public in his as well as his neighbouring kingdoms.
Major Rock Edict o Ashoka’s first visit to Bodh Gaya and the Bodhi tree (his first
VIII Dhamma Yatra). Gave importance to Dhamma tours.
Major Rock Edict
o Condemns popular ceremonies. Stresses on moral conduct.
IX
Major Rock Edict o Disapproves of the individual’s desire for fame and glory and stresses on
X Dhamma.
Major Rock Edict
o Major Rock Edict XI
XI
Major Rock Edict o It mentions Mahamattas in charge of women’s welfare, Ithijika Mahamatta
XII and tolerance towards the dhamma of others.
o Mentions victory over Kalinga.
Major Rock Edict o Mentions Ashoka’s Dhamma victory over Greek Kings Antiochus of Syria
XIII (Amtiyoko), Ptolemy of Egypt (Turamaye), Magas of Cyrene (Maka),
Antigonus of Macedon (Amtikini), Alexander of Epirus (Alikasudaro). Also

mentions Pandyas, Cholas, etc.

o The thirteenth rock edict which was issued at the end of the Kalinga war
gives a vivid picture of the change of Ashoka from an aggressive and violent
warrior to a great lover and preacher of peace. The direct and immediate
effect of the Kalinga war was the conversion of Ashoka to Buddhism.
Major Rock Edict
o Purpose of rock edicts
XIV
 MINOR ROCK EDICTS

o Minor rock edicts are found on 15 rocks across the country and in Afghanistan also.
o Ashoka uses his name only in four of these places namely:
o Maski,
o Brahmagiri (Karnataka),
o Gujjara (MP) and
o Nettur (AP).
 PILLAR EDICTS
There are seven pillar edicts.
o Two types of stones are used: spotted white sandstone (from Mathura) and buff coloured
sandstone and quartzite (from Amaravati). Generally, they are made of sandstone quarried
from Chunar. They have almost similar form and dimensions.
o All the pillars are monoliths (carved out of stone) and the surface is well polished.
o They have been found from different places like Kandahar (Afghanistan), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
(Pakistan), Delhi, Vaishali and Champaran (Bihar), Sarnath and Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh), Amaravati
(Andhra Pradesh), and Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh).
o Fragments of the same edict are found in different places.
o Many pillars are as high as 50 feet and weigh as much as 50 tons.
o They are devoid of bases and the cylindrical shaft tapers slightly upwards to a height of 12-14 m. A
cylindrical bolt joins the top of the shaft to the capital, and have a bell capital (a stone carved in the
shape of an inverted lotus).
o There is a platform (abacus) on the top of the bell capital which supports the crowned animal.
o The pillars depict animals such as elephants and lions and wheels and lotuses which are all significant
symbols in Buddhism.
o The majestic pillar edicts have been found at Topra, Rampurva, Nigali Sagar, Lauriya-Araraj,
Lauriya Nandangarh, Sarnath and Meerut. Feroz Shah Tughlaq shifted pillars, one from Topra and the
other from Meerut, to Delhi.
Pillar Edict I o Ashoka’s principle of protecting his people.

o Defines Dhamma as minimum of sins, many virtues, compassion, liberty,
Pillar Edict II
truthfulness, and purity.
o Avoiding practices of cruelty, sin, harshness, pride, and anger among his
Pillar Edict III
subjects.
Pillar Edict IV o Responsibilities of the Rajukas.
o List of animals and birds that should not be killed on certain days.
Pillar Edict V
o Another list mentions animals that should never be killed. Describes release of 25

prisoners. This pillar edict is also known as Delhi-Topra Pillar Edict.

Pillar Edict VI o Dhamma policy of the State (welfare of the people).
o Ashoka’s work for fulfilling Dhamma. Tolerance for all sects. Also, about
Pillar Edict VII
Dhamma Mahamattas.
 OTHER RELEVANT INSCRIPTIONS AND IMPORTANT EDICTS:

Allahabad – Ashoka asks the members of the Sangha to refrain from causing division in
Kosam/Queens the ranks.
Edict/Kausambi or Samudragupta’s inscription is on this edict itself.
Schism Edict Jahangir shifted it to the fort at Allahabad.
Kandahar Inscription It is a famous bilingual edict in Greek and Aramaic.
Kalinga Edicts (Bhauli
Mentions ‘All men are my children.’
and Jaugada)
Sannati Inscription
Site of all 14 major rock edicts as well as two separate Kalinga edicts.
(Karnataka)
Rummindei Inscription It mentions that the village of Lumbini (birthplace of the Buddha) be
(Nepal) exempted from bali and was to pay only one-eighth of the bhaga.
Girnar Rock Inscription Mentions the Sudarshan Lake constructed by Pushyagupta, a rashtriya
of Rudradaman (means provincial governor) of Saurashtra during Chandragupta Maurya’s
(Kathiawar) reign.
Indicates that Ashoka turned towards Buddhism gradually, after 2.5 years
Minor Rock Edict 1
in power.
Ashoka greets Sangha, professes his deep faith in the Buddha, dhamma,
Minor Rock Edict 3 and Sangha, also recommends six Buddhist texts for monks, nuns, and
general laity.
Inscriptions at
Shahbazgarhi and Written in Kharosthi script.
Mansehra.
 MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION
 CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
o Mauryan administration was highly centralized.
o The Emperor was the supreme power and source of all authority.
o He was assisted by a Council of Ministers. It was called ‘Mantriparishad’. The ministers were called
‘Mantris.’
o The council was headed by ‘mantriparishad-adhyakshya’.
o Tirthas: the Highest category of officials in the administration. There were 18 Tirthas.
o Adhyakshya: Ranked next only to Tirthas. There were 20 Adhyakshyas. They had economic and
military functions.
o The Adhyakshyas were formed into a secretariat, which was divided into many departments.
o Arthashastra mentions many Adhyakshyas for commerce, storehouses, gold, ships, agriculture, cows,
horses, city, chariots, mint, infantry, etc.

Mahamattas Higher ranking officials.
High ranking officials almost like present-day secretaries. They had

Amatyas
administrative and judicial roles.
Yuktas Subordinate officers responsible for the Empire’s revenue.
Rajjukas Officers in charge of land measurement and boundary-fixing.
Sansthadhyasksha Superintendent of mint
Samasthadhyasksha Superintendent of markets
Sulkaadhyaksha Superintendent of tolls
Sitaadhyaksha Superintendent of agriculture
Lohadhyaksha Superintendent of iron

Pauthavadhyakhsa Superintendent of weights and measures
Akaradhyaksha Superintendent of mines
Vyavharika Mahamatta Judiciary officers

Pulisanj Public relations officers
 LOCAL ADMINISTRATION
o The smallest unit of administration was the village.
o Head of a village: Gramika Villages had a lot of autonomy.
o Pradeshika was the provincial governors or district magistrates.
o Sthanika: Tax collectors working under Pradeshikas.
o Durgapala: Governors of forts.
o Antapala: Governors of frontiers.
o Akshapatala: Accountant General
o Lipikaras: Scribes
 MILITARY
o The commander-in-chief of the entire military was called Senapati and his position was next to the
Emperor. He was appointed by the Emperor.
o The military was divided into five sectors namely, infantry, cavalry, chariots, elephant forces,
navy and transport & provisions.
o The army’s salary was paid in cash.
 REVENUE
o The revenue department chief was called Samharta.
o Another important official was Sannidhata (treasurer).
o Revenue was collected on land, irrigation, shops, customs, forests, ferry, mines and pastures. License
fees were collected from artisans and fines were charged in the law courts.
o Most of the land revenue was one-sixth of the produce.
 POLICE
o All the main centres had police headquarters.
o Jail was called Bandhangara and lock-up was known as Charaka.

 ESPIONAGE
o The espionage system of the Mauryas was well-developed.
o There were spies who informed the Emperor about the bureaucracy and markets.
o There were two types of spies: Sansthana (stationary) and Sanchari (wanderer).
o Gudhapurushas were the detectives or secret agents.
o They were controlled by the Mahamatyapasarpa. These agents were picked from different segments
of society.
o There were also agents called Vishakanyas (poisonous girls).
 MAURYAN PILLARS AND SCULPTURES

 PILLARS & SCULPTURES
o Erection of pillars was common in the Achamenian Empire (Persian Empire) also. While there were
commonalities like the use of polished stones, motifs like lotus, there are also differences. While the
Achamenian pillars were constructed in pieces, the Mauryan pillars were rock-cut, displaying the
superior skill of the carver.
o Stone pillars can be seen all over the Mauryan Empire. These had proclamations inscribed on them
and were used to spread the message of the Buddha by Emperor Ashoka.
o The top portion of the pillar is called capital and it typically has animal figures like bull, lion, elephant,
etc. These capital figures are carved standing on a square or circular abacus. The abacuses are on the
base which could be a stylised inverted lotus.
o Example of pillars with capital figures: Sarnath, Basarah-Bakhira, Rampurva, Sankisa and Lauriya-
Nandangarh.
o The Lion Capital at Sarnath is the most famous example.
o Monumental figures of Yakshas and Yakshinis have been found in various parts of India thus showing
the popularity of Yaksha worship.
 ROCK-CUT ARCHITECTURE
o Ashoka also patronised rock-cut architecture.
o Rock-cut elephant at Dhauli, Odisha – shows modelling in round with linear rhythm. It also has an
Ashokan edict.
o Lomus Rishi Cave – Rock-cut cave at Barabar Hills near Gaya. The cave entrance is decorated with
a semicircle chaitya arch. An elephant is carved in high relief on the chaitya. The interior hall of the
cave is rectangular; it also has a circular chamber at the back. Ashoka patronised this cave for the
Ajivika sect.
 STUPAS, CHAITYAS AND VIHARAS

o Stupas and viharas were constructed as part of the Buddhist and Jaina monastic tradition but most of
the constructions belong to Buddhism.
o Some Brahmanical gods were also represented in the sculptures here.
o Stupas were constructed over the relics of the Buddha at Rajagriha, Kapilavastu, Vaishali, Ramagrama,
Allakappa, Pava, Vethadipa, Pippalvina and Kushinagar.
o Stupas consist of a cylindrical drum with a circular anda and a harmika and a chhatra on the
top. Sometimes there were circumambulatory pathways and gateways. In many cases, additions were
added in later centuries.
o Anda: hemispherical mound symbolic of the mound of dirt used to cover Buddha’s remains (in many
stupas actual relics were used).
o Harmika: square railing on top of the mound.
o Chhatra: central pillar supporting a triple umbrella form.

Stupa at Bairat, Rajasthan – 3rd century BCE; grand stupa with a circular mound and a
circumambulatory path.
o Many stupas were built and not all of them with royal patronage. Patrons included lay devotees,
gahapatis, guilds and kings.
o Not many mention the names of the artisans. But artisans’ categories like stone carvers, goldsmiths,
stone-polishers, carpenters, etc. are mentioned.
Stupa at Sanchi – most famous and one of the earliest examples.

o Chaityas were basically prayer halls and most of them were with stupas. Generally, the hall was
rectangular and it had a semi-circular rear end. They had horse-shoe shaped windows. They also had
pillars separating the hall from the two aisles.
o Viharas were the residences of the monks.
o Both chaityas and viharas were made out of wood, and later were also stone-cut.
Sanchi Stupa
o Sanchi Stupa is a UNESCO world heritage site since 1989. Sanchi is in Madhya Pradesh.
o There are many small stupas here with three mains ones – stupa 1, stupa 2 and stupa 3. Stupa 1 is also
called the Great Stupa at Sanchi. It is the most prominent and the oldest and is believed to have the
Buddha’s relics.
o It was built by Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.
o Originally, it was smaller than its present dimensions. It was expanded in later periods.
o The original structure was made out of bricks. Later on, it was covered with stone, vedica, and the
torana (gateway).
o There are four gateways to the stupa with the southern one being built first. The others were later
added. The gateways are adorned with beautiful sculptures and carvings. Each torana consists of two
vertical pillars and three horizontal bars on top. The bars contain exquisite carvings on front and back.
They contain images of shalbhanjikas – lady holding the branch of a tree. Stories from the Jataka
tales are carved here.
o The structure has a lower and upper pradakshinapatha or circumambulatory path. The upper
pradakshinapatha is unique to this stupa.
o On the southern side of the stupa, the Ashokan Lion Capital pillar is found with inscriptions on it.
o The hemispherical dome of the stupa is called the anda. It contains the relics of the Buddha.
o The harmika is a square railing on top of the dome/mound.
o The chhatra is an umbrella on top of the harmika. There is a sandstone pillar in the site on which
Ashoka’s Schism Edict is inscribed.
o The original brick dome was expanded into double its size during the reign of the Shunga dynasty with
stone slabs covering the original dome.
Sanchi Stupa – Lion Capital, Sarnath

o One of the finest examples of Mauryan sculpture.
o Located at Sarnath, near Varanasi. Commissioned by Emperor Ashoka. Built-in 250 BCE.
o Made of polished sandstone. The surface is heavily polished.
o Currently, the pillar is in its original place but the capital is on display at the Sarnath Museum.
o It was commissioned to commemorate the first sermon of the Buddha or the Dharmachakrapravartana
at Sarnath.
o Originally, the capital had five components:
 The shaft (now broken into many parts)
 A lotus base bell
 A drum on the base bell with 4 animals proceeding clockwise (abacus)
 The crowning part, a large wheel (this is also broken and displayed at the museum)

 The capital was adopted as the National Emblem of India after independence without the crowning
wheel and the lotus base.
o The four lions are seated back-to-back on a circular abacus. The figures of the lions are grand and
evoke magnificence. They are realistic images and the lions are portrayed as if they are
holding their breath. The curly manes of the lions are voluminous. The muscles of the feet are
shown stretched indicating the weight of the bodies.
o The abacus has four wheels (chakra) with 24 spokes in all four directions. This is part of the
Indian National Flag now.
o The wheel represents Dharmachakra in Buddhism (the wheel of dhamma/dharma). Between
every wheel, there are animals carved. They are a bull, a horse, an elephant and a lion. The animals
appear as if they are in motion. The abacus is supported by the inverted lotus capital.
Depiction of the Buddha

o In the early periods, Buddha is represented through symbols like footprints, lotus thrones, chakras,
stupas, etc.
o Later on, stories were portrayed on the railings and torans of the stupas. These were mainly the Jataka
tales.
o The chief events from Buddha’s life which are narrated in the arts are birth, renunciation,
enlightenment, first sermon (dharmachakrapravartana) and mahaparinirvana (death).
o The Jataka stories that find frequent depiction are Chhadanta Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Ruru Jataka,
Vessantara Jataka, Vidur Jataka and Shama Jataka.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q20. Which of the following Asokan inscription makes a precise reference to taxation?
a) Rummindei inscription b) Allahabad pillar inscription
c) Barbara cave Inscription d) Kandhar Inscription
Q21. Consider the following statements about Ashoka's Dhamma policy:

1. It was a secular policy to maintain religious harmony in the empire.
2. It was a policy to maintain social harmony in the empire.
3. It was a policy of piety.
4. It was a religious policy of the king.
a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only c) 1, 2 and 3 only d) All of the above

1. The Ashokan inscription found at Udegolam refers to the ancient city of Isila.
2. Rock edict V of Asoka mentions about the appointment of Dharma Mahamatras.
3. Kanishka, who was an ardent Buddhist king, introduced ‘Boddo’ on the gold coin and
‘Sakamano boddo’ on the copper coin.
Which one of the above statements is incorrect?
a) 1 only b) 2 only c) 3 only d) None of the above
Notes

 INDO-GREEKS
o After the decline of the Mauryas, northern India was split into several kingdoms. In the Magadha
region, the Sungas came to power in about 185 BC. After that, the Kanvas came to power who were
defeated by the Satavahanas originally from the Deccan. Northwest India was constantly under
attack from powers in Central Asia and northwest. The Indo-Greek or the Graeco-Indian
Kingdom has established around 180 BC when the Graeco-Bactrian king Demetrius invaded the
Indian subcontinent.
Indo-Greeks: Initial presence

o After Alexander invaded the northwest part of the subcontinent, one of his generals, Seleucus
Nicator, founded the Seleucid Empire.
o In Seleucus’s conflict with the mighty Chandragupta Maurya, he ceded large parts to the west of the
Indus, including the Hindu Kush, present-day Afghanistan and Balochistan to the Mauryan king.
o After this, Megasthenes was sent to reside at Chandragupta Maurya’s court. Other Greek residents at
Mauryan courts were Deimachus and Dionysius.
o Greek populations lived in the north-western part of the Mauryan Empire as evident from Ashoka’s
edicts.
o Mauryas also had departments to take care of foreigners like Yavanas (Greeks) and Persians.
o In ancient Indian sources, Greeks were called Yavanas (Sanskrit) and Yonas (Pali).
Indo-Greek Kingdom
o The Indo-Greek kingdom was ruled by over 30 Hellenistic (Greek) kings in the northwest and north
India from the 2nd century BC to the beginning of the first century AD.
o The kingdom started when Graeco-Bactrian king Demetrius (son of Euthydemus I) invaded
India around 180 BC. He conquered southern Afghanistan and parts of Punjab.
o The Indo-Greek kings imbibed Indian culture and became political entities with a mix of Greek and
Indian culture.
o For about 25 years, the Indo-Greek kingdoms were under the Euthydemid rule.
o Many coins have been unearthed of these kings and most of the information we get about them is from
these coins. Coins have been found with Indian and Greek inscriptions. Many coins have been found
with images of Indian deities also. The Indo-Greek kings did this to perhaps placate the population
most of whom were not Greeks.
o The civil wars among the many Bactrian kings after the death of Demetrius facilitated the independent
kingdom of Apollodotus I who, in this way, can be regarded as the first proper Indo-Greek king
(whose rule was not from Bactria).
o His kingdom included Gandhara and western Punjab.
o Most of the Indo-Greek kings were Buddhists and Buddhism flourished under their rule.

o Greek influence is mostly seen in art and sculpture, particularly the Gandhara School of art.
 MENANDER I (165 BCE- 145 BCE)

o Menander I Soter was also known as Minedra, Minadra, or Milinda (in Pali).
o He was initially a king of Bactria. His empire extended from Kabul river valley in the west to the Ravi
River in the east, and from Swat valley in the north to Arachosia (Helmand in Afghanistan).
o According to some Indian sources, he went as far as Rajasthan and Pataliputra.
o He converted to Buddhism and patronised the faith.
o He died in 130 BC and was succeeded by his son Strato I.
o The Milinda Panha (composed around 100 BC) records a dialogue between Milinda and
the Buddhist sage Nagasena. Originally written in Sanskrit, only the Pali version is available now.
In the work, Milinda is described as a wise, learned, and able king. At the end of it, Milinda accepts
Buddhism and converts.
Coins of Indo-Greeks
o Coins circulated to the north of Hindu Kush region during the rule of Indo-Greeks.
o There was gold, silver, copper and nickel coins.
o The coins had Greek legends.
o The Indo-Greek coins had royal portraits on the obverse and greek deities (Zeus, Apollo, and Athena)
on the reverse.
o Coins circulated to the south of Hindu Kush region during the rule of Indo-Greeks.
o There were silver and copper coins (mostly in square shape).
o Indian weight standards were followed in the making of these coins.
o They had bilingual inscriptions – Greek and Kharoshthi.
o On the obverse of the coin, royal portraits were present and on the reverse, religious symbols (mostly
Indian in inspiration) were present.
Decline of the Indo-Greek Kingdom

o The last Indo-Greek king was Strato II. He ruled the Punjab region until 55 BC, some say until 10 AD.
o Their rule ended with the invasions of the Indo-Scythians (Sakas).
o It is believed that Greek people lived for several centuries more in India under the Indo-Parthians and
the Kushans.
PRACTICE QUESTION
Q23. The gold coins in India issued by which of the followings rulers for the first time in
India?
a) Indo-Greeks b) Guptas c) Mauryas d) Sungas
Notes

 KUSHAN DYNASTY
o Kushan dynasty, Kushan also spelled Kusana, descended from the Yuezhi, a people that ruled over
most of the northern Indian subcontinent, Afghanistan, and parts of Central Asia during the first three
centuries of the Common Era.
o The Yuezhi conquered Bactria in the 2nd century BCE and divided the country into five chiefdoms, one
of which was that of the Kushans (Guishuang). A hundred years later the Kushan chief Kujula
Kadphises secured the political unification of the Yuezhi kingdom under himself.
o Under Kaniska I (flourished 1st century CE) and his successors, the Kushan kingdom reached its
height. It was acknowledged as one of the four great Eurasian powers of its time (the others being
China, Rome, and Parthia).
o The Kushans were instrumental in spreading Buddhism in Central Asia and China and in developing
Mahayana Buddhism and the Gandhara and Mathura schools of art.
o The Kushans became affluent through trade, particularly with Rome, as their large issues of gold coins
show. These coins, which exhibit the figures of Greek, Roman, Iranian, Hindu, and Buddhist deities
and bear inscriptions in adapted Greek letters, are witness to the toleration and to the syncretism in
religion and art that prevailed in the Kushan empire. After the rise of the Sāsānian dynasty in Iran and
of local powers in northern India, Kushan rule declined.
o The Kushans fostered a mixed culture that is best illustrated by the variety of deities—Greco-Roman,
Iranian, and Indian—invoked on their coins.
o At least two major stylistic divisions can be made among artifacts of the period: imperial art of Iranian
derivation and Buddhist art of mixed Greco-Roman and Indian sources. The best examples of the
former are gold coins issued by the seven Kushan kings, the Kushan royal portraits (e.g., the Kanishka
statue), and princely portraits found at Surkh-Kotal in Afghanistan. The style of Kushan artworks is
stiff, hieratic, and frontal. Anatomy and drapery are stylized in the early period, and they are in stark
contrast to the second style, which is typified by the Gandhara and Mathura schools of Kushan art.
 SATAVAHANA DYNASTY
o In the northern region, the Mauryas were succeeded by the Sungas and the Kanvas. However, the
Satavahanas (natives) succeeded the Mauryas in Deccan and in Central India.
o The Satavahanas are considered to be identical with the Andhras who are mentioned in the
Puranas, but neither the name Andhra appears in the Satavahana inscriptions nor do the Puranas
mention the Satavahanas.
o According to some Puranas, the Andhras ruled for 300 years and this period is assigned to the rule of
the Satavahana dynasty, with their capital at Pratishthana (modern Paithan) on the Godavari in
Aurangabad district.
o The Satavahana kingdom majorly comprised present Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and
Telangana. At times, their rule also included parts of Gujarat, Karnataka as well as Madhya Pradesh.
o The kingdom had different capitals at different times. Two of the capitals were Amaravati and
Pratishthana (Paithan).
o The earliest inscriptions of the Satavahans belong to the first century BCE when they defeated the
Kanvas and established their power in parts of Central India.
o It is important to mention that the early Satavahana kings appeared not in Andhra but in Maharashtra,
where most of their early inscriptions have been found. Gradually they extended their power over
Karnataka and Andhra.
o Their greatest competitors were the Shaka Kshatrapas of western India, who had established
themselves in the upper Deccan and western India.
o The Satavahans were Brahmanas and worshipped gods like Vasudeva Krishna.

o The Satavahans kings used matronyms like Gautamiputra and Vaishishthiputra, although
they were not matriarchal or matrilineal in any sense.
o They assumed the title of Dakshinapatha Pati (Lord of Dakshinapatha).
o The Satavahanas are known for starting the practice of giving royal grants of land to
Brahmans and Buddhist monks.
o Simuka was the founder of the Satavahana Dynasty.
o The Satavahanas were the first native Indian kings to have issued their own coins which had the rulers’
portraits on them. Gautamiputra Satakarni started this practice which he imbibed from the Western
Satraps after vanquishing them.
o The coin legends were in Prakrit. Some reverse coin legends are in Tamil, Telugu and Kannada
also.
o They patronised Prakrit more than Sanskrit.
o Even though the rulers were Hindus and claimed Brahmanical status, they supported Buddhism also.
o They were successful in defending their areas from foreign invaders and had many battles with the
Sakas.
 IMPORTANT RULERS OF THE SATAVAHANA DYNASTY

o Considered to be the founder of the Satavahana dynasty and was immediately active
Simuka after Ashoka’s death.
o Built Jain and Buddhist temples.
o Satakarni I was the 3rd king of the Satavahanas.
o Satakarni I was the first Satavahana king to expand his empire by military
conquests.
o He conquered Kalinga after the death of Kharavela.
Satakarni I o He also pushed back the Sungas in Pataliputra.
(70- 60 BC) o He also ruled over Madhya Pradesh.
o After annexing the Godavari Valley, he assumed the title of ‘Lord of Dakshinapatha’.
o His queen Nayanika wrote the Naneghat inscription which describes the king as
Dakshinapathapati.
o He performed Ashvamedha and revived Vedic Brahmanism in the Deccan.
o King Hala compiled the Gatha Saptashati. Called Gaha Sattasai in Prakrit, it is a
collection of poems with mostly love as the theme. Around forty of the poems are
Hala
attributed to Hala himself.
o Hala’s minister Gunadhya composed Brihatkatha.
o He is considered the greatest king of the Satavahana dynasty.
o It is believed that at one stage, the Satavahanas were dispossessed of their
dominions in the upper Deccan and western India. The fortunes of the Satavahanas
were restored by Gautamiputra Satkarni. He called himself the only Brahmana who
defeated the Shakas and destroyed many Kshatriya rulers.
Gautami- o He is believed to have destroyed the Kshaharata lineage to which his
putra adversary Nahapana belonged. More than 800 silver coins of Nahapana (found
Satakarni near Nasik) bears marks of being restruck by the Satavahana king. Nahapana was an
important king of the Western Satraps.
o His kingdom ran from Krishna in the south to Malwa and Saurashtra in the north
and from Berar in the east to the Konkan in the west.
o In a Nasik inscription of his mother Gautami Balashri, he is described as the
destroyer of the Shakas, Pahlavas and the Yavanas (Greeks); as the uprooter of the

Kshaharatas and the restorer of the glory of the Satavahanas.

o He is also described as Ekabrahmana (a peerless Brahmana) and Khatiya-
dapa-manamada (destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas).
o He was given the titles Rajaraja and Maharaja.
o He donated land to the Buddhist monks. The Karle inscription mentions the grant of
Karajika village, near Pune, Maharashtra.
o In the later part of his reign, he lost some of the conquered Kshaharata territories to
the Kardamaka line of the Shaka Kshatrapas of western India, as is
mentioned in the Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman I.
o His mother was Gautami Balasri and hence his name Gautamiputra (son of
Gautami).
o He was succeeded by his son Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi/Pulumavi or Pulamavi II.
(Alternatively spelt Pulumayi.)
o He was the immediate successor of Gautamiputra. The coins and inscriptions of
Vashishthip Vashishthiputra Pulumayi are found in Andhra.
utra
o According to Junagadh inscriptions, he was married to the daughter of
Pulumayi
Rudradaman Ⅰ.
(c. 130 –
154 CE) o The Shaka-Kshatrapas of western India recovered some of their territories due to his
engagements in the east.
o One of the later kings of the Satavahana dynasty. He recovered north Kokan and
Yajna Sri
Malwa from the Shaka rulers.
Satakarni
o He was a lover of trade and navigation, as is evident from the motif of a ship on his
(c. 165 –
coins. His coins have been found in Andhra, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and
194 CE)
Gujarat.
Satavahana Administration
o The king was represent
o ted as the upholder of dharma and he strove for the royal ideal set forth in the Dharmashastras. The
Satavahana king is represented as possessing the divine qualities of ancient gods such as Rama,
Bhima, Arjuna, etc.
o The Satavahanas retained some of the administrative units of Ashokan times.
o The kingdom was divided into districts called ahara. Their officials were known as amatyas and
mahamatras (same as in Mauryan times).
o But unlike Mauryan times, certain military and feudal elements are found in the administration of the
Satavahanas. For instance, the senapati was appointed provincial governor. It was probably
done to keep the tribal people in the Deccan who were not completely brahmanised under strong
military control.
o The administration in the rural areas was placed in the hands of gaulmika (village
headman) who was also the head of a military regiment consisting of 9 chariots, 9 elephants, 25
horses and 45 foot soldiers.
o The military character of the Satavahana rule is also evident from the common use of terms like
kataka and skandhavara in their inscriptions. These were military camps and settlements which
served as administrative centres when the king was there. Thus, coercion played an important part in
the Satavahana administration.
o The Satavahanas started the practice of granting tax-free villages to brahmanas and
buddhist monks.
o The Satavahana kingdom had three grades of feudatories – Raja (who had the right to strike
coins), Mahabhoja and Senapati.

Satavahana Coins: Some important points related to Satavahan coinage are mentioned below:
o The coins of the Satavahanas have been excavated from Deccan, western India, Vidarbha, Western and
Eastern Ghats, etc
o Most of the coins in the Satavahana dynasty were die-struck.
o Cast-coins too existed in the Satavahana empire and there were multiple combinations of techniques
that were used to cast coins.
o There were silver, copper, lead and potin coins in the Satavahana empire.
o The portrait coins were mostly in silver and some were in lead too.
o Dravidian language and Brahmi script were used on portrait coins.
o There were punch-marked coins too that were circulated alongside the Satavahana dynasty.
o The importance of maritime trade was derived from the images of ships present on the Satavahana
coins.
o Many Satavahana coins bore the names of ‘Satakarni’ and ‘Pulumavi.’
o Satavahana coins were of different shapes – round, square, rectangular, etc.
o Many symbols have appeared on the Satavahana coins, the major ones of which are: Chaitya symbol,
Chakra symbol, Conch Shell symbol, Lotus symbol, Nandipada symbol, Ship symbol, Swastik symbol
o Animal motifs were found on the Satavahana coins.
Religion & Language of Satavahana Kingdom

o The Satavahanas belonged to the Hindu religion and the Brahmanical caste.
o But, the interesting fact is their generosity towards other castes and religions which is evident from the
donations made by them towards Buddhist monasteries.
o Many Buddhist monasteries were constructed during the rule of the Satavahana dynasty.
o The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit, though the script was Brahmi (as was the
case in the Ashokan times).
o Political inscriptions also threw some light on the rare use of Sanskrit Literature.
Satavahanas – Social Organizations

o The Satavahanas originally seem to have been a tribe of the Deccan. They, however, were so
brahmanized that they claimed to be Brahmanas. The most famous Satavahana king Gautamiputra
claimed to be a Brahman and thought it his duty to uphold the four-fold varna system.
o The Satavahanas were the first rulers to make land grants to the Brahmans and there are also
instances of grants made to Buddhist monks, especially to Mahayana Buddhists.
o Nagarjunakonda and Amravati in Andhra Pradesh and Nasik and Junar in Maharashtra
became important Buddhist sites under the Satavahanas and their successors, the
Ikshvakus.
o The artisans and merchants formed an important class of society due to flourishing trade and
commerce.
o Merchants took pride in naming themselves after the towns to which they belonged.
o Among the artisans, the Gandhikas (perfumers) are mentioned as donors and later the term came
to be used for all kinds of shopkeepers. The title ‘Gandhi’ is derived from this ancient term Gandhika.
o It was customary for their king to be named after his mother, (Gautamiputra and Vashishthiputra)
which indicates that the women occupied an important position in the society.
Satavahana Architecture
o In the Satavahana phase, many temples called chaityas and monasteries called viharas were cut
out of the solid rock in the north-western Deccan or Maharashtra with great precision and patience.
o The Karle chaitya is the most famous in western Deccan.
o The three viharas at Nasik carry inscriptions of Nahapana and Gautamiputra.

o The most important stupas of this period are Amravati and Nagarjunakonda. The Amaravati
stupa is full of sculptures that depict the various scenes from the life of the Buddha. The
Nagarjunakonda stupa contains Buddhist monuments and also the earliest Brahmanical brick temples.
PRACTICE QUESTION
Q24. Consider the following statements about Post Mauryan period:
1. The Chedi dynasty ruled over Kalinga.
2. Amaravati School of Sculpture (150 BC – 400 AD) was related to the Kushanas.
Which of the above statement/s is/are correct?
Notes
 SAKAS
o The beginning of the Saka Era can be related to the ascent of the king Chashtana.
o Scythians (referred to as Sakas in Indian sources) were a group of Iranian nomadic pastoral tribes.
o In the second century BC, central Asian nomadic tribes and tribes from the Chinese region invaded the
region of present-day Kazakhstan whose inhabitants were Scythians.
o This promoted the Scythians to move towards Bactria and Parthia. After defeating the Parthian king,
they moved towards India.
o Scythians who migrated to India are known as Indo-Scythians.
o The Sakas had an Indian kingdom larger than the Indo-Greeks.
Maues (Reign 98/50 BC – 60/57 BC)

o Maues, also known as Moga was the earliest Indo-Scythian king.
o He ruled over Gandhara (present Pakistan and Afghanistan).
o He invaded the Indo-Greek territories but unsuccessfully.
o His capital was at Sirkap (Punjab, Pakistan).
o Many coins issued by Maues have been found. They contain Buddhist and also Hindu symbols.
o The languages used in these coins were Greek and Kharoshti.
o His son Azes I acquired the remaining Indo-Greek territories by defeating Hippostratos.
Chashtana (Reign 78 AD – 130 AD)

o He was a Saka ruler of the Western Kshatrapas (Satraps) dynasty who ruled over Ujjain.
o The Saka Era is believed to have started at his ascension to power in 78 AD.
o Ptolemy mentions him as “Tiasthenes” or “Testenes”.
o He was the founder of one of the two major Saka Kshatrapa dynasties in northwest India, the
Bhadramukhas.
o The other dynasty was called Kshaharatas and included the king Nahapana (who was defeated
by Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni).
Rudradaman I (Reign 130 AD – 150 AD)

o He is considered the greatest of the Saka rulers.

o He is from the Western Kshatrapa dynasty.

o He was the grandson of Chastana.
o His kingdom included Konkan, Narmada valley, Kathiawar, other parts of Gujarat and Malwa.
o He conducted the repair work of the Sudarshana Lake at Kathiawar.
o He married a Hindu woman and had converted to Hinduism.
o He also issued the first long inscription in chaste Sanskrit.
o He took up the title of Makakshatrapa after becoming king.
o He maintained marital relationships with the Satavahanas.
o Vashishtiputra Satakarni was his son-in-law. But he also fought numerous wars with them.
o He regained through conquests most of the territories previously under Nahapana.
o He supported Sanskrit literature and cultural arts.
o It was during Rudradaman’s reign that Yavaneshwara, the Greek writer lived in India and
translated the Yavanajataka from Greek to Sanskrit.
o The Saka Empire started declining after their defeat at the hands of the Satavahana Emperor
Gautamiputra Satakarni.
o The Saka rule in northwest India and Pakistan came to an end after the death of Azes II (12 BC) when
the region came under the Kushanas.
o In western India, their rule came to an end in the 4th century AD when the last Western Satrap Saka
ruler Rudrasimha III was defeated by Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty.
 POST MAURYAN AGE

 CRAFTS
o The age of the Sakas, the Satavahanas and the Kushanas (200 BCE – 200 CE) and the first Tamil
states was the most flourishing period in the history of commerce and crafts in ancient India.
o The Digha-Nikaya, which belongs to the pre-Mauryan times, mentions almost 24 occupations
whereas the Mahavastu, a text belonging to this period, catalogues 3 dozen different types of workers
living in Rajgir town.
o The Milinda Panho (the questions of Milinda) mentions about 75 occupations, out of which 60 are
connected with various kinds of crafts.
o Craftsmen are largely associated with towns in literary texts, but some excavations show that they lived
in villages as well.
o The field of mining and metallurgy made great advancements and specializations, as many as
eight crafts were associated with the working of gold, lead, silver, tin, brass, copper, iron, jewels and
precious stones.
o The technological progress in iron manufacturing is clear from the excavations of specialized iron
artefacts from the Nalgonda and Karimnagar districts of Telangana.
o Iron and steel products from India like cutlery were exported to Abyssinian ports and were
regarded highly in western Asia.
o The inscriptions of this period mention goldsmith, weavers, dyers, jewellers, workers in metal and
ivory, sculptors, smiths, fishermen and perfumers, suggesting that these crafts were thriving.
o Mathura and Vanga (Eastern Bengal) were famous for varieties of silk and cotton textiles, with
the former being known for a special kind of cloth known as Shataka.
o The excavations of dyeing vat at Uraiyur (Tamil Nadu) and at Arikamedu suggest that dyeing was a
flourishing art in these areas in this age.
o Ujjain was an important bead making centre. The ivory products, glass objects and beads of
precious and semi-precious stones were articles of luxury.
o Coin minting was a major craft and coins were made of gold, copper, silver, lead, potin and
bronze. The craftsmen even made fake coins.

o Gorgeous pieces of terracotta have been found in almost all Satavahana and Kushana sites,
especially Yelleshwaram in the Nalgonda district. It is generally accepted that terracotta was chiefly
utilised by people of the upper classes in towns. There are innumerable inscriptions that talk about
donations given by prosperous artisans to the monasteries.
 MERCHANT GUILDS
o The merchants communities were organised in groups called “shreni” or guild under the head –
Shreshthi.
o Mobile or caravan trading corporations of inter-regional traders formed another type of mercantile
group called “sartha” with its leader called “sarthavaha”.
o Almost all craft occupations were also organised into guilds, under a head called
“jetthaka/pamukkha”.
o The guilds were associations of merchants & craftsmen, in the same profession or dealing in the same
commodity.
o Each guild had its heads and followed its own rules with respect to quality and prices in order to
regulate their business on the basis of mutual goodwill.
o These guilds also served as banks and kept public deposits from the public on fixed interest rates.
o On the basis of information from different texts, it can be inferred that artisans were organised into at
least 24 guilds.
o Most of the artisans were limited to the Mathura region and western Deccan (areas that were on the
trade routes that led to the western coastal ports).
o The Yajnavalkya Smriti talks about the qualifications and powers of the head of the guilds.
According to the text, the guilds also probably had a judicial role.
o According to Buddhist texts, the heads of the guilds had a good rapport with the king and used to
accompany the king as part of the official entourage and sometimes were even appointed as
Mahamattas.
o In Nigrodha Jataka, it is mentioned that certain officials called “bhandagarika” were designated
to maintain a record of the conventions and transactions of the guilds.
o Some guilds even issued coins and seals which reflect the importance of guilds of this period.
o Some seals with the captions nigama, nigamasya have been found at the site of Rajghat, seals with
the legend of Gavayaka (signifying milkmen’s guild), Bhita (seals with the legend of
Shulaphalayikanam, signifying guild of arrowhead makers) and Ahichchhatra (seals with the legend
of Kumhakara, signifying pottery makers’ guild).
 TRADE
o One of the most salient aspects of the post-Mauryan period was the growth of internal and external
trade and commerce.
o There were two major internal land routes in ancient India:
 Uttarapatha: Connected eastern and northern parts of India with the north-western areas, and
 Dakshinapatha: Connected peninsular India with northern and western parts of India.
 The Uttarapatha was in more frequent use.
o From Taxila, it passed via Punjab up to the western coast of the Yamuna, following the western coast of
Yamuna it went southwards to Mathura.
o From Mathura, it passed on to Ujjain in Malwa and from Ujjain to Broach on the western coast.
o The Broach port seems to be the most important and flourishing amongst the other ports, as the
goods produced in the Shaka, the Kushana and the Satavahana kingdoms were brought to it for export.
o There was flourishing trade between India and Rome.
o In addition to the articles directly supplied by India to the Roman empire, certain items were brought
from China and Central Asia to India and then sent to the eastern part of the Roman empire. For

instance, silk was directly sent from China to the Roman empire through the famous silk route passing
through northern Afghanistan and Iran.
o After the annexation of Iran by Parthians, silk was diverted to the western Indian ports
through north-western part of the subcontinent and sometimes it was transported via the east coast to
the west coast of India. Thus, a lot of transit trade was there in silk between India and Rome.
 URBAN SETTLEMENTS
o Towns prospered in the Kushana and the Satavahana empires because of the growing trade with
the Roman empire.
o The country traded with the eastern part of the Roman empire as well as with Central Asia.
o Towns in Punjab and western Uttar Pradesh thrived because the centre of the Kushana power
lay in northwestern India. Most Kushana towns in India lay exactly on the northwestern or
Uttarapatha route passing from Mathura to Taxila.
o The excavations reveal that the urbanisation was at peak in the Kushana phase which is also
applicable to the towns in the Shaka kingdom, of Malwa and western India.
o The most important town was Ujjain because of it being the nodal point of two routes – one from
Kaushambi and the other from Mathura.
o The end of the Kushana empire in the 3rd century CE gave a huge blow to the towns.
o Also, with the ban on trade with India imposed by the Roman empire from the 3rd century CE,
towns could not support the artisans and merchants of the Deccan region.
o Archaeological evidence also suggests a decline in the urban settlements after the Satavahana phase.
 ART AND ARCHITECTURE

Bharhut
o Sculptures are tall like the Yakshas and Yakshinis of the Mauryan era.
o The illusion of three-dimensionality is present.
o Narratives or stories are represented pictorially.
o Space is utilised to the maximum extent.
o Initially, the carvings were shown with flat images, i.e., projection of hands and feet were not
possible, but later on, they emerged with deep carvings and a much-naturalised representation of
human and animal forms.
o One important sculpture at Bharhut: Queen Mayadevi (the Buddha’s mother) dreaming of an
elephant descending towards her womb.
o Jataka tales are also seen.
o A common characteristic of all the male images after the first and second centuries is the knotted
headgear.
Mathura, Sarnath and Gandhara Schools

o Gandhara (in modern Pakistan), Mathura and Sarnath emerged as important art production centres
from the first century AD onwards.
o Buddha gets a human form in Mathura and Gandhara. Previously he was represented via
symbols.
o Gandhara art form influenced Indo-Greek elements such as Bactria and Parthia traditions
besides the local Gandhara tradition.
o The Buddha images here have Hellenistic features.
o The Buddha here is more muscular.
o The sculptures are heavily polished with rich carvings.
o The hair is curly and the lobes of the ears are elongated.
o The garments are generally flowing in nature.
o The sculptures were initially made of stone and later on stucco was also used.

o The Mathura art tradition became so strong that it spread to other parts of northern India.
o Best example: Stupa sculpture at Sanghol, Punjab.
o The Buddha images in the Mathura school are modelled on the earlier Yaksha images.
o Mathura art form also has some images of the Shaiva and Vaishnava faiths but images of the Buddha
are numerous.
o There is less symbolism here as compared to the Gandhara School.
o The sculptures are generally made of red sandstone.
o The garments are clearly visible and they usually cover the left shoulder. Multiple folds are shown.
o The halo around the deity is profusely decorated.
o In the 2nd century, the images get fleshier and their rotundity increase.
o In the 3rd century, the fleshiness is reduced. Movement is shown by increasing the distance between
the legs and bending of the body. There is more softness in the surface.
o But in the late 4th century, this trend is reversed and the flesh becomes tightened.
o In the 5th and 6th centuries, the drapery is integrated into the mass.
o Sarnath and Kosambi also emerged as important centres of art besides the traditional centre Mathura.
o The Buddha images in Sarnath have transparent drapery covering both shoulders.
o The halo around the Buddha is hardly decorated.
Early temples
o Apart from Stupas, Brahmanical temples also started getting built.
o Temples were decorated with the images of gods and also representations of the Purana myths.
o Every temple had a principle image of a god.
o There were 3 kinds of shrines of the temples:
 Sandhara type: without pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory path)
 Nirandhara type: with pradakshinapatha
 Sarvatobhadra: which can be accessed from all sides
o Important temple sites from this period: Deogarh (UP); Eran, Udaygiri, Nachna-Kuthara (near Vidisha
in MP). These are simple structures with a veranda, a hall and the shrine at the back.
 BUDDHIST MONUMENTS OF SOUTH INDIA

o The Vengi region in Andhra Pradesh has many stupas, in Jaggayyapeta, Amaravati,
Nagarjunakonda, Bhattiprolu, Goli, etc.
Amaravati School of Art

o Developed during the Satavahana period.
o This is fully indigenous in nature and had profound influence on art in Sri Lanka and south-east
Asia since products from here were taken to those places.
o Had many sculptures and has a Mahachaitya. The sculptures are preserved in Chennai Museum,
National Museum at Delhi, Amaravati Site Museum and the British Museum at London.
o Amaravati Stupa has a pradakshinapatha and a vedica (fence) with many sculptures on it. The torana
(gateway) has disappeared.
o Unique feature of this stupa: the dome is covered with relief stupa sculptural slabs.
o Events from Buddha’s life and Jataka tales are depicted.
o It was first built in the first century AD and later centuries developed or enhanced.
o Initial phase does not show Buddha images but they are seen from the later stages (like the stupa at
Sanchi).
o The sculptures have intense emotions. The figures are slender and show a lot of movement. The
bodies are shown with 3 bents (tribhanga).
o The structures are more complex than at Sanchi and are more animated.
o There is a lot of attention paid to the forms’ clarity.

o The sculptures of Goli and Nagarjunakonda in the 3rd century are reduced in animation but still
very three-dimensional.
o Independent Buddha images at: Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda and Guntapalle. Guntappale: Rock-
cut cave site near Elluru.
o Other rock-cut stupas found at: Anakapalle (near Vishakhapatnam); and Sannati (largest in
Karnataka).
o Apart from Buddha images, images of Boddhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara, Vajrapani, Padmapani,
Amitabha and Maitreya Buddha are also seen.
 CAVE TRADITION IN WESTERN INDIA

o Caves dating from the 2nd century BC have been excavated.
o Three architectural types:
 Apsidal vault-roof chaitya halls – Ajanta, Bhaja, Pitalkhora
 Apsidal vault-roof pillarless halls – Thana-Nadsur
 Flat-roofed quadrangular hall with a circular chamber at the back – Kondivite in Mumbai
o The front of the chaitya hall has an imposing semi-circular chaitya arch with an open front having a
wooden facade.
o The caves at Kondivite have no chaitya arch.
o An example of the apsidal vault-roof kind: Ajanta Cave No. 9. This chaitya has a rectangular hall
with a stone-screen wall as façade. Similar kinds are found at Nashik, Bedsa, Kanheri and Karla.
o After the first century BC, many caves are of the first architectural type.
o Junnar has the highest number of cave excavations – more than 200.
o Kanheri in Mumbai has 108 excavated caves.
o Most important sites: Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Ellora, Nashik, Karla, Bhaja, Junnar and
Kanheri.
o Earlier it was believed that these caves belonged to the orthodox Theravada sect of Buddhism. But the
discovery of the Konkan Maurya inscription which mentions Saka era 322 (corresponding to 400 AD)
proves that cave activity in western Deccan was a continuing process.
o Some of these sites have been converted into modern Hindu shrines and are used to this day by the
local people.
o Rock-cut caves are found not only in Maharashtra but also in:
o Karnataka – mainly in Badami and Aihole patronised by the Chalukyas.
o Andhra Pradesh – Vijayawada area.
o Tamil Nadu – Mahabalipuram patronised by Pallavas.
o Post 6th century art depended more on political patronage as opposed to the collective public
patronage of the earlier periods.
Karla Caves
o Located at Karla, Lonavala in Maharashtra.
o Biggest rock-cut chaitya hall was excavated in Karla.
o This cave has an open courtyard with 2 pillars, a stone-screen wall to protect from rain, a veranda, a
stone-screen wall as façade, an apsidal vault-roof chaitya hall with pillars and a stupa at the rear.
o Chaitya hall is carved with human and animal figures.
Viharas
o Viharas have been excavated at all cave sites.
o Vihara plan: a veranda, a hall and cells around the walls of the hall.
o Important viharas – Ajanta cave No.12; Nashik Cave Nos. 3, 10 and 17; Bedsa cave No.11.
o Early vihara caves are carved with interior decorative motifs like chaitya arches and vedica designs
over the cell doors.

o The vihara caves at Nashik have front pillars carved with ghata-base and ghata-capital with human
figures.
o A popular such cave was found at Junnar and was popularly called Ganeshlini since an image of
Ganesha belonging to a later era was installed in it. It became a chaitya-vihara when a stupa was added
to the back of this vihara.
Ajanta
o Most famous cave site. Located in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra.
o There are 29 caves in Ajanta.
o 4 chaitya caves:
 Cave nos. 10 and 9 belonging to 1st and 2nd centuries BC.
 Cave nos. 19 and 26 belonging to the 5th century AD.
There are large chaitya-viharas also.
Decorated with sculptures and paintings.
The only remaining example of 1st century BC and 5th century AD paintings.
Cave nos. 19 and 26:

 Elaborately carved.
 Façade decorated with the images of Buddha and Boddhisattva.
 Apsidal vault-roof variety. Cave no. 26 – very big, interior hall carved with Buddha images; biggest
image being Mahaparinibbana image.
Ajanta shrine images are big in size.
Chief patrons at Ajanta:

 Varahadeva, a minister of the Vakataka king Harishena – cave no. 16
 Upendragupta, local king and a feudatory of the Vakataka king – cave nos. 17 – 20.
 Buddhabhadra – cave no. 26
 Mathuradasa – cave no. 4
o Paintings indicate many typological variations. Outward projections are seen from the 5th century
onwards. Lines are well-defined and rhythmic. The figures are heavy much like the sculptures found
in this region. The colours are limited.
o The paintings show various skin colours like brown, yellowish brown, greenish, yellow ochre,
etc. indicating a multi-coloured populace.
o The themes of the paintings are events from the Buddha’s life, Jatakas and Avadanas.
o Padmapani and Vajrapani images are very common in the Ajanta caves. Some paintings cover the
entire wall of the caves. Example: Simhala Avadana, Vidhurpundita Jataka and Mahajanaka Jataka.
o In many paintings, events are grouped geographically. Famous example of painting from cave no.1 –
Padmapani Boddhisattva.
Ellora
o Important cave site in Aurangabad. Located 100 km from Ajanta.
o It has 32 Buddhist, Jain and Brahmanical caves.
o It is a unique historical site in India as it has monasteries associated with the three religions from the
5th to the 11th century AD.
Buddhist caves:
o 12 in number.
o Images belong to Vajrayana Buddhism like Tara, Akshobhya, Mahamayuri, Avalokiteshvara,
Maitreya, etc.

o Are big in size and are of single, double and triple storeys.
o Triple storeyed cave is found only at Ellora.
o Have massive pillars.
o All caves were plastered and painted but nothing is visible today.
o The sculptures are monumental.
o The shrine Buddha images are big generally guarded by the images of Padmapani and Vajrapani.
Jain caves:
o Are more ornate than the Buddhist caves.
o The decorative forms are heavily protruded.
o Belong to 9th century AD and onwards.
o Brahmanical caves:
 Numbered 13 – 28.
 Cave no. 14 is the only double storey cave here.
 Have images of Shiva and Vishnu and their different forms.
 Prominent Shaivite themes: Andhakasurvadha, Ravana shaking Mt. Kailas and Kalyanasundara.
 Prominent Vaishnavite theme: avatars of Vishnu.
 Ellora caves have been carved by various artisan guilds that came from Vidarbha, Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu. Most diverse site in India.
 Cave no. 16 – also called Kailashleni. Here, a rock-cut temple is carved out of a single rock.
Elephanta Caves
o Located in Elephanta Island in Mumbai Harbour.
o Originally a Buddhist site, later dominated by Shaivism.
o Contemporary with Ellora caves.
o Sculptures are slender in body images with stark light and dark effects.
 CAVE TRADITION IN EASTERN INDIA

o Mainly located in the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.
o Main sites in AP – Guntapalle in Elluru.
o Unique because structural stupas, viharas and caves are excavated in one place.
o Guntapalle Chaitya Cave – circular hall with a stupa and a chaitya arch at the entrance.
o Most of them date back to the 2nd century BC.
o Most of the caves are vihara type.
o The biggest rock-cut stupas in India are found at Anakapalli near Vishakhapatnam. Carved during
the 4th – 5th centuries AD.
o Earliest examples in Odisha – Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves near Bhubaneswar.
o Scattered caves with inscriptions of Kharavela kings. As per the inscriptions, the caves were intended
for Jaina monks.
Seated Buddha, Katra Mound, Mathura

o Period: 2nd century AD.
o Buddha with two Boddhisattva attendants. Buddha is seated in Padmasana (cross-folded legs).
o Right hand is in Abhayamudra raised above the shoulder level and left hand is on the left thigh.
o Ushanisha (hair knot) is vertically raised.
o Sculptures of this period from Mathura have light volume and a fleshy body.
o The sanghati (dress) covers only the left shoulder.
o Buddha is seated on a lion throne. He has a large halo which is decorated with geometric motifs. His
face is rounded having fleshy cheeks.

o The attendants are identified as the Boddhisattvas Padmapani (holding a lotus) and Vajrapani
(holding a thunderbolt).
o Two flying figures diagonally above the halo.
o This image is important for an understanding of the Buddha image development in the later periods.
Buddha Head, Taxila

o Period: 2nd century AD, Kushana Period.
o Taxila in Gandhara region, now in Pakistan.
o The sculpture has Greco-Roman elements. Buddha’s head has Hellenistic elements.
o Thick curly hair with sharp and linear strokes over the head. Big forehead plane, protruding
eyeballs, half-closed eyes.
o Face and cheeks are not rotund unlike the images found in other parts of the country.
o Elongated ears and earlobes; Surface is smooth and the outlines are quite sharp.
o Expressive image; shows a remarkably calm expression.
o Gandhara images of this period showcase heaviness. This style assimilates influences from Parthian,
Bactrian and Acamenian traditions with the local style.
Seated Buddha, Sarnath

o Period: 5th century AD.
o Fine example of the Sarnath School.
o Made from Chunar sandstone.
o Buddha is seated in Padmasana.
o Image represents dhammachackrapravartana which is evident from the figures in the panel below
the throne. The panel has a chakra in the centre and a deer on each side. Buddha’s hands are also
shown in dhammachackrapravartana mudra placed below the chest.
o Body is slender and slightly elongated. The outlines are delicate and rhythmic.
o The robe clings to the body. Face is round although the cheeks are less rounded as compared to the
earlier images from the Kushana period. Lower lip is protruding. Eyes are half-closed.
o Ushanisha has circular curled hairs.
o The back of the throne is richly decorated with carvings of creepers and flowers. The halo is plain.
Padmapani Boddhisatva, Ajanta

o Located in Ajanta Cave No.1.
o Period: Late 5th century AD.
o Image of a Boddhisattva holding a Padma or lotus.
o Large shouldered with 3 bends in the body creating the impression of a movement.
o Soft modelling, outlines merged with the body creating a 3-D effect.
o Eyes are half-closed and a bit elongated. Nose is straight and sharp. Small chin.
o Adorning a beaded necklace.
o Right hand is holding the lotus and the left hand is extended into space.
o Small figures surround the image.
o Thread over the body is seen with spiral lines.
o Colours used: light red, green, brown and blue.
o Cave No.1 paintings are better preserved.
Mara Vijaya, Ajanta

o Location: Cave No.26, Ajanta Caves.
o The theme of this image has been portrayed as paintings in the caves but this is the only sculpture.
o Image of Buddha in the centre surrounded by Mara’s army and his daughter.
o Buddha is in padmasana.

o Mara represents desire here. This representation is the personification of the tumult of mind that the
Buddha underwent at the time of his enlightenment.
o Buddha’s right hand is shown towards the earth symbolising his generosity.
o The panel contains many highly voluminous images.
Maheshmurti, Elephanta
o Period: Early 6th century AD.
o Located in the main cave shrine at Elephanta Caves.
o Best example of sculpting images in rock-cut caves in the western Deccan tradition.
o Large image. Central head is of Shiva. Other two heads are of Bhairava and Uma.
o Central face is round with thick lips and heavy eyelids.
o The face of Bhairava in the profile is shown in anger with bulging eye and moustache.
o Uma’s face has feminine features.
o This image is considered as a representation of the five integrated faces of Shiva mentioned in one of
the Shilpa texts. The top and the back heads are invisible.
o Characteristic features of the sculptures of the Elephanta Caves: smooth surface, elongation and
rhythmic movement.
PRACTICE QUESTION
Q25. “Use of white marble, long legs and slender frames, human beings as central
characters and prominence of kings, princess and palaces” were the characteristic
features of which one of the following ancient art forms of India?
a) Amaravati School of Art b) Gandhara School of Art
c) Mathura School of Art d) Pahari School of Art
Notes
 TEMPLE ART AND ARCHITECTURE

 BASIC FORM OF THE HINDU TEMPLE
o Literally means womb-house.
o It is a cave-like sanctum which houses the main icon of the temple. In
Garbhagriha
earlier times, it was a small cubicle with one entrance.
o In later periods, it grew into a larger chamber.
o The entrance to the temple. It could be a portico or a colonnaded hall
Mandapa
where worshippers stand.
Shikhara/Vimana o Noticed from the 5th century CE.

o It is a mountain-like spire on top. In north India, it is called Shikhara and is

curving in shape. In the south, it is like a pyramidal tower and is called
Vimana.
Amalaka o Stone-like disc seen at the top of the temple. Mostly in north Indian temples.
Kalasha o It is the topmost part of the temple. Mainly seen in north Indian styles.
Antarala o It is a vestibule between the Garbhagriha and the Mandapa.
o This is common in north Indian temples and is a raised platform where
Jagati
devotees can sit and pray.
o It is the vehicle of the main deity which along with the standard pillar or Dhvaj
Vahana
which are placed axialy.
 THE NAGARA OR NORTH INDIAN TEMPLE STYLE

o Became popular in northern India.
o Entire temple is generally built on a stone platform with steps leading to it.
o No grand boundary walls or gateways (unlike the Dravida style).
o Earlier temples had one shikhara whereas latter temples had many.
o The garbhagriha is located directly beneath the tallest shikhara.
 SUBDIVISIONS OF NAGARA STYLE

o Simple shikhara with square base and whose walls slope inwards to a point on
top.
Rekha- o Most common.
prasada/Latina o In later periods, latina type became more complex with several towers clustered
together.
o The tallest tower was at the centre and the garbhagriha was directly beneath it.
o Roofs composed of many slabs that gently rise to a single point over the building’s
centre.
o Roofs do not curve inwards like the latina type, but they slope upwards on a
Phamsana straight incline.
o Phamsana structures are generally broader and shorter than latina ones.
o In many temples, the latina type is used to house the garbhagriha whereas the
mandapa has a Phamsana style of architecture.
o Rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.
Valabhi
o Also called wagon-vaulted buildings.
 Nagara Style in Various Regions

 CENTRAL INDIA
o Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan.
o Made of sandstone.
o Oldest surviving structural temples from the Gupta period are in MP.
o They are small shrines with four pillars to support a small mandapa.

o The mandapas are basically small porch-like structures before the garbhagriha which are also rather
small. Examples: temple at Udaigiri – part of a larger Hindu complex of cave shrines (outskirts of
Vidisha); temple at Sanchi (which was a Buddhist site).
o This shows how similar architectural developments were incorporated in both religions.
Dashavatara Vishnu Temple, Deogarh, UP

o Classic example of the late Gupta period temple architecture.
o Patrons are unknown.
o From the architecture and imagery, it is known that the temple was built in early 6th century CE.
o Panchayatana Style of architecture.
o Main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four subsidiary shrines that are smaller and at the 4
corners.
o Hence, there are a total of five shrines and hence the name, Panchayatana.
o This temple has a rekha-prasada type of shikhara.
o It is a west-facing temple. Most temples are north or east facing.
o Has a grand doorway with figures of Ganga and Yamuna on the left and right side respectively.
o Depicts Vishnu in various forms. 3 main Vishnu reliefs on the temple walls: Sheshashayana on the
south; Nara-Narayan on the east; and Gajendramoksha on the west.
o Since it was assumed that the subsidiary shrines had avatars of Vishnu in them, the temple was
mistaken to be Dashavatara temple.
Khajuraho Temples (MP)

o Built in the 10th century CE.
o It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
o Patronised by Chandela Kings.
o All temples made of sandstone.
o From the temple at Deogarh (built about 400 years before Khajuraho temples), the development of the
Nagara architectural style is visible here.
o These temples are known for their extensive erotic sculptures. Mostly Hindu, though some Jain
temples are also present.
o There are also temples dedicated to Yoginis which form part of Tantric worship indicating the rise and
spread of tantric cult after the 7th century. E.g. Chausanth Yogini temple.
o Important temples in Khajuraho: Kandariya Mahadeo (dedicated to Lord Shiva) and Lakshmana
temple.
Lakshmana temple
o Grandest of the Khajuraho temples.
o Dedicated to Vishnu.
o Built by the Chandela King Dhanga in 954 CE.
o Structure is placed on a high platform that is accessed by stairs.
o Has small temples in four corners.
o Has high shikharas, amalak and kalash. Also has projecting balconies and verandas.
 WEST INDIA
o Gujarat, Rajasthan and western MP.
o Sandstone is most common, grey to black basalt is also seen in some 10 – 12th century temples.
o Also seen is soft white marble in 10 – 12th century Jain Temples at Mount Abu and a 15th century
temple at Ranakpur.
o Samlaji in Gujarat is an important art historical site. Many sculptures made of grey schist are found
here.

Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujarat

o Built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki dynasty in 1026 CE.
o Temple complex features a huge rectangular stepped tank known as the ‘Surya Kund’ in the front.
This is a noticeable feature from earlier times – proximity of a sacred water body. By the early 11th
century, this was a common feature of many temples.
o The Surya Kund is a 100 sq.m pond – one of the grandest of its kind in the country. 108 miniature
shrines are carved in between the steps inside the tank.
o A large ornamental torana (gateway) leads to the sabha mandapa or assembly hall that is open
on all sides.
o Lavish carving and sculpture work is present.
o The central shrine walls are plain. The temple is east-facing and every year at the time of equinoxes,
the sun shines directly onto the central shrine.
 EAST INDIA
o North-East, Odisha and Bengal.
o Each region produced a distinct type of architecture.
o Terracotta was the main medium in Bengal and north-east until the 7th century.
Assam
o There is evidence of Gupta influence from a sculpted door frame dating to the 6th century CE
from DaParvatia near Tezpur; and sculptures from Rangagora Tea Estate near Tinsukia.
o The Gupta influence is seen till the 10th century.
o By 12th to 14th centuries, a distinct Ahom style developed in the region around Guwahati.
o This style evolved from the mixing of the style brought to the area by the Tais of Upper Burma with the
Pala style of Bengal. Example: Kamakhya Temple – a Shakti Peeth dedicated to Goddess
Kamakhya built in 17th century.
o Regions: West Bengal, Bangladesh, Bihar
o Style between the 9th and 11th centuries – Pala Style. The Palas were patrons of Buddhist
monastic styles. The temples in this region showcased the local Vanga style.
o Style of temple architecture from the middle of the 11th century to the middle of the 13th centuries –
Sena style.
o Siddheswara Mahadeva temple in Barakar in Burdwan District – 9th century; tall curving
Shikhara crowned by a large amalaka – early Pala style.
o Many temples were located at Telkupi in Purulia District – 9th to 12th century but were submerged
due to dam construction. These temples showed all the Nagara sub-styles prevalent in the north.
o Some temples survive.
o Made of black to grey basalt.
o Had chlorite stone pillars and arched niches.
o They influenced early Bengal Sultanate buildings at Gaur and Pandua.
o Local vernacular building traditions also influenced the temples. Most noticeable of these influences
was the curving or sloping side of the bamboo roof of a Bengali hut.
o This feature was adopted in Mughal buildings and is known as the Bangla Roof.
o From the Mughal period onwards, several terracotta brick temples were built which had elements from
the earlier Pala style, from the local bamboo hut styles, and arches and domes from Islamic
architecture.
o Eg. Terracotta Temple, Vishnupur (17th century)
Odisha
Three orders of architectural features:

Rekhapida (Rekha Deula) Tall straight building (looking like a shikhara) covering the garbhagriha.
It is the mandapa, a square building where worshippers are present and also
Pidhadeul
where dancing takes place.
Rectangular building with a truncated pyramid-shaped roof. Temples of
Khakra (Khakra Deula)
Shakti are usually in this type.
o Location: Ancient Kalinga – that includes modern Puri District including Bhubaneswar (ancient
Tribhuvanesvara, Puri and Konark).
o Odisha temples are a distinct sub-style of the Nagara style called Kalinga Style.
o Shikhara is called Deul and is almost vertical and suddenly curves sharply inwards at the top.
o In front of the deul, there is the mandapa, called jagamohana in Odisha.
o The exterior of the temples is richly carved while the interiors are plain.
o Temples generally have boundary walls.
Konark Sun Temple

o Sun temple built around 1240.
o Its shikhara which was said to be 70m high fell in the 19th century.
o The jagamohana (mandapa) has survived. This is the largest enclosed space in Hindu architecture
although it is not accessible any more.
o The temple is set on a high base. There are detailed carvings. There are 12 pairs of gigantic wheels
sculpted with spokes and hubs representing the chariot wheels of the sun god. The whole temple
resembles a processional chariot.
o On the southern wall, there is a huge sculpture of Surya or sun god made of greenstone. It is believed
that there were 3 more such images in different directions made out of different stones. The fourth
wall had the doorway from which the sun rays would enter the garbhagriha.
 THE HILLS
o Region: hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and Kashmir
o Style: Ancient Gandhara style (because of the proximity of Kashmir to that region) with Gupta and
post-Gupta traditions from Sarnath, Mathura, Gujarat and Bengal.
o We can see both Buddhist and Hindu traditions in the hills.
o Its local tradition: wooden buildings with pitched roofs.
o Many temples showcase the garbhagriha and shikhara of the Latina type, and the mandapa in wooden
architecture.
o Sometimes a pagoda shape is seen to the temples.
o Karkota Period, Kashmir – Most significant in terms of architecture.
o Temple at Pandrethan- 8th and 9th centuries; the temple built on a plinth in the middle of a water
tank.
o Possibly Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva.
o Wooden building. A peaked roof that slants slowly outwards (due to the snowy conditions)
o Moderately ornamented – a row of elephants at the base and a decorated doorway.
o Sculptures at Chamba (Himachal Pradesh)
o Local traditions mixed with the post-Gupta style. g.: Images of Mahishasuramardini and
Narasimha at Laksna-Devi Mandir.
o Styles: Post-Gupta and Kashmiri metal sculpture traditions. Images’ yellow colour is possibly an alloy
of zinc and copper which were popular in Kashmir.
o Inscription in the Laksna-Devi Mandir states that it was built during the reign of Meruvarman in the
7th century.

o Temples of Kumaon: classic examples of Nagara of this region – temples at Jageshwar (near
Almora) and Champavat (near Pithoragarh), both in Uttarakhand.
PRACTICE QUESTION
Q26. Arrange the following components of temple architecture in the correct sequence
while entering a Nagara Style temple.
1. Garbhagriha
2. Mandapa
3. Antarala
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1-2-3 b) 2-3-1 c) 1-3-2 d) 3-2-1

1. Nagar form/style of temple architecture achieved its classical form during the time of Gupta
rulers.
2. Kailasha temple at Ellora was constructed by the kings of Rashtrakuta dynasty.
3. Lingaraja temple is situated in Khajuraho.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
a) 1 and 3 only b) 2 and 3 only c) 1 and 2 only d) 2 only
Notes
SOUTH INDIA
 SANGAM AGE
Q. Which one of the following (b) The social classification of Varna

statements about Sangam literature was known to Sangam poets.
in ancient South India is correct? (c) Sangam poems have no reference to
(UPSC Prelims 2022) warrior ethic.
(a) Sangam poems are devoid of any (d) Sangam literature refers to magical
reference to material culture. forces as irrational.
o The period between the 1st century B.C. to the end of 2nd century A.D. in Southern India is
known as Sangam Period.
o It has been named after the Sangam academies during that period.

o According to the Tamil legends, there were three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) held in the
ancient South India popularly called Muchchangam. These Sangams flourished under the royal
patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai.
 The First Sangam, is believed to be held at Madurai, attended by gods and legendary sages. No
literary work of this Sangam is available.
 The Second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, only Tolkappiyam survives from this.
 The Third Sangam at Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran. A few of these Tamil literary
works have survived and are a useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period.
 SANGAM LITERATURE
o The Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku,
and two epics named – Silappathigaram and Manimegalai.
o Tolkappiyam was authored by Tolkappiyar, it is considered the earliest of Tamil literary work.
Though it is a work on Tamil grammar but it also provides insights on the political and socio-
economic conditions of the time.
o Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies) consist of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru,
Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppattu.
o The Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls) consist of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai,
Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji,
Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam .
o Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works about ethics and morals. The most important
among these works is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar, the tamil great poet and philosopher.
o The two epics Silappathigaram is written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai
Sattanar. They also provide valuable details about the Sangam society and polity.
o Poems within Sangam literature were composed on two broader themes of akam (love) and puram
(based on war and included public poetry such as poems on good and evil, community and kingdom).
o The most important feature of Sangam literature is that it gives a clear picture of the
contemporary society and culture of Tamilakam and also reveals its peaceful and harmonious
relationship with the northern (Aryan) culture.
o Sangam literature can be divided into two groups – narrative and didactic.
o The narrative texts are called Melkannakku – 18 major works consisting of eight anthologies and ten
idylls. These are considered to be the works of heroic poetry in which heroes are glorified and
perpetual wars and cattle raids are frequently mentioned.
o The didactic texts are called Kilkanakku – consisting of 18 minor works.
o Tiruvalluvar’s Tirukkural is an important example of Tamil didactic work, which is a famous work
on ethics, philosophy, polity and love, and is considered the fifth Veda of Tamil Nadu.
o Tamil epics – Silappadikaram and Manimekalai are also didactic texts (kilkanakku).
o These didactic texts were written in the period between the 5th and 6th centuries.
o Silappadikaram deals with the love story of Kovalan, who prefers a courtesan Madhavi of
Kaveripattnam to his noble wedded wife Kannagi.
o Manimekalai is a sequel to Silappadikaram and is called the ‘Odyssey of Tamil poetry’,
which deals with the adventures of the daughter born of the union of Kovalan and Madhavi and her
subsequent conversion to Buddhism.
Other Sources that give details about the Sangam Period are –
1. the Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy mentioning about
commercial trade contacts between the West and South India.
2. Also, the Ashokan inscriptions mention about the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers to the south of
Mauryan empire.

3. Another inscription, Hathikumbha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga also has mention of

Tamil kingdoms.
 SANGAM POLITY AND ADMINISTRATION

o During the Sangam period hereditary monarchy was the form of government. Each of the dynasties
of Sangam age had a royal emblem – tiger for the Cholas, carp for the Pandyas, and bow for
the Cheras.
o The king was assisted by a wide body of officials who were categorised into five councils.
o They were ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), envoys (thuthar), military
commanders (senapathi), and spies (orrar).
o The military administration was efficiently organized with each ruler a regular army was associated.
o The chief source of state’s income was Land revenue while a custom duty was also imposed on
foreign trade.
o Major source of fulfilling the royal treasury was the booty captured in wars.
o The roads and highways were maintained and guarded to prevent robbery and smuggling.
 SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND ORGANISATION

o The Tamil Brahmi inscriptions mention the kings as Ko and the chieftains as Ko or Kon. The
Brahmanas first appeared in Tamil land in the Sangam age.
o Many Brahmanas functioned as poets and were generously rewarded by the king. The
Tamil Brahmanas took meat and wine.
o The concept of varna was known in the Sangam age but social classes were not marked by acute
caste distinctions in the early Sangam period (caste distinctions became prominent in the later stage).
The most relevant basis of stratification was Kuti (clan-based descent groups) where there was no
restriction on inter-dining and social interactions among Kuti groups.
o The ruling caste was called the arasar, and its members had marriage relations with the
vellalas (rich peasants) who constituted the fourth class. The vellalas held the bulk of the land and
employed labourers (Kadaisiyar – lowest class) to do the manual farm work. There were sharp
inequalities in the age of Sangam – the rich lived in houses of brick and mortar while the poor
lived in mud houses.
o The class of warriors was an important element in polity and society. Captains of the army
were given the title “enadi” at a formal ceremony. The state had a rudimentary army which
consisted of chariots drawn by oxen, elephants, cavalry and infantry. Elephants played an
important part in wars and the horses were imported by sea into the kingdom.
o The memorial stones called “nadukul” or “virukkal” were very significant in the Sangam
period and were erected in honour of those who died while fighting.
o In the domain of religion, the Sangam period witnessed peaceful and close interactions
between north India and south Indian traditions. The kings performed Vedic sacrifices.
o A Pandya ruler named Mudukudomi took the title Palshalai, as he had many sacrificial halls. The
people mainly worshipped a deity called Murugan, who was also called Subramaniya. There are
also references to the presence of Buddhists and Jainas in the Tamil region. The Brahmanas also
popularized the worship of Vishnu, Indra and Shiva in south India.
o The megalithic practice of providing for the dead continued in this age and cremation was also
introduced.
o As many poems were contributed by the women poets to the corpus of Sangam literature, it testifies
the belief that women were educated and also respected in the Sangam age. However, there is also
mention about the sati being practised in Tamil society and it was called “tippayadal”. Sangam
poems also mention “Chevilittai” who were like foster mothers and had a close association with the
family members.

 POSITION OF WOMEN DURING SANGAM AGE

o A lot of information is available in the Sangam literature to understand the position of women during
the Sangam age.
o There were women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar who
flourished and contributed to Tamil literature.
o Love marriage was a common practice and women were allowed to choose their life partners.
o But, life of widows was miserable.
o There is also a mention about the practice of Sati being prevalent in the higher strata of society.
 ECONOMY OF THE SANGAM AGE

o Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands called Tinais in the whole of Tamilakam.
o These were Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Palai (arid zone), Marudam (agricultural
land) and Neital (sea coast). These land divisions were based on their economic resources.
o The people in different tinais had their own mode of subsistence. For example, in Kurinji it was
hunting and gathering, in Mullai people practised animal husbandry, in Palai people could hardly
produce anything, so they took to raiding and plundering, in Marudam it was agriculture and in Neital
people practised fishing and salt making.
o Agriculture was the main occupation and the chief crops were rice, cotton, ragi, sugarcane,
pepper, ginger, turmeric, cardamom, cinnamon, etc.
o This region is devoid of perennial rivers, so the agricultural activities were facilitated by building tanks
and dams.
o The Chola king, Karikala of the Sangam Age, is credited with constructing a dam on the Kaveri
river, which is considered to be the earliest dam in the country.
o Spinning, weaving, ship-building, carpentry, making of ivory products were some of the handicrafts
which were widely practised.
o Trade, both inland and foreign, was well established.
o The economy of all the three kingdoms flourished due to large scale local and long-distance trade. This
helped in the emergence of important towns and craft centres. Muziris on the south-west coast
was the important port of the Cheras and the Roman ships laden with gold used to land at this port
and take along consignments of pepper.
o The capital city of the Pandyas, Madurai, was an important centre of textile and ivory making.
o Korkai – an important Pandya port was famous for its pearls. The capital city of the Cholas –
Uraiyur was a grand city with huge buildings. Kaveripattinam or Puhar was the main Chola port.
o The market places (called avanam), roads and highways were maintained and guarded to prevent
robbery and smuggling.
o The flourishing trade with the Romans was the most important feature of the Sangam economy.
o The author of “Periplus of the Erythrean sea”, gives the most valuable account of the trade
between India and the Roman empire.
o Pliny, a Roman writer, in his book “Natural History”, complains that the Roman empire was
drained of gold on account of her trade with India.
o Indian items of export to Romans were spices, perfumes, jewels, ivory and fine textiles (muslin),
several precious and semi-precious stones like diamond, sapphire, carnelian, pearls, sandalwood, iron,
etc. Against these items of export, Romans exported gold and silver to India which is authenticated by
the recovery of large numbers of Roman gold coins in south India.
o The western traders also brought tin, lead, corals and slave girls to the subcontinent.
o A landmark in the development of communications was the discovery of the monsoon winds by
the Greek sailor Hippatus, around 46 – 47 CE. This led to an increase in the number of sea
voyages for trading purposes.
o Important ports of India on the western coast were Muziris, Bharukachchha (Broach), Sopara, and
Kalyana. Through the Red Sea, ships from these ports sailed to the Roman empire.

o The important ports on the eastern coast of India were Tamralipti (West Bengal), Arikamedu (Tamil
Nadu coast). The chief source of states’ income was land revenue while a customs duty was levied on
foreign trades. Tributes paid by feudatories and war booty (arai) constituted a considerable part of
royal resources.
 FROM MEGALITHIC TO THE STATE POLITIES OF CHERAS, CHOLAS

AND PANDYAS
o The beginning of the historical period is marked by the settlements of large scale rural
communities which practised agriculture with the help of iron implements, the formation of the
state system, the rise of social classes, use of writing, beginnings of written literature, use of metal
money and so on.
o However, all these phenomena did not emerge in a linear fashion in southern India, especially at the
tip of the peninsula with the Kaveri delta as the nuclear zone, until about the 2nd century
BCE. The Neolithic phase of south India which was marked by the use of polished stone axe and blade
tools was succeeded by the Megalithic phase (around 1200 BCE – 300 BCE).
o The upper portions of the peninsula were inhabited by people who were called the Megalith
builders.
o They are not known from their actual settlements which are rare but from their graves.
o These graves are called megaliths because they were encircled by big/mega stone pieces and were
in most cases located outside the settlement area.
o They contain not only skeletons of the people who were buried but also pottery, iron objects and
grains.
o Black and red ware pottery has been found buried in these megaliths.
o The first iron objects from south India which include arrowheads, spearheads, tridents (associated
with Shiva), hoes, sickles, etc. have been excavated from these megaliths.
o The number of agricultural tools found at megalithic sites is lesser in comparison to tools
meant for hunting and fighting implying that the megalithic people did not practise an advanced type
of agriculture.
o The megalithic people produced paddy and ragi, and it seems that the cultivated land was very
limited and generally they did not settle on the plains or low lands.
o The megaliths are found in all upland areas of the peninsula but their concentration is more in
eastern Andhra and in Tamil Nadu.
o The Cholas, Pandyas and the Keralaputras (Cheras) mentioned in the Ashokan inscriptions
probably belonged to the last phase of Megalithic culture.
Kingdom Capital Emblem Premium

Port
The Pandyas:
Covers modern Tirunelveli, Madurai, Ramnad Madurai Fish Korkai
districts and south Travancore.
Puhar
The Cholas:
(modern
Covers modern Tanjore and Tiruchirappalli Uraiyur Tiger
Kaveripattana
districts of Tamil Nadu.
m)
The Cheras: Vanji / Tondi and
Bow
Covers mostly the Kerala coast. Karuvur Muchiri

 PANDYAS
o The Pandya territory occupied the southernmost and the south-eastern portion of the Indian
Peninsula. The Pandyas are first mentioned by Megasthenes, wherein he refers to a Pandya kingdom
celebrated for pearls and ruled by a woman, suggesting that the Pandya society was matriarchal.
o The Sangam literature mentions Pandya rulers and describes the kingdom as wealthy and
prosperous. The Pandya kings benefited from the trade with the Roman empire and even sent
embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus.
o The Brahmanas enjoyed considerable influence and the Pandya kings performed Vedic sacrifices.
o Nediyon, Palshalai Mudukudumi were the early Pandyan kings and the other prominent
kings are discussed below.
o It is believed that he died of remorse due to his tragic role (as he ordered the
Nedunjeliyan Ⅰ execution) in the death of Kovalan, the hero, and the husband of Kannagi from
the epic Silappadikaram.
o He is considered to be an important Pandya ruler, as he acquired territories from
other chieftains.
o He defeated a confederacy of Cheras, Cholas and five other chieftains in the battle
of Talaiyalanganam.
Nedunjeliyan Ⅱ o In Mangulam, two Tamil Brahmi inscriptions pertaining to the 2nd century BCE
mention that a subordinate and relative of Nedunjeliyan presented gifts to Jaina
monks.
o A first century BCE inscription from Alagarmalai mentions a person named
Katumara Natan who was either a Pandyan prince or subordinate.
 CHOLAS
o The Chola kingdom was called Cholamandalam or Coromandel and was situated to the north-
east of the territory of the Pandyas, between the Pennar and the Velar rivers.
o Their chief centre of political power and capital Uraiyur was famous for cotton trade.
o It seems that in the middle of the 2nd century BCE, a Chola king named Elara conquered Sri
Lanka and ruled over it for nearly 50 years. The Cholas also maintained an efficient navy.
o The main source of wealth of the Cholas was their trade in cotton cloth.
o Some of the important Chola kings of the era are talked about below.
Karikala
o One of the famous Chola kings who founded Puhar (identified with Kaveripattanam) which was a
great centre of trade and commerce and had a large dock.
o Karikala constructed 160 km of embankment along the Kaveri river, which was built with a labour of
12,000 slaves brought as captives from Sri Lanka.
o He defeated a confederacy of Pandyas, Cheras and other allies at the battle of Venni. In Sangam
literature, it is mentioned that eleven rulers lost their drums in the field (royal drum was an important
insignia of royal power).
o The major victory at Vahaipparandalai was credited to his cap, in which several chieftains lost their
umbrellas (according to Sangam literature).
Tondaiman Ilandiraiyan
o He is considered to be another important Chola ruler who was either an independent ruler or a
subordinate to Karikala.

o He was a gifted poet and in one of his poems, he says that in order to rule well, a king should possess a
strong personal character.
o Under Karikala’s successors, the Chola empire rapidly declined. The two neighbouring powers – the
Pandyas and the Cheras expanded at the cost of the Cholas. Later, the Pallavas from the north
wrested a lot of their territories. From the 4th to 9th century CE, the Cholas played only a marginal
role in south Indian history.
 CHERAS
o The Chera or the Kerala country was situated to the west and north of the land of the Pandyas.
o It included the narrow strip of land between the sea and the mountains and covered a portion of
modern Kerala state.
o It was an important and prosperous kingdom owing to its trade with the Romans. The Romans set up
two regiments at Muziris (near modern Kochi) to protect their interests and also built there a temple of
Augustus.
Udiyanjeral
o Earliest known Chera king.
Nedunjeral Adan
o He is considered to be one of the prominent kings of the Chera dynasty, who probably defeated seven
crowned kings and also won the title of ‘adhiraja’.
o He fought a war against the Cholas and in this war both the principal adversaries (the Chola king and
Nedunjeral) lost their lives.
o One of his sons is also described as an ‘adhiraja’ who was victorious against Anji (a chieftain of
Tagadur).
Senguttuvan
o He was the son of Nedunjeral Adan and according to Chera poets, was their greatest king. He was
also known as the Red Chera or Good Chera.
o Silappadikaram (post-Sangam text) describes his military conquest against Vayalur in the land of
Nannan and capture of the Kodukur fortress in Kongu country.
o It is said that he invaded the north and crossed the Ganga.
Kudakko Ilanjeral Irumporai

o He is believed to be one of the last Chera kings (as is mentioned in the Sangam literature) and had
won wars against the Cholas and the Pandyas.
o After the 2nd century CE, the Chera power declined and not much is known of their history till the
8th century CE.
o The main interest of the political history of the above three kingdoms lies in the continuous wars they
fought with one another and also with Sri Lanka. The kingdoms were immensely rich in spices, ivory,
pearls, precious stones, muslin, silk, etc.
PRACTICE QUESTION
1. Muziris was an ancient seaport and urban centre in south-eastern India .
2. Muziris has found mention in the Sangam literature and a number of classical European
historical sources.
3. The port was a key to trade between southern India and the Greeks and the Roman Empire.

a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only c) 1 and 2 only d) 1, 2 and 3
Notes
 GUPTA EMPIRE
Q. With reference to the period of the statements is correct? (UPSC

Gupta dynasty in ancient India, the Prelims 2019)
towns Ghantasala, Kadura and a. It was considered a source of income
Chaul were well known as (UPSC for the State, a sort of tax paid by the
Prelims 2020) people.
a. ports handling foreign trade b. It was totally absent in the Madhya
b. capitals of powerful kingdoms Pradesh and Kathiawar regions of
c. places of exquisite stone art and the Gupta Empire.
architecture c. The forced labourer was entitled to
d. important Buddhist pilgrimage weekly wages.
centres d. The eldest son of the labourer was
sent as the forced labourer.
Q. With reference to forced labour
(Vishti) in India during the Gupta
period, which one of the following
Notes
Facts about Gupta Kings

Gupta Dynasty Kings
o Founder of Gupta Dynasty

Sri Gupta
o Reign from 240 CE to 280 CE

o Used the title of ‘Maharaja‘

o Son of Sri Gupta
Ghatotkacha
o Took the title of ‘Maharaja‘
o Reigned from 319 CE to 335/336 CE
o Started the Gupta Era
Chandragupta I
o He assumed the title of ‘Maharajadhiraja‘
o Married Lichchavi princess Kumaradevi
o Reigned from 335/336 CE to 375 CE
o Called ‘Napolean of India’ by V.A. Smith (Irish Indologist and Art
Samudragupta Historian)
o His campaigns are mentioned in the Eran inscription (Madhya
Pradesh)
o Reigned from 376-413/415 CE
Chandragupta II o Navratnas (9 Gems in his Court)
o Took the title ‘Vikramaditya’
o Reigned from 415 CE to 455 CE
Kumaragupta I o Founded Nalanda University
o He was also called Shakraditya
o Reigned from 455 AD – 467 AD
Skandagupta o Was a ‘Vaishnavite‘
o Repulsed an attack by the Hunas but this strained his empire’s coffers
Vishnugupta o Last known ruler of the Gupta Dynasty (540 AD – 550 AD)
CHANDRAGUPTA I (320 – 335 CE)

o Was the son of Ghatotkacha.
o Chandragupta Ⅰ is considered to be the founder of the Gupta Era which started with his accession in
319 – 320 CE.
o He strengthened his position by a matrimonial alliance with the Lichchhavis (Nepal). He
married Kumaradevi, a princess of the Lichchhavi clan and this added to the power and prestige of the
Gupta family (Vaishyas).
o He extended his kingdom through conquests. His territory extended from the Ganges River to Prayaga
by 321 AD.
o He issued coins in the joint names of his queen and himself.
o He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja (great king of kings).
o He was successful in building a small principality into a great kingdom.
o His empire consisted of Uttar Pradesh, Bengal and parts of modern Bihar, with Pataliputra as its
capital.
o He is considered the first great king of the Gupta Empire.
SAMUDRAGUPTA (C. 335/336 – 375 CE)

o The Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously by Chandragupta Ⅰ’s son and successor
Samudragupta.
o The Allahabad Pillar Inscription (Prayaga – Prashasti) gives a detailed account of his
achievements. He followed the policy of war and conquest. This long inscription was composed by his

court poet, Harisena, in chaste Sanskrit. The inscription is engraved on the same pillar that carries
the inscription of peace-loving Ashoka.
o Much of the Indian subcontinent was directly or indirectly under his control – from kingdoms in Nepal
and Punjab in the north to the Pallava kingdom at Kanchipuram in the southeast. The last vestiges
of the Kushana rule, like the Shakas, the Murundas and even the independent territory of
Simhala (Sri Lanka) acknowledged his suzerainty. The places and the territories conquered by
Samudragupta can be divided into five groups:
o Includes rulers of Ganga-Yamuna doab, who were defeated.

Group Ⅰ
o He uprooted nine Naga rulers and annexed their territories.
o Includes rulers of the eastern Himalayan states and some frontier states such as the
Group Ⅱ princes of Nepal, Assam, Bengal, etc. who surrendered to his might.
o It also includes parts of Punjab.
o Includes the forest kingdom situated in the Vindhya region (central India) known as
Group Ⅲ atavika rajyas and forced their rulers into servitude.
o The conquest of this region helped him to move towards the south.
o Includes twelve rulers of eastern Deccan and south India who were defeated, and his
power reached as far as Kanchi (Tamil Nadu), where the Pallavas were forced to recognise
his suzerainty.
o It is important to mention that Virasena was the commander of Samudragupta during his
Group Ⅳ
southern campaign.
o In the south, he adopted the policy of political conciliation and reinstated the defeated
kings on their thrones. These states acknowledged his suzerainty and paid him tributes
and presents.
o Includes the Shakas of western India and Kushana rulers of north-west India and
Group Ⅴ
Afghanistan. Samudragupta swept them out of power.
o Though he had spread his influence over a vast area, and even received tributes from many kings of
south-east Asia, Samudragupta exercised direct administrative control mainly over the Indo-
Gangetic basin. According to Chinese sources, Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka, sent a
missionary to Samudragupta for permission to build a Buddhist temple at Bodh Gaya.
o After conquering the territories, Samudragupta celebrated by performing the asvamedha
(horse sacrifice). He issued coins with the legend “restorer of the asvamedha”. It is because of his
military achievements that Samudragupta was hailed as the ‘Indian Napoleon’.
o He was equally great in his personal accomplishments. The Allahabad Pillar Inscription speaks of his
magnanimity to his foes, his polished intellect, his poetic skills, and his proficiency in music. He is
known by the title Kaviraja (king among poets) because of his ability in composing verses. His image
depicting him with veena (lyre) is found in the coins issued by him. He is also credited with promoting
Sanskrit literature and learning, characteristic of his dynasty.
o He was an ardent follower of Vaishnavism but was tolerant of other religions. He showed a keen
interest in Buddhism and was the patron of the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu.
o Legends on his coins include epithets such as Apratirathah (invincible), Vyaghra-Parakramah (brave
as a tiger), Parakramah (brave).
CHANDRAGUPTA II (C. 376 – 413/415 CE)

o Samudragupta was succeeded by his son – Chandragupta Ⅱ. But according to some scholars, the
immediate successor was Ramagupta, the elder brother of Chandragupta Ⅱ. But there is little
historical proof for this.

o During Chandragupta Ⅱ’s reign, the Gupta dynasty reached its peak by expanding territories
through conquests as well as by marriage alliances. He married Kuberananga, a Naga princess and
had a daughter, Prabhavati with her. He married Prabhavati to a Vakataka prince, Rudrasena
Ⅱ (Deccan). After the death of her husband, Prabhavati ruled the territory as regent to her minor sons
with the help of her father. Thus Chandragupta Ⅱ indirectly controlled the Vakataka kingdom.
o Chandragupta Ⅱ’s control over the Vakataka kingdom in central India proved quite
advantageous for him. It helped him to conquer Gujarat and western Malwa, which was under the rule
of Shakas for about four centuries by that time. The Guptas reached the western sea coast which was
famous for trade and commerce. This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa and its main city
Ujjain, which was also Chandragupta Ⅱ’s second capital.
o An Iron Pillar inscription at Mehrauli in Delhi indicates that his empire included even north-
western India and Bengal. He adopted the title ‘Vikramaditya’ (powerful as the sun) and
Simhavikrama.
o He issued gold coins (Dinara), silver coins and copper coins. On his coins, he is mentioned as
Chandra. During his reign, a Chinese traveller, Fa-Hien visited India and wrote a detailed account
about the life of its people.
o The Udaigiri cave inscriptions refer to his digvijaya, that is, his conquest of the whole world.
o His court at Ujjain was adorned by nine famous scholars known as the Navratnas (nine gems).
o Kalidasa – He wrote Abhijnashakuntalam, one of the best hundred literary works in the world
and also the earliest Indian work to be translated to European languages.
o Amarasimha – His work Amarakosha is a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, homonyms and synonyms.
It has three parts containing around ten thousand words and is also known as Trikanda.
o Varahamihira – He wrote three important books-
o He composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five astronomical systems.
o His work Brihadsamhita is a great work in the Sanskrit language. It deals with a variety of subjects
like astronomy, astrology, geography, architecture, weather, animals, marriage and omens.
o His Brihat Jataka is considered to be a standard work on astrology.
o Dhanvantri – He is considered to be the father of Ayurveda.
o Ghatakarapara – An expert in sculpture and architecture.
o Shanku – An architect who wrote the Shilpa Shastra.
o Kahapanaka – An astrologer who wrote Jyotishya Shastra.
o Vararuchi – Author of Prakrit Prakasha, the first grammar of the Prakrit language.
o Vetala Bhatta – Author of Mantrashastra and was a magician.
KUMARAGUPTA Ⅰ (C. 415 – 455 CE)

o Kumaragupta Ⅰ was the son and successor of Chandragupta Ⅱ.
o Adopted the titles of ‘Shakraditya’ and ‘Mahendraditya’.
o Performed ‘asvamedha’ sacrifices.
o Most importantly, he laid the foundation of Nalanda University which emerged as an institution of
international reputation.
o At the end of his reign, peace did not prevail on the north-west frontier due to the invasion of the Huns
of Central Asia. After occupying Bactria, the Huns crossed the Hindukush mountains, occupied
Gandhara and entered India. Their first attack, during Kumaragupta Ⅰ’s reign, was made unsuccessful
by prince Skandagupta.
o The inscriptions of Kumaragupta Ⅰ’s reign are – Karandanda, Mandsor, Bilsad inscription (oldest
record of his reign) and Damodar Copper Plate inscription.
SKANDAGUPTA (C. 455 – 467 CE)

o Adopted the title ‘Vikramaditya’.

o Junagarh/Girnar inscription of his reign reveals that his governor Parnadatta repaired the
Sudarshan lake.
o After Skandagupta’s death, many of his successors like Purugupta, Kumaragupta Ⅱ, Buddhagupta,
Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta Ⅲ and Vishnugupta could not save the Gupta empire from the Huns.
Ultimately, the Gupta power totally disappeared due to a variety of reasons.
o The Gupta age in ancient India has been called the ‘Golden Age of India’ because of the many
achievements in the field of arts, science, and literature that Indians made under the Guptas.
o The prosperity under the Guptas initiated a period of splendid accomplishments in arts and sciences.
The Gupta Empire lasted from 320 CE to 550 CE.
 LITERATURE
o Sanskrit literature flourished under the Guptas. Kalidasa, the great poet, and playwright were in the
court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. He composed great epics such as Abhijnanashaakuntalam,
Kumarasambhavam, Malavikagnimitram, Ritusamharam, Meghadootam, Vikramorvashiyam, and
Raghuvamsham.
o The celebrated Sanskrit drama Mṛcchakatika was composed during this time. It is attributed to
Shudraka.
o Poet Harisena also adorned the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. He wrote the Allahabad
Prashasti (inscription).
o Vishnu Sharma of Panchatantra fame lived during this era.
o Amarasimha (grammarian and poet) composed a lexicon of Sanskrit, Amarakosha.
o Vishakhadatta composed Mudrarakshasa. Other grammarians who contributed to the Sanskrit
language include Vararuchi and Bhartrihari.
 SCIENCES
o In the fields of science, mathematics and astronomy also, the Gupta age saw a lot of interesting
advancements.
o Aryabhatta, the great Indian mathematician and astronomer wrote Surya Siddhanta and
Aryabhattiya. Aryabhatta is believed to have conceptualised ‘zero’. He also gave the value of Pi. He
postulated that the earth is not flat and it rotated around its own axis and also that it revolved around
the sun. He also gave the distance between earth and sun which is remarkably close to the actual value.
He wrote on geometry, astronomy, mathematics and trigonometry.
o The Indian number system with a base of 10 which is the present numeral system evolved from
scholars of this era.
o Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita. He was an astronomer and an astrologer.
o The Nalanda University, a centre of Buddhist and other learning attracted students from abroad. The
Guptas patronised this ancient seat of learning.
 ART & ARCHITECTURE

o Many magnificent temples, palaces, paintings and sculptures were created.
o Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh UP is one of the earliest surviving Hindu temples. It is a fine
example of Gupta architecture.
o Mural paintings of Ajanta depicting the life of the Buddha as told in the Jataka tales were created in
this period. Places like Ajanta, Ellora, Mathura, Sarnath; and Anuradhapura and Sigiriya in Sri Lanka
bear examples of Gupta art and architecture.
o Classical Indian music and dance took shape at this time.
o The Gupta legacy in arts can be seen in Southeast Asia also today.
o The Bronze Buddha which is 7.5 feet high and found at Sultanganj is a product of the Gupta age.

o The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi is a marvellous creation of this period. It is a 7 m long pillar and it is
made up of a composition of metals such that it is rust-free. This is a testimony to the metallurgical
skills of Indians of that time.
 SOCIAL CULTURE & RELIGION

o The Hindu epics were given their final touches during this time. The Hindu religion also
received an impetus under the Guptas and it flourished and expanded throughout India.
o Although the Gupta kings were Vaishnavas they were tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism.
They patronized Buddhist art.
o The Shakti cult rose up around this time.
o Sacrifice was being replaced by Bhakti and Pooja.
o Occult practices like tantrism also emerged during this time.
o The game of chess is said to have originated from this time. It was called Chaturanga meaning the
four divisions (of the military such as infantry (pawn), cavalry (knight), elephantry (bishop), and
chariots (rook).
 VAKATAKA DYNASTY
o The Satavahanas in peninsular India
were succeeded by the Vakatakas
(local power) who ruled the Deccan
for more than two and a half
centuries.
o The Vakatakas were the
contemporaries of the Guptas
in northern India.
o In the Puranas, the Vakatakas are
referred to as the Vindhyakas.
o The Vakatakas belonged to the
Vishnuvriddha gotra of the
Brahmanas and performed
numerous Vedic sacrifices.
o A large number of copperplate
land grant charters issued by
the Vakatakas to the Brahmans
have helped in reconstructing their
history.
o They were Brahmins and promoted
Brahmanism, however, they also
patronised Buddhism.
o Culturally, the Vakataka kingdom became a channel for transmitting Brahmanical ideas
and social institutions to the south. The Vakatakas entered into matrimonial alliances with the
Guptas, the Nagas of Padmavati, the Kadambas of Karnataka and the Vishnukundins of Andhra.
o The Vakatakas patronised art, culture and literature. Their legacy in terms of public works and
monuments have made significant contributions to Indian culture.
o Vindhyashakti was the founder.
o Under the patronage of the Vakataka king, Harisena, the rock-cut Buddhist Viharas and Chaityas
of the Ajanta caves (World Heritage Site) were built.

o Ajanta cave numbers ⅩⅥ, ⅩⅦ, ⅩⅨ are the best examples of Vakataka excellence in the field of
painting, in particular the painting titled Mahabhinishkramana.
o Vakataka kings, Pravarasena Ⅱ (author of the Setubandhakavya) and Sarvasena (author of Harivijaya)
were exemplary poets in Prakrit.
o During their rule, Vaidharbhariti was a style developed in Sanskrit which was praised by poets of the
likes of Kalidasa, Dandin and Banabhatta.
 SYSTEM OF ADMINISTRATION- GUPTAS

o According to inscriptions, the Gupta kings assumed titles like Paramabhattaraka,
Maharajadhiraja, Parameshwara, Parama-daivata (the foremost worshipper of gods) and
Paramabhagavata (foremost worshipper of Vasudeva Krishna).
o The Gupta Empire was decentralised in nature and contained many feudatories like local kings
and smaller chiefs, who ruled over large parts of the empire, as opposed to the Mauryan era where the
political authority was vested in the hands of the king.
o These lesser kings adopted titles like Raja and Maharaja.
o The kinship was hereditary, but there was no practice of primogeniture i.e, only the eldest son
occupying the throne.
o There was the practice of granting gifts to the Brahmanas who in return expressed gratitude by
comparing the king to different gods like Vishnu, Indra and Dhanada.
o The king maintained a standing army, however, the numerical strength of the Gupta army is not
known.
o The standing army was supplemented by the feudatories’ forces in times of need.
o The commander-in-chief of the army was known as Mahabaladhikrita.
o Horse chariots receded into the background and cavalry came to the forefront in this period. The
commander of infantry and cavalry was called Bhatashvapati.
o In the case of Vakatakas, Chhatras referred to irregular troops and Batas denoted regular
troops who were responsible for maintaining law and order and also collected revenue.
o Bureaucracy under the Guptas was not as elaborate as that of the Mauryan administration.
o The Kumaramatyas were the most important officers in the Gupta empire. The king appointed them
and they were probably paid in cash. All the important functionaries like the mantri and senapati were
recruited from this cadre.
o Administrative posts were hereditary and also the same person often held multiple offices. The
hereditary nature of the posts led to a
weakening of the royal control of the
administration.
o During the Gupta period, the empire was divided
into provinces called Bhuktis whose heads
were called Uparikas.
o Sometimes, crown princes were also made the
viceroys of the provinces.
o The provinces were divided into districts called
Vishayas, which were placed under the control of
Vishyapati.
o In eastern India, the Vishayas were divided into
Vithis, which were further divided into villages.
o The village headman
(Gramadhyaksha/Gramika) managed the
village affairs with the assistance of village elders. The village headman became more important in
Gupta times as no transaction could be affected without his consent.

 EMPIRE DIVISION
o In the case of Vakatakas, less information is available regarding their administrative structure.
However, it was very similar to the Guptas – the empire was divided into Rashtras or Rajyas which
were administered by governors called Rajyadhikritas.
o The provinces were divided into vishayas which were further divided into aharas and
bhogas/bhuktis. The higher official called Sarvadhyaksha presumably appointed subordinate
officers known as Kulaputras.
o The judicial system was well developed under the Gupta kings when compared to earlier times. The
law books were compiled in this period and it was for the first time that criminal and civil laws were
clearly defined and delineated. Theft and adultery came under criminal law and disputes regarding
property issues were under civil law. There were also elaborate laws about inheritance. However, like
the previous periods, many laws continued to be based on differences in varnas. The highest judicial
power was with the king who tried cases with the Brahmana priests’ aid.
o Mahanadanyala acted as chief justice, Uparikas and Vishyapatis in their respective territorial
jurisdiction dispensed the judicial functions. The guilds of artisans and merchants were governed by
their own laws.
 ECONOMY – GUPTA & VAKATAKA AGE

o In the Gupta period, there was a rise in land taxes but a depreciation in trade and commerce taxes
(shulka or tolls).
o The land grants to the Brahmanas led to the conversion of vast areas of virgin land into
cultivable land.
o The king collected taxes varying from 1/4th to 1/6th of the produce.
o According to the Gupta inscriptions, two taxes appeared in this period – uparikara (probably it was a
tax on temporary tenants) and udranga (probably water tax or some police tax).
o There is also mention of vata-bhuta tax, which presumably refers to cesses for maintenance of rites
performed for wind and spirits, and halirakara tax (probably plough tax).
o In central and western India, the villagers were subjected to forced labour called vishti for serving the
royal army and officials.
o Vakataka inscriptions mention klipta (purchase tax or sales tax) and upaklipta (additional
minor tax).
o The Gupta and post-Gupta period witnessed a decline in the country’s trade and commerce.
o Till 550 CE, India carried out its trade with the Eastern Roman Empire, exporting silk and spices.
o Around the sixth century, the people of the Eastern Roman Empire learnt the art of making silk from
the Chinese. This adversely affected the export trade of India.
o The Mandsor inscription mentions that a guild of silk weavers left their original home at Lata in
western India (Gujarat) and migrated to Mandsor, where they gave up their original occupation and
took to other professions.
o The disturbance of the north-western trade route by the Hunas was another factor responsible for the
diminishing trade in the country.
o This directly affected the inflow of gold into the country which is indicated by a general paucity of gold
coins after the Guptas.
o There is frequent mention of artisans, merchants and guilds in different inscriptions and seals of both
Guptas and Vakatakas which point towards flourishing urban crafts and trade. There is also mention of
philanthropic activities of guilds.
 SOCIETY UNDER GUPTAS AND VAKATAKAS

o The large number of land grants to the Brahmanas suggest that the Brahmana supremacy
continued and even increased during the Gupta period. The Brahmanas expressed their gratitude by
comparing the king to different gods and as possessing attributes of gods.

o The Guptas, who were basically Vaishyas, came to be seen as Kshatriyas by the Brahmanas. The
Brahmanas were exempted from the land taxes and these land grants made them rich & prosperous.
They claimed many privileges which are listed in the law book of Narada.
o The castes proliferated into numerous sub-castes as a result of two factors:
o A large number of foreigners had been assimilated into Indian society and each group of foreigners
was assigned a sub-caste. For example, various foreign ruling families of the pre-Gupta period (e.g,
Scythian origin) were given semi-Kshatriya status. The Huns, who invaded India during the early 5th
century, came to be recognised as one of the 36 clans of the Rajputs.
o With the expansion of brahminical culture in distant and different areas, a large number of tribal
communities were assimilated into the Brahmanical social structure of the varna system. The foreign
rulers and tribal heads were treated as Kshatriyas and the ordinary tribals were given the Shudra
status.
o During the Gupta times, the status of Shudras improved. They were now allowed to listen to the
epics (the Ramayana and the Mahabharata) and the Puranas. They could now even worship a new
god called Krishna. From the 7th century onwards, the Shudras were generally represented as
agriculturists; in the earlier times, they always appeared as slaves, servants and agricultural labourers
working for the 3 higher varnas.
o The practice of untouchability intensified, especially for chandalas. The Chinese traveller
Fa-Hien says in his memoirs that the chandalas lived outside the villages and handled meat and flesh.
Whenever they entered the town or market places, they would strike a piece of wood to declare their
arrival, so that the others might avoid touching them and getting polluted. In south India, it seems that
the practice of untouchability came about in the late Sangam age.
o The position of women had become miserable during the Gupta period. For instance, women had no
right over property, there are evidences of sati. The first evidence of sati around c. 510 CE is found
in an inscription at Eran in Madhya Pradesh. In the Harshacharita (composed by
Banabhatta), when King Prabhakaravardhana dies, his Queen performs sati.
 RELIGION DURING GUPTA AND VAKATAKA AGE

o Brahmanism reigned supreme during the Gupta period. It had two branches – Vaishnavism and
Shaivism. Vishnu emerged as the god of devotion and he came to be represented as the saviour
of the varna system.
o A whole Purana called Vishnupurana was compiled in his honour and a law book named
Vishnusmriti was named after Vishnu. Sanskrit was firmly established as the language of royal
inscriptions.
o The Gupta rulers patronised Bhagvatism – worship of Bhagvat or Vishnu and his incarnations.
Later Vishnu came to be identified with Krishna Vasudeva, a legendary hero of the Vishni tribe who
gave the historic sermon of Bhagavad Gita in the Mahabharata. So Bhagvatism was identified with
Vaishnavism. According to Bhagavad Gita, the most important text of Bhagvatism, whenever there
occurred a social crisis, Vishnu would incarnate on earth and protect the people. There were ten
incarnations of Lord Vishnu that were envisioned. The progress of Brahmanism led to the neglect of
Buddhism and Jainism.
o Idol worship became a common feature and the idols of different incarnations of Vishnu
were housed in the temples constructed in the Gupta period. Agricultural festivals observed
by different classes of people were given religious garb and colour and turned into good sources of
income for the priests.
o The Gupta kings were devout Hindus. They also were tolerant of other religious sects. Although
Buddhists didn’t receive any royal patronage as it was during the glorious days of Ashoka and
Kanishka, some stupas and viharas were built and the Nalanda University developed as a great centre
of learning for Mahayana Buddhism during this time.

 LITERATURE – GUPTA PERIOD

The best of Sanskrit literature belongs to the Gupta age. The Golden Age of art and
literature in the history of India is the Gupta period. A great many secular and religious literature
were compiled during this era.
o The epics of Ramayana and the Mahabharata were finally compiled in the 4th century
CE. Both these epics represent the victory of righteousness over the forces of evil. Rama and Krishna
were considered incarnations of Vishnu. The Bhagavadgita forms an important part of the
Mahabharata.
o The Puranas in their present form were composed during this period – the Vishnu Purana,
Matsya Purana and the Vayu Purana. Shiva Purana was composed for the worship of Shiva. The period
also witnessed the compilation of various Smritis or law books e.g, Narada Smriti which gives an
account of the social, economic rules and regulations of the period.
o The secular literature pieces of this period have great emphasis on verse than on prose. The Gupta
literature includes the classic works of the following:
o The literary work of Kalidasa, one of the navaratnas of Chandragupta Ⅱ, has made
the Gupta period very famous. The plays were all comedies and characters of the
higher classes speak Sanskrit while those of lower castes and women use Prakrit
language. In his early works, Kalidasa invokes Shiva and calls him
Triloknath. Some of his important works are-
 Abhijnanashakuntalam – It is a masterpiece and considered one of the best
100 literary works of the world. It is also the earliest Indian work to be translated
Kalidasa to European languages.
 Malavikagnimitram – It is the first dramatic work of Kalidasa and is about the
celebrations of Vasant Utsav (spring festival).
 Kumarasambhavam – It is the story about the birth of Kumara (son of Shiva
and Parvati) and contains references to sati.
 Raghuvamsha – It portrays Lord Vishnu as the origin and the end of the
universe.
 Ritusamhara and Meghaduta are his two lyrics.
The famous plays of Vishakhadatta are
o Mudrarakṣ hasa
Vishakhadatta
o Mudrarakshasha means “Ring of the Demon” and it recites the ascent of
Chandragupta Maurya to throne.
o He is a king as well as poet
o The famous three Sanskrit plays contributed by him are
 Mrichchhakatika (The Little Clay Cart)
Shudraka
 Vinavasavadatta
 A bhana (short one-act monologue)
o Padmaprabhritaka
o Harisena was a panegyrist, Sanskrit poet, and government minister.
Harisena o He wrote poems praising the bravery of Samudra Gupta, which is engraved on
Allahabad pillar.
o Author of a Sanskrit kavya Kritarjuniya – the story of conflict between Arjuna
Bharavi
and Shiva.
Dandin o Kavyadarshana and Dasakumarcharita were the famous work written by Dandin.

o Dasakumarcharita ‘The Tale of the Ten Princes’ which represents the adventures of
10 princes.
o The Buddhist author who compiled a Sanskrit lexicon Amarakosha. Amarashima
Amarasimha
was a luminary in the court of Chandragupta Ⅱ.
Bhasa o Writer of thirteen plays including Balacharita, Charudatta and Dutavakya.
o He is known for Kiratarjuniya, which talks about the conversation of Shiva
Bharavi o Kiratarjuniya, an epic style Kavya is considered to be among the greatest works in
Sanskrit.
o Author of Ravanavadha, which illustrates the rules of grammar while telling the
Bhatti
story of Rama’s life. Also known as Bhattikavya.
Mentha o Author of Hayagrivavadha.
Vishnu o Author of Panchatantra possibly composed in the Vakataka empire and contains
Sharman satirical tales in which animals play a vital role.
o Raghuvamsham by Kalidasa
o Kumarasambhavam by Kalidasa
o Kiratarjuniyam by Bharavi
5 Mahakavyas
o Shishupalavadha by Magha – talks about the slaying of Shishupala by Krishna
o Naisadhiyacharitam by Sri Harsha – based on the life of king Nala and queen
Damayanti.
o Sisupala was written by Magha in 7th century AD

Magha
o It is regarded as one of the Sanskrit Mahavakyas.
o Bhatrihari was believed to be a King
Bhatrihari o He wrote Nitishatak, which has 100 verses on philosophy and Vakyapadiya, a
treatise on Sanskrit Grammar.
Ishwar o Sankyakarika was his major work.
Krishna o It was an observation on Samkhya Philosophy.
Vyasa o Vyasa has written Vyasabhasya, it was a work on Yoga philosophy
o Vatsyayana was the author of Nyaya Sutra Bhashya and Kamasutra
Vatsyayana o The Nyaya Sutra Bhashya is regarded as the first commentary on Gautama’s Nyaya
Sutras.
 GUPTA & VAKATAKA ART AND ARCHITECTURE

o In ancient India, art was mostly inspired by religion. Buddhism gave a great boost to art in Maurya
and post-Mauryan times. The craftsmen were efficient in the art of casting metal statues and pillars. A
life-sized bronze image of Buddha (about two m high) belonging to the Mathura school of art has been
found at Sultanganj in Bihar.
o In the Gupta age, good-looking images of the Buddha were made at Sarnath and Mathura.
o The greatest specimen of Buddhist art in Gupta times is provided by the paintings of Ajanta
caves, which are included in the list of World Heritage Sites by UNESCO.
o Out of the 28 Ajanta caves, 23 are from the Vakataka period, while five caves were from the
Satavahana period.

o These paintings mostly depict various events in the life of Gautama Buddha, the bodhisattva and the
Jatakas.
o The paintings are life-like, natural and marked by the brilliance of their colours, which haven’t faded
even after 14 centuries or so.
o The paintings of the Gupta times are also seen at Bagh caves near Gwalior.
o The paintings at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka were highly influenced by the Ajanta style.
o The temple found at Bhitargaon in Kanpur is made up of bricks and the Dashavatara
Temple at Deogarh, Jhansi belongs to the Gupta period.
o The Vishnu temple of Tigawa (M.P) and the Parwati temple of Nachna-Kuthara (M.P) are
stone temples of the Gupta era but in a ruined state.
o The temples built during the Gupta period had Nagara architecture style, in which generally, flat-
roofed square temples were built.
o The Gupta coinage was also remarkable and Gupta rulers issued the largest number of gold coins.
o Samudragupta issued eight types of gold coins.
o The legends on them throw light on the achievements of the king.
o The figures inscribed on them are illustrative of the skill and greatness of Gupta numismatic art.
o Chandragupta Ⅱ and his successors also issued gold, silver and copper coins of different varieties.
 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY – GUPTAS AND VAKATAKAS

The achievements in the field of science and technology in the age of the Guptas are exceptional. Some of
the great science scholars belonging to this era are:
o He was a great mathematician and astronomer of Pataliputra. He wrote the book
Aryabhatiya (around 499 CE) which deals with mathematics and astronomy.
o Aryabhatta was the first to declare that the earth was spherical in shape, and it
rotates about its own axis. He also gave an accurate estimate of the length of a
year – 365.2586805 days.
Aryabhatta o He gave the scientific reasons for the occurrences of solar and lunar
eclipses.
o He invented zero and recommended the use of the decimal system.
o The properties of a circle and the accurate value of pi, correct to four decimal
places at 3.1416 are attributed to him.
o He also laid the foundation of trigonometry.
o One of the gems of Chandragupta Ⅱ’s court.
o Composed Pancha Siddhantika – the five astronomical systems.
Varahamihira o His work Brihadsamhita is a great work in the Sanskrit language. It deals with
a variety of subjects like astronomy, astrology, geography, architecture, weather,
animals, marriage, and omens.
o His Brihat Jataka is considered to be a standard work on astrology.
Brahmagupta o He made significant contributions to geometry.
Bhaskara II o Author of Lilavati that espouses major ideas of calculus.
Dhanvantri o He is famous for his work in the field of Ayurveda.
o A successful physician of the Ayurvedic system of medicine.
o A disciple of Charaka.
Vagbhata
o Author of the Astangahridaya (Heart of Medicine) and the Astanga
Samgraha (Tome on Medicine).

o A 7th-century physician who compiled his ayurvedic knowledge in a compendium

Kashyapa
that dealt with the diseases of women and children.
o The Gupta period also witnessed technological advancements in the field of
metallurgy. The several bronze images of Buddha are examples of advanced
Sushruta
technology. The iron pillar at Delhi, near Mehrauli, has not rusted even after 15
centuries, which reflects the technological skills of the craftsmen.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q29. Which one of the following statements about Chandragupta II is not correct ?
a) Kalidasa and Amarasimha were famous scholars in his court.
b) He expanded his empire both through matrimonial alliances and conquests.
c) He married a Naga princess, named Kubera Naga.
d) He married his daughter Prabhavati to an Ahom prince.
Q30. Consider the following statements regarding trade and economy during the Gupta
period:
1. The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins in ancient India.
2. Gupta period saw an increase in long- distance trade.
3. This period witnessed the emergence of a class of priestly landlords.
Q31. Which of the following statements about Samudragupta is incorrect?

a) He took the title Licchichividhutra as his mother was Licchichivi princess.
b) The most detailed and authentic record of his reign is preserved in the Prayaga
Prasasti/Allahabad pillar inscription, composed by his court poet Harisena.
c) Samudragupta was a Shavite.
d) He married Kubernaga of Naga dynasty and married his own daughter Prabhavatigupta with
Vakataka prince Rudrasena II.
POST GUPTA PERIOD

Q. From the decline of Guptas until the Select the correct answer using the code
rise of Harshavardhana in the early given below:
seventh century, which of the a. 1, 2 and 5 b. 1, 3, 4 and 6
following kingdoms were holding c. 2, 3 and 4 d. 5 and 6
power in Northern India? (UPSC
Prelims 2021) Q. Which of the following phrases
defines the nature of the ‘Hundi’
1) The Guptas of Magadha
generally referred to in the sources
2) The Paramaras of Malwa
of the post-Harsha period? (UPSC
3) The Pushyabhutis of Thanesar
Prelims 2020)
4) The Maukharis of Kanauj
5) The Yadavas of Devagiri a. An advisory issued by the king to his
6) The Maitrakas of Valabhi subordinates
b. A diary to be maintained for daily
accounts

c. A bill of exchange 3. Establishment of Chola power by

d. An order from the feudal lord to his Parantaka – I
subordinates 4. Pala dynasty founded by Gopala
What is the correct chronological order of
Q. Consider the following events in the the above events, starting from the earliest
history of India : (UPSC Prelims time?
2020) a. 2-1-4-3 b. 3-1-4-2
1. Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja c. 2-4-1-3 d. 3-4-1-2
2. Establishment of Pallava power
under Mahendravarman – I
Notes

 HARSHAVARDHANA
o Harshavardhana was born in 590 AD to King Prabhakaravardhana of Sthaneshvara (Thanesar,
Haryana).
o He belonged to the Pushyabhuti also called the Vardhana dynasty.
o He was a Hindu who later embraced Mahayana Buddhism.
o He was married to Durgavati.
o He had a daughter and two sons. His daughter married a king of Vallabhi whereas his sons were killed
by his own minister.
o King Harshavardhana deeds were praised by Chinese Buddhist traveller Xuanzang in his writings.
Harsha Ascension
o After Prabhakara Vardhana died, his elder son Rajyavardhana ascended to the throne of Thanesar.
o Harsha had a sister, Rajyashri who was married to king Grahavarman of Kannauj. Sasanka, the Gauda
king killed Grahavarman and kept Rajyashri prisoner. This prompted Rajyavardhana to fight against
Sasanka. But Sasanka killed Rajyavardhana.
o This led the 16-year old Harshavardhana to ascend the throne of Thanesar in 606 AD.
o He vowed to avenge his brother’s murder and also rescue his sister.
o For this, he forged an alliance with Bhaskaravarman, the Kamarupa king. Harsha and
Bhaskaravarman marched against Sasanka. Ultimately, Sasanka left for Bengal and Harsha became the
king of Kannauj also.
Empire of Harsha
o On acquiring Kannauj, Harsha united the two kingdoms of Thanesar and Kannauj.
o He moved his capital to Kannauj.
o After the fall of the Guptas, North India was divided into many small kingdoms.
o Harsha was able to unite many of them under his command. He had under his control of Punjab and
central India. After Sasanka’s death, he annexed Bengal, Bihar and Odisha.
o He also defeated the Vallabhi king in Gujarat. (The Vallabhi king and Harsha came to a truce by a
marriage between Harsha’s daughter and the Vallabhi king Dhruvabhata.)
o However, Harsha’s plans to conquer lands to the south were hampered when the Chalukya king,
Pulakesin II defeated Harsha in 618-619 A.D. This sealed Harsha’s southern territorial limit as
the Narmada River.
o There were two types of territories under Harsha. One was directly under him and the other type was
those that were feudatories.
 Direct territories: Central Provinces, Bengal, Kalinga, Rajputana, Gujarat
 Feudatories: Jalandhar, Kashmir, Kamarupa, Sind, Nepal
o Even the feudatories were under the tight command of Harsha. Harsha’s reign marked the
beginning of feudalism in India.
o Hiuen Tsang visited India during Harsha’s reign. He has given a very favourable account of
king Harsha and his empire. He praises his generosity and justice.
o Harsha was a great patron of the arts. He himself was an accomplished writer. He is credited with the
Sanskrit works Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda.
o Banabhatta was his court poet and he composed the Harshacharita which gives an account of
Harsha’s life and deeds.
o Harsha generously supported the Nalanda University.
o He had a good tax structure. 1/4th of all the taxes collected were used for charity and for cultural
purposes.
o Harsha was a competent military conqueror and an able administrator.

o Harsha was the last king to rule over a vast empire in India before the invasions by the Muslims.
Harsha’s death
o Harsha died in 647 AD after ruling for 41 years.
o Since he died without any heirs, his empire disintegrated very soon after his death.
 PALLAVAS DYNASTY
o The origins of the Pallavas are shrouded in mystery. There are several theories propounded by
historians.
o Some historians say they are a branch of the Parthian people (a tribe from Iran) who gradually
migrated to South India.
o Some say they are an indigenous dynasty that arose within the Southern region and were a mix of
various tribes.
o Some experts believe them to be of Naga origin who first settled around the Tondaimandalam
region near Madras.
o Another theory says that they are descendant from a Chola prince and a Naga princess of
Manipallavam (an island off Jaffna, Sri Lanka).
o Some others are of the opinion that the Pallavas were feudatories of the Satavahanas.
o The first Pallava kings ruled during the beginning of the 4th century AD. By the 7th century
AD, there were three kingdoms in southern India vying for supremacy namely the Chalukyas of
Badami, the Pandyas of Madurai and the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
o rise of Pallavas in the last quarter of the 6th century is attributed to Simha Vishnu.
o Mahendravarman I is considered to be the greatest ruler of the Pallavas.
o His reign was marked by many architectural and literary achievements which would lay the
foundations of future Art and Culture of South India
o Kanchipuram was the capital of the Pallavas.
o The Pallava capital was Kanchipuram.
o Their territories at the height of their powers extended from the northern part of Andhra Pradesh to
River Kaveri in the South.
o During the seventh century, the Cholas were reduced to a marginal state by the authority of the
Pallavas.
o Vatapi (Badami) was occupied by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman who defeated the Chalukyas.
o The Kalabhra uprising was crushed by the Pandyas, Chalukyas and the Pallavas jointly. The
Kalabhras were protesting against the numerous land grants (Brahamadeya) to Brahmanas made by
the Brahmanic rulers of the three dynasties.
 RULERS OF THE PALLAVA EMPIRE

o Greatest among the early rulers. Ruled at the beginning of the 4th century
Sivaskanda
AD.
Varman
o Performed Ashwamedha and other Vedic sacrifices.
Simhavarman/ o Was a Buddhist.
Simhavishnu o Included Sri Lanka in his kingdom.
(Reign: 575 AD o Defeated the contemporary Tamil ruler. Pallava history assumes a definite
– 600 AD) character from this ruler onwards.
Mahendravarm o Succeeded Simhavishnu who was his father.
an (Reign: 600 o He was a poet and composed Vichitrachita and Mahavilasa

AD – 630 AD) Prahasana.

o He introduced rock-cut temple architecture.
o Was a Jain who converted to Saivism.
o Had on-going rivalry and battles with Pulakesin II of Chalukya dynasty.
o Mahendravarman died in battle with the Chalukyas. He was an able and
efficient ruler.
o Son and successor of Mahendravarman.
o Considered the greatest of the Pallavas. Also called Narasimhavarman
Mahamalla/Mamalla.
o Defeated and killed Pulakesin II in 642 AD. He took control of Vatapi,
the Chalukya capital and assumed the title ‘Vatapikonda’.
o Also vanquished the Cholas, Cheras and the Pandyas.
o He sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka and reinstated the Sinhalese Prince
Narasimhavar Manivarma.
man I (630 AD o He founded the city of Mamallapuram or Mahabalipuram which is
– 668 AD) named after him.
o Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava kingdom during his reign in about 640 AD
and he describes the people living in his kingdom as happy.
o He also says there was an abundance of agricultural products.
o Great Nayannar saints like Appar, Tirugnanasambandar and Siruthondar
lived during his reign.
o He was succeeded by his son Mahendravarman II who ruled from 668 to
670 AD.
o After Mahendravarman II, his son Parameswaravarman became the king.
o During his rule, Kanchipuram was occupied by the Chalukyas.
Later rulers o Nripatunga was an important king who defeated a Pandya king.
o There were a few other rulers. The last ruler of the Pallava dynasty was
Aparajitavarman who was killed in battle with the Cholas.
 PALLAVA SOCIETY AND CULTURE

o The Pallava society was based on Aryan culture.
o Brahmins were greatly patronised by the kings, and they received land and villages. This was
called Brahmadeya. The Brahmin status greatly enhanced during this reign. The caste system
became rigid.
o The Pallava kings were orthodox Hindus and worshipped Shiva and Vishnu. They were
tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism too although both these faiths lost their relevance and popularity.
o Kanchipuram was a great centre of learning. The University of Kanchi played a great part in the
propagation of Aryan culture in the South. It can be said that the aryanisation of southern India was
completed during the Pallava reign.
o Vatsyayana who wrote Nyaya Bhashya was a teacher at Kanchi University (Ghatika).
o Bharavi and Dandin lived in Pallava courts. Bharavi wrote Kiratarjuneeyam. Dandin composed
Dashakumaracharita. Both were masterpieces.
o The Vaishnava and Saiva literature flourished during this period.
o Sanskrit was the chief language among the royals and the scholars.
o Some of the inscriptions are in a mix of Tamil and Sanskrit.
o Vedic traditions were superimposed on the local ones.

o Many Tamil saints belonging to either Saivite (Nayannars) or the Vaishnavaite (Alwars) sects lived
during the 6th and 7th centuries.
o Saivite saints: Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkawasagar.
o Vaishnava saint: Andal (the only female Alwar saint).These saints composed hymns in Tamil.
o Dancers were being maintained by all big temples.
o There were three types of places during this time:
o Ur: where the peasants lived and were headed by a headman who collected and paid the taxes.
o Sabha: land granted to Brahmins and was also called Agrahara villages. These were tax-free.
o Nagaram: were merchants and traders resided.
o During the Pallava period, Hindu culture spread to many places in Southeast Asia as well. Pallava
influence is evident from the ancient architecture seen in Cambodia and Java.
 PALLAVA ARCHITECTURE
o The beautiful and grand Pallava style of architecture can be divided into four phases or styles:
 Mahendra style (600-625 AD)
 Mammala style (625-674 AD)
 Rajasimha and Nadivarman style (674-800 AD)
 Aparajita style (early 9th century)
o The Pallava era witnesses a transition from rock-cut to free-standing temples.
o Mahendravarman was a pioneer in rock-cut architecture. Mandagapattu rock-cut temple was the
first rock-cut temple built by him.
o Narasimhaverman II also known as Rajasimha built the Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple during the
late 7th century AD.
o The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram was also built by Narasimhaverman II. It is the oldest
structural temple in South India. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1984. It is also called the
Seven Pagodas.
o The best example of the Nandivarman group of monuments is the Vaikunta Perumal Temple at
Kanchipuram.
o During this period, Pallava architecture attained full maturity and provided the models upon which the
massive Brihadeeswarar Temple of the Cholas at Thanjavur and Gangaikonda
Cholapuram and various other architectural works of note were constructed.
o The Dravidian style of architecture begins with the Pallava reign.
 CHALUKYA DYNASTY
There were three distinct but related Chalukya dynasties.
o Badami Chalukyas: The earliest Chalukyas with their capital at Badami (Vatapi) in Karnataka.
They ruled from mid-6th century A.D. They declined after the death of their greatest king, Pulakesin
II in 642 AD.
o Eastern Chalukyas: Emerged after the death of Pulakesin II in Eastern Deccan with capital at
Vengi. They ruled till the 11th century.
o Western Chalukyas: Descendants of the Badami Chalukyas, they emerged in the late 10th century
and ruled from Kalyani (modern-day Basavakanlyan).
Extent of the Chalukya dynasty

o The Chalukya dynasty reached its peak during the reign of Pulakesin II.
o His grandfather Pulakesin I had created an empire around Vatapi.

o Pulakesin II subjugated the Kadambas, the Gangas of Mysore, the Mauravas of North Konkan, the
Latas of Gujarat, the Malavas and the Gurjars.
o He also succeeded in getting a submission from the Chola, Chera and Pandya kings.
o He had also defeated King Harsha of Kannauj and the Pallava king Mahendravarman.
Administration and Society

o The Chalukyas had great maritime power.
o They also had a well-organised army.
o Though the Chalukya kings were Hindus, they were tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism.
o Saw great developments in Kannada and Telugu literature.
o Sanskrit along with the local languages thrived. An inscription dated 7th century mentions Sanskrit as
the language of the elite whereas Kannada was the language of the masses.
Art and Architecture

o They built cave temples depicting both religious and secular themes.
o The temples had beautiful mural paintings also.
o The temples under the Chalukyas are a good example of the Vesara style of architecture. This is
also called the Deccan style or Karnataka Dravida or Chalukyan style. It is a combination of
Dravida and Nagara styles.
o Aihole temples: Ladh Khan temple (Surya Temple), Durga temple, Huchimalligudi temple, Jain
temple at Meguti. There are 70 temples in Aihole.
o Badami temples
o Pattadakkal: is a UNESCO World Heritage site. There are ten temples here – 4 in Nagar style and 6
in Dravida style. Virupaksha temple and Sangameshwara Temple are in Dravida style. Papanatha
temple is in Nagara style.
 PULAKESIN II
o The greatest of the Chalukya kings.
o Extended the Chalukya rule to most parts of the Deccan.
o His birth name was Eraya. Information about him is obtained from the Aihole inscription dated
634. This poetic inscription was written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language using the
Kannada script.
o Xuanzang visited his kingdom. He has praised Pulakesin II as a good and authoritative king.
o Though a Hindu, he was tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism.
o He conquered almost entire south-central India.
o He is famous for stopping Northern king Harsha in his tracks while he was trying to conquer southern
parts of the country.
o He had defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarman I but was defeated and killed by
Mahendravarman’s son and successor Narasimhavarman I in a series of battles he had with
the Pallavas.
o For the next 13 years, Badami remained under Pallava control.
o Pulakesin II received a Persian mission as depicted in an Ajanta cave painting. He maintained
diplomatic relations with the King of Persia Khusru II.
o His death saw a lapse in Chalukya power.

 GURJARA-PRATIHARA
o The Gurjara-Pratiharas, or simply, the Pratiharas (8th century CE - 11th century CE) held their sway
over western and northern India.
o This dynasty saw its fortunes rising under Nagabhata I (730–760 CE) who successfully defeated Arab
invaders.
o Bhoja or Mihira Bhoja (c. 836-885 CE) was the most well-known king of this dynasty.
o The Pratiharas were known chiefly for their patronage of art, sculpture and temple-building, and for
their continuous warfare with contemporary powers like the Palas (8th century CE - 12th century CE)
of eastern India and the Rashtrakuta Dynasty (8th century CE - 10th century CE) of southern India.
THE PRATIHARAS ROSE TO FAME IN THE LATE 8TH CENTURY CE AFTER
SUCCESSFULLY RESISTING ARAB INVADERS.
Rise of the Gurjara-Pratiharas

o In 647 CE, the fall of the Pushyabhuti Dynasty based at Kanyakubja (modern-day Kannauj city,
Uttar Pradesh state) under Harshavardhana (606-647 CE) led to chaos and political instability. Many
kingdoms rose and fell, and those which came to dominate were those of the Pratiharas, the Palas of
eastern India and the Rashtrakutas of southern India. Kanyakubja was ruled at the time by the
Ayudha dynasty (c. 9th century CE).
o The Gurjaras are variously seen as a foreign people gradually assimilated into Indian society, or as the
local people who belonged to the land called Gurjara (Gurjaradesha or Gurjaratra), or as being a tribal
group. The Pratiharas, who derived their name from the word pratihara (Sanskrit: “doorkeeper”) are
seen as a tribal group or a clan of the Gurjaras. In the epic Ramayana, Prince Lakshmana acted once as
a doorkeeper to his elder brother King Rama.
o Since Lakshmana was regarded as their ancestor, the Pratiharas adopted this title. Various other
Gurjara families started out as local officials and eventually set up small principalities to the south and
east of the area of Jodhpur in modern-day Rajasthan state.
o The Pratiharas rose to fame in the late 8th century CE after successfully resisting Arab
invaders. Besides inscriptions, the sculpture created and monuments built during their reign provide
valuable evidence of their times and rule.
o Primary literary sources include the accounts of Arab merchants who visited India in this
period like Suleiman (c. 9th century CE) who visited India in the 9th century CE and left behind an
account of his travels, and al-Masudi (c. 10th century CE), who visited Gujarat in 915-16 CE.
o All these writers refer to the Paratihara Kingdom as al-Juzr (derived from the Sanskrit Gurjara) and
attest “to the great power and prestige of the Pratihara rulers and the vastness of their empire”.
 PRATIHARA KINGS
Nagabhata I:
o He was the first significant king of the dynasty and because of his achievements that included the
defeat of the Arabs, his line came to overshadow other Gurjara-Pratihara families.
o He fought against the Rashtrakutas, though unsuccessfully.
Vatsaraja:
o Able to defeat the Bhandi or Bhatti clan, Vatsaraja (775-800 CE) gained sway over most of central
Rajasthan.
o He then dabbled in Kanyakubja politics, defeated the Palas and secured the throne for his Ayudha
nominee.
o Dhruva Rashtrakuta dealt him a serious blow, capturing the insignia of royalty that Vatsaraja had
captured from the Palas, and drove him to seek shelter in the deserts of Rajasthan.

Nagabhata II:
o Vatsaraja's son Nagabhata II (800-833 CE) tried to restore the lost fortunes of the dynasty.
o He subdued the kingdoms of Sindh (now in present-day Pakistan) and those in eastern India and later
defeated the Palas.
o His further conquests were over the kings ruling different portions of Gurjaradesha in western India,
including the Arabs.
o Nagabhata engaged in conflict with the Rashtrakutas over the control of Gujarat and was eventually
defeated by the Rashtrakuta Govinda III (793-814 CE), losing thereby south Gujarat and Malwa.
o After a time, able to regain his strength, he managed to recover some of his lost territories.
o He also captured Kanyakubja, ending the Ayudha rule. This city now became the Pratihara capital.
Bhoja or Mihira Bhoja

o Grandson of Nagabhata II, he ruled for nearly 50 years.
o Though initially defeated by the Palas, Rashtrakutas, and the Kalachuris, he managed to gather his
forces and launch a counterstrike.
o He defeated the Palas, and possibly even the Rashtrakutas with the help of his Chedi and Guhila
feudatories. He managed to annex many parts of the Pala Empire in eastern India and recovered
territories in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, thus extending his empire to a considerable
extent.
Mahendrapala I
o Mahendrapala I (885-910 CE) maintained the empire established by his father Bhoja and made fresh
conquests in the east.
o He lost to the king of Kashmir and ceded to him some territories in Punjab. His death was followed by
a civil war between his son Mahipala and his half-brother Bhoja II.
Mahipala I
o Mahipala I (c. 912-944 CE) managed to secure the throne but was defeated by the Rashtrakutas, which
enabled the Palas to take advantage of the situation and retake some of their former territories from
the Pratiharas.
o Mahipala tried to recover from these losses and did regain some lost lands but his plans of conquest
were checked in the later years once more by the Rashtrakutas.
Mahendrapala II (c. 944-948 CE) and his successors did not contribute anything significant in their
reigns. These kings ruled more like petty kings not much involved in the affairs of the day.
Administration
o In terms of administration, much of the Gupta Empire's (3rd century CE - 6th century CE) and
Harshavardhana's ideas and practices were retained.
o The king was supreme and was aided by a variety of ministers and officials.
o Many minor kings and dynasties ruled as vassals of the king and were expected to be loyal, pay a fixed
tribute to the king, conclude matrimonial alliances with the royal family and supply troops when
needed. Some areas were administered directly by the centre and were divided into provinces
(bhukti) and districts (mandala or vishaya).
o They were, respectively, governed by a governor (uparika) and a district head (vishayapati),
who were tasked with collecting land revenue and maintaining law and order with the help of the army
units stationed in their areas.
o The village, as in earlier times, remained the basic unit of administration which was carried out by the
headman and other officials, all paid through land grants.

o However, many vassals always looked forward to becoming independent and often fought against the
king like the Paramaras and the Chandellas of modern-day Bundelkhand region (lying in the states of
Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh).
Culture
o The poet Rajashekhara was associated with Mahendrapala and Mahipala and left behind many
works of note.
o Many Hindu temples and buildings were built, many of which survive even today. “Under the two
centuries of Gurjara-Pratihara rule till 1019 AD, the city of Kanauj became one of the greatest centres
of art, culture and commerce in the Indian subcontinent”.
Legacy
o Nagabhata I's efforts were crucial in checking the Arab invasion of India. The Pratiharas remained as
strong bulwarks against the Arabs.
o They also made valuable contributions in the field of art, culture and commerce. The sculptural styles
developed during the period were unique and remained an influence on later styles. The nagara style of
Hindu temple architecture received a big boost under their rule.
o According to this style, the temple was built on a stone platform with steps leading up to it, with many
regional variations. The highlight was a shikhara (a mountain-like spire on top, curving in shape). This
style became very popular in northern India in the following centuries.
 RASHTRAKUTA DYNASTY
o The name 'Rashtrakuta' in Sanskrit means 'Country' (Rashtra) and 'Chieftain' (Kuta).
o This explains their lineage from the time of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka the Great (3rd century BCE)
when they were primarily small clan heads in different parts of India. In some of the edicts of Ashoka
(in Mansera, Girnar, Dhavali) the word Rathika appears, who may have been the ancestors of the
Rashtrakutas.
o However, though many historians claim that the Rashtrakutas were the earlier Rathikas mentioned in
those inscriptions, this theory is not backed up by enough archaeological evidence. Medieval Sanskrit
literature reveals fragments of their lineage, which is thought to be from the Mauryan times as small
clan heads.
o However, their rise began when Dantidurga (also knows as Dantivarman, r. until 756 CE), who
was a feudatory of the Badami Chalukyas.
Rulers of Rashtrakutas
o Dantivarman or Dantidurga was the founder of the Rashtrakuts dynasty. He made his capital at
Manyakhet or Malkhed near modern Sholapur.
o Dantivarman was succeeded by his uncle Krishna I about A.D. 758.
o Krishna-I extended his kingdom from Maharashtra to Karnataka.
o Dhruva became king in about A.D. 779. It was the opening of a new era in the history of Rashtrakutas.
Dhruva was the first Rashtrakuta ruler from Deccan who had intervene in the tripartite
struggle of supremacy in north India. He had defeated two powers of the North India i.e the
Pratihara king Vatsaraja and the Pala king Dharmapala of Bengal.
Dhruva added the emblem of Ganga and Yamuna to his imperial emblem after his
successful campaigns in north India.
Dhruva was succeeded by Govinda-III (A.D. 793-813).
o Govinda-III also made invasions into north India and fought successfully against the Pala king
Dharmapala and Chakrayudha the ruler of Kanauj.

Govinda-III shattered the union of the Ganga, Chera, Pandya, and Pallava rulers in south
India.
o Amoghavarsha-I (A.D. 814-878).
Amoghavarsha-I ruled for 60 years. He is better known for his leanings towards religion and literature.
Amoghavarsha supported Jainism. He was a patron of literature and patronized as the men of letter.
Amoghavarsha wrote Kavirajamarga. It was earliest Kannada work on poetics.
Amoghavarsha was a great builder. He built the capital city Manyakhet.
o The successor of Amoghavarsha were Indra-III (A.D. 915-927) and Krishna-III (939- 965). Both were
the great Rashtrakuta rulers.
o Indra-III had defeated the Pratihara king Mahipala-I and ransacked his capital Kanauj.
o Krishna-III was the last famous king of Rashtrakuta. He struggled against the Paramaras of Malwa and
eastern Chalukya of Vengi.
o Krishna-III also struggled against the Chola ruler of Tanjore. He reached up to Rameshwaram and
built a pillar of victory and a temple there.
o The dominance of the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan is the remarkable period in the history of India.
o Rashtrakuta ruled more than three hundred years. They patronized Saivism and Vaishnavism. In
addition, they also protected Jainism, Buddhism, and Islam.
o The Rashtrakuta rulers permitted the Muslim merchants to settle in their kingdom,
build mosques, and preach their religion.
o Rashtrakuta rulers equally support Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Kannada along with Apabhramsa
languages.
o Rock-cut cave temples excavated at Ellora are the symbols of Rashtrakuta’s religious toleration. They
are one of the splendors of Indian arts.
o The Kailash temple was built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna-I. It is a supreme piece of art.
Administration and Society

o The Rashtrakutas divided their kingdom into various provinces, and the provinces were further
divided into districts.
o The kings or emperors of the Rashtrakutas were followed in hierarchy by a Chief Minister who had a
cabinet of ministers and different army personnel under him. All the ministers had to undergo military
training and be ready for war at any moment.
o The empire had a mighty army who were always kept ready, especially in their capital city for any
incursion or invasion. It was divided into three units; infantry, cavalry, and elephants.
o It was always diligently trained and kept in proper shape all the time. Feudatory kingdoms would pay
tributes, and in case of a special warlike situation or a natural calamity, the administration would also
exact some special taxes to meet the expenses, but not at the cost of the happiness and well-being of its
subjects. However, the precarious balance that the Rashtrakutas had to maintain between war and
well-being, between defence and invasion, between expansion and their administration, ultimately led
to their decline.
o The society was divided into various castes based on profession.
o The prevailing castes had their own sets of rules, regulations, and customs, which they followed quite
diligently. They also followed ancient orthodoxy. However, due to the Rashtrakuta rulers being
tolerant towards all religions, society was generally accommodative of adherents of various faiths.
o Kannada is one of the most important languages in current-day India, and it was the Rashtrakutas who
made it popular and a tool of day-to-day communication, though the language had already been in use
for a long time.
o They also patronised Sanskrit which was actually a language of the elite. Amoghavarsha I was
instrumental in composing groundbreaking works in both languages, and his Kavirajamarga was an
important milestone in Kannada poetry.

Art & Architecture

o The Rashtrakutas were instrumental in establishing an aesthetic architectural form now known as the
Karnata Dravida style.
o The stunning Kailasa Temple of Ellora (a rock-cut structure) is the epitome of Rashtrakuta
architectural achievement, but many of the caves of Ellora and Elephanta (in present-day
Maharashtra state) have also been created and renovated under the supervision of the Rashtrakutas.
o Another UNESCO World Heritage Site, the temples at Pattadakal also came under the sway of the
Rashtrakutas after the defeat of the Chalukyas and were subsequently renovated and expanded by the
Rashtrakutas. The Jain Narayana Temple is said to be solely created by the Rashtrakuta Dynasty.
 PALA DYNASTY
o Pala dynasty was the ruling dynasty in Bihar and Bengal, India, from the 8th to the 12th century.
About Palas
o Gopala was the elected king by the people in a revolution to end the Matsyanyaya.
o The history of Gopala’s early life is not known.
o Gopala introduced peace in the kingdom and laid the foundation for the Pala dynasty.
o Dharmapala became ruler after Gopala in about A.D. 780. He undertook the expansion of his
empire.
o Dharmapala defeated Indrayudha, the king of Kanauj and installed his nominee Chakrayudha to the
throne of Kanauj.
o Dharmapala held a grand darbar at Kanauj, which was attended by several kings. However, he could
not consolidate his position.
o Rashtrakuta king, Dhruva defeated Dharmapala near Monghyr (Bihar) in a battle.
o Meanwhile Nagabhatta II, Pratihara king became more powerful.
o After Dharmapala, his son Devapala became the ruler. He was the mightiest Pala king. He conquered
–Pragjotishpur (Assam) and Utkala (Orissa).
o The kings Palas dynasty ruled over Bihar, Bengal, and parts of Orissa and Assam with many ups and
downs for over four centuries.
o Arab merchant Sulaiman testifies their power. He calls the Pala kingdom Ruhma (or Dharma), short
for Dharmapala,
o Sulaiman mentioned that the Pala rulers were at war with their neighbors – the Pratiharas and the
Rashtrakutas, but his troops were more in number than his adversaries.
o Sulaiman also mentioned that ‘it was usual for the Pala king to be accompanied by a force of 50,000
elephants.’
o The Tibetan chronicles also provide detailed information about the Palas dynasties.
o According to Tibetan historians, Pala rulers were great patrons of Buddhist learning and
religion.
o Dharmapala founded the famous Buddhist monastery at Vikramashila. It became eminent
as Nalanda.
o During Pala reign, Nalanda University became famous all over the world.
o During this period, Nalanda had more than 10,000 students and teachers coming not only from
different parts of India, but also from central Asia, China, South East Asia, and Sri Lanka.
o Nalanda University was considered as one of the biggest educational institutions of its time.
o It imparted education in various branches of knowledge.
o Dharmapala donated the royal income from two hundred surrounding villages to meet the expenses of
Nalanda University.
o Devapala also donated income from five villages.

o The king of Suvarnadvipa (modern Malaya Peninsula, Java and Sumatra), Maharaja Balaputradeva
erected a monastery in Nalanda and requested Devapala to donate five villages for the maintenance of
that monastery.
o The Pala kings patronized Hinduism as well.
o Vinayakapala built one thousand temples in honor of the Lord Saiva. They also gave donations to
Brahmans to settle in their country and run gurukuls.
o The powerful Sailendra dynasty of South East Asia sent many embassies to the Pala kings. They ruled
over Malaya, Java, Sumatra, and neighboring islands.
o The Palas had close trade contacts and cultural links with South East Asia and China.
o The trade with South East Asia and China was very profitable and added greatly to the prosperity of
the Pala Empire.
 TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE
o There were three great powers in India in the early phase of 8th century A.D., namely −The Gurjara
Pratihara in the north, The Palas in the east, and The Rasthrakutas in the Deccan.
o The tripartite struggle for the supremacy between the Palas, the Gurjara Pratiharas, and the
Rashtrakutas was the important event of these centuries.
o The main cause of this struggle was the desire to possess the city of Kanauj, which was then a
symbol of sovereignty. And, some other cause of this struggle was to have control over the
intermediate fertile regions.
o The shifting of the power among these three was determined both by the internal strength of the
respective region and the inability of the rulers to extend their control beyond their respective regions
for a longer duration.
o All of the three dynasties were having more or less same military equipment, administrative
machinery, and the strategic concepts.
o The Arab travelers also affirmed that these three powers were equal in strength.
o Because of the balance of power, there was a great political stability within the regions, which nurtured
the development of culture and education.
o The first encounter took place among the Pratihara king Vatsaraja, the Pala king Dharmapala,
and Rashtrakuta king Dhruva.
o Rashtrakutas achieved a complete victory in the first phase. But the unfortunate death of Dhruva was a
great set back to Rashtrakutas.
o Pala king Devapala (A.D. 821-860) was the most prominent in the second phase because his
contemporary Pratihara and Rashtrakuta kings were weak rulers.
o Pratihara kings Bhoja (A.D. 836-885) and Mahendrapala (A.D. 885-910) proved to be
more powerful in the third phase (during the 9th century).
o Each of the three kingdoms Pratiharas, Pala, and Rashtrakutas declined almost simultaneously around
the end of the 10th century A.D.
o The end of these three dynasties marked the end of the glorious era of more than 300 years.
 KAKATIYAS
o The 12th and the 13th centuries saw the emergence of the Kakatiyas.
o They were at first the feudatories of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyana.
o Initially, they ruled over a small territory near Warangal (Telangana).
o Prola II, a ruler of this dynasty, ruled in mid twelfth century. He extended his sway to the south and
declared his independence.

o His successor Rudra pushed the kingdom to the north up to the Godavari delta. He built a fort at
Warangal to serve as a second capital and faced the invasions of the Yadavas of Devagiri.
o The next ruler Mahadeva extended the kingdom to the coastal area.
o In A.D. 1199, Ganapati succeeded him. He was the greatest of the Kakatiyas and the first after the
Satavahanas to bring the entire Telugu area under one rule.
o Ganapati Deva’s daughter Rudramba succeeded him in A.D.1262 and carried on the administration.
She suppressed the internal rebellions and external invasions with the help of loyal subordinates.
o Prataparudra succeeded his grandmother Rudramba in A.D.1295 and ruled till A.D.1323. He pushed
the western border of his kingdom up to Raichur (Karnataka). He introduced many administrative
reforms.
o He divided the kingdom into 75 Nayakships, which was later adopted and developed by the Rayas of
Vijayanagara.
o In time of Prataparudra, the territory constituting Andhra Pradesh had the first experience of invasion
from north.
o In A.D.1303, the Delhi Sultan Ala-ud-din Khilji sent an army to the kingdom. But Prataparudra
defeated them.
o After that, another army under Malik Kafur invaded Warangal, Prataparudra yielded and agreed to pay
a large tribute.
o When Ala-ud-din Khilji died, Prataparudra withheld the tribute. It provoked another invasion of the
sultans.
o In another army attack, Ghiaz-ud-din Tughlaq sent a large army under Ulugh Khan to conquer the
area but owing to internal dissensions he called off the siege and returned to Delhi.
o Within a short period, he came back with a much bigger army. In this attack, Prataparudra died. Thus
ended the Kakatiya rule.
o The Kakatiya period was rightly called the brightest period of the Telugu history. The entire Telugu
speaking area was under the kings who spoke Telugu and encouraged Telugu.
o During their rule, Saivism was the religion of the masses but intellectuals favoured revival of Vedic
rituals.
o They sought to reconcile the Vaishnavites and the Saivites through the worship of Harihara (Harihara
is the fused representation of Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara) from the Hindu tradition).
o Arts and literature found patrons in the Kakatiyas and their feudatories.
o Tikkana Somayaji wrote some cantos of the Mahabharata.
o It is notable that Sanskrit, which could not find a place in the Muslim-occupied north, received
encouragement at the hands of the Kakatiyas.
o Prataparudra was himself a writer and he encouraged other literature.
o The Kakatiya dynasty expressed itself best through religious art.
o The Kakatiya temples dedicated mostly to Siva.
o They reveal in their construction a blending of the styles of North India and South India which
influenced the political life of the Deccan.
o The most important of these temples are those at Palampeta, Hanamkonda (Telangana) and the
incomplete one in the Warangal fort.
o The temple at Palampeta is described as the `brightest gem in the galaxy of Medieval Deccan temple
architecture’.
o It was constructed by Recherla Rudra, a general of Kakatiya Ganapati.
o The Thousand-Pillared Temple at Hanamkonda was built by the Kakatiya king Rudra. This temple,
dedicated to Siva, Vishnu and Surya, is star-shaped.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q32. Which of the following statements is/are true about the land charters of post-Gupta
period?

1. In some land grants, taxes and powers of administration were explicitly delegated in a positive
manner.
2. Some charters specifically transferred peasants and artisans living in a village and also
cultivators occupying a piece of land with the grant.
3. Some charters gave the beneficiary the right to evict the existing peasants and induce new ones.
4. Once important element in the land donation records was the list of officers, either, with both
proper names and functional designations or only with designations.
Select the answer from the codes below:
a) 1 and 3 b) 1, 3 and 4 c) 1, 2 and 4 d) All the above
Q33. Which of the following statements about Pulakesin II are correct?

1. He had to fight a bitter civil war against his uncle before establishing himself on the throne.
2. The Aihole inscription gives us information about his achievements and rule.
3. He was defeated by Harsha as is evident from later Chalukyan inscriptions.
4. He started the suicidal Pallava – Chalukya conflict which went on for centuries.
5. He died a natural death after ruling for about 33 years.
Select the answer from the codes given below:
a) 1, 2 and 4 b) 2, 3 and 4 c) 1, 2 and 5 d) 2, 4 and 5
Q34. Consider the following statements regarding the education system in Ancient India:
1. The Nalanda University was established by Harshavardhan.
2. The Taxila University was established by Dharmapala of Pala dynasty.
3. Ghatikas played a crucial role in imparting education in South India.
a) 1 and 2 only b) 3 only c) 2 and 3 only d) None of the above
Notes

MEDIEVAL INDIA
EARLY MEDIEVAL- SOUTH INDIA
 CHOLA DYNASTY
o The reign of the Cholas began in the 9th century when they defeated the Pallavas to come into
power. This rule stretched over for over five long centuries until the 13th century.
o However, around the 2nd century, the state Andhra has a Chola kingdom that flourished
far and wide. The Early periods of the Chola rule saw the onset of the Sangam literature.
Kantaman was one of the prominent rulers of this era.
o The medieval period was the era of absolute power and development for the Cholas. This is when
kings like Aditya I and Parantaka I.
o From here Rajaraj Chola and Rajendra Chola further expanded the kingdom into the Tamil
region. Later Kulothunga Chola took over Kalinga to establish a strong rule. This
magnificence lasted until the arrival of the Pandyas in the early 13th century.
o Some prominent pillars of the Chola Empire
Vijayala (c. 850 CE)

Earlier, a feudatory of the Pallavas.
Captured Tanjore and built a temple for Durga.
Aditya (c. 871 – 907 CE)
He put an end to the Pallava kingdom by defeating Aparajita and annexed Tondaimandalam (southern
Tamil country).
Parantaka I (c. 957 – 973 CE)
o He defeated the Pandyas and the ruler of Ceylon at the famous Battle of Vellur.
o He suffered a defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakuta king Krishna Ⅲ in the famous battle of Takkolam.
The Rashtrakuta army overran Tondaimandalam.
o Parantaka Ⅰ was a great builder of temples. He also provided the vimana of the famous Nataraja
temple at Chidambaram with a golden roof.
o The two famous Uthiramerur inscriptions that give a detailed account of the village
administration under the Cholas belong to his reign.
Parantaka II/ Sundara Chola (c. 957 – 973 CE)

Invaded Sri Lanka and regained some parts of Tondaimandalam.
Uttama Chola (c. 973 – 985 CE)
Most of Tondaimandalam was recovered when he occupied the throne.
Rajaraja I/Arumolivarman (c. 985 – 1014 CE)
It was under Rajaraja Ⅰ and his son Rajendra Ⅰ that the Chola power reached its highest point of glory.
The following were his military conquests:
o The defeat of the Chera ruler Bhaskara Ravivarman in the naval battle of Kandalur Salai and the
destruction of the Chera navy.
o The defeat of the Pandya ruler, Amarabhujanga and the establishment of Chola authority in the
Pandya country.

o The invasion of Sri Lanka which was entrusted to his son Rajendra Ⅰ. As the Sri Lankan king
Mahinda Ⅴ fled from his country, the Cholas annexed northern Sri Lanka.
o Another military achievement was a naval expedition against the Maldives Islands which were
conquered.
o The Chola victory over the growing power of the western Chalukyas of Kalyani. Satyasraya was
defeated and Rajaraja Ⅰ captured Raichur Doab, Banavasi and other places. Hence, the Chola empire
extended up to the river Tungabhadra.
o By his conquests, the extent of the Chola empire under Rajaraja Ⅰ included the Pandya, Chera and the
Tondaimandalam regions of Tamil Nadu and the Gangavadi, Notambapadi and the Telugu Choda
territories in the Deccan and the northern part of Ceylon and the Maldive Islands beyond India.
o He constructed the famous Rajarajeshwara temple or Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore in
1010 CE.
o He developed an advanced revenue system wherein the land was surveyed and then revenue was
assessed. He was referred to as “Ulagalanda Perumal” (the king who measured the earth).
Rajendra I (c. 1014 – 1044 CE)

Rajendra Ⅰ demonstrated his military capabilities by participating in his father’s campaigns. He
continued his father’s policy of aggressive conquests and expansion.
o During his reign, the whole of Sri Lanka was made part of the Chola empire.
o He reasserted the Chola authority over the Chera and Pandya countries.
o He defeated Jayasimha Ⅱ – the western Chalukya king and the river Tungabadhra was recognised as
the boundary between the Cholas and the Chalukyas.
o His most famous military enterprise was his expedition to North India. The Chola empire crossed
the Ganges by defeating a number of rulers on its way. Rajendra Ⅰ defeated Mahipala Ⅰ (Pala
empire) of Bengal. To commemorate this successful north India campaign, Rajendra Ⅰ founded the
city of Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the famous Rajesvaram temple in that
city. He also excavated a large irrigation tank called Cholagangam on the western side of the city.
o Another famous venture of Rajendra Ⅰ was his naval expedition to Kadaram or Sri Vijaya (Malay
peninsula, Sumatra, Java and the neighbouring islands and controlled the overseas trade route to
China). The naval expedition was a success and a number of places were occupied by Chola forces. He
assumed the title Kadaramkondan.
o He was also a great patron of learning and was called Pandita Cholan.
o At the death of Rajendra Ⅰ, the extent of the Chola empire was at its peak. The river Tungabhadra was
the northern boundary, the Pandya, Kerala, Mysore regions and also Sri Lanka formed part of the
empire.
Rajadhiraja (c. 1044 – 1052 CE)

o He was called Jayamkonda Chola (the victorious Chola king), as he fought with his men on the
front.
o He destroyed the Chalukyan cities such as Kalyani and planted a Jaystambha at Yadgir. Cholas were
known for plunder and they massacred the people of the region they conquered.
o He was killed on the battlefield while fighting in the battle of Koppam against Someshwar
– western Chalukyan king. He earned the title of Yanai-mel-thunjina Devar (the king who died on
the back of an elephant).
Rajendra II (c. 1054 – 1063 CE)

Rajendra Ⅱ defeated Someshwar, planted a Jaystambha at Kolhapur.
Virarajendra (c. 1063 – 1067 CE)

He defeated Someshwar Ⅱ and laid the foundation of a Vedic college of learning.

Athirajendra (c. 1067 – 1070 CE)
He died while suppressing one of his rebels.
Kulottunga Ⅰ (c. 1070 – 1122 CE)
Kulottunga Ⅰ sent a large embassy of 72 merchants to China and maintained cordial relations with
the kingdom of Sri Vijaya.
He united the Vengi kingdom of Chalukyas with the Chola empire.
The classic writer Kamban (who wrote Ramayana in Tamil) was at his court.
The later rulers like Kulottunga Ⅱ, Rajaraja Ⅱ, and Kulottunga Ⅲ tried to maintain the Chola rule but it
gradually suffered a downfall and came to an end in the 13th century. The Cholas were replaced by the
Pandyas and the Hoysalas in the south, and of the later Chalukyas by the Yadavas and the Kakatiyas.
These states were continuously in a state of war with each other and hence, weakened themselves. Finally,
at the beginning of the 14th century, they were destroyed by the Sultans of Delhi.
 CULTURE AND ROOTS

o The society and its culture saw massive developments in the reign of the Cholas. In this era, the
temple was the main centre for all social and religious meetings. The surroundings of this
region became a school for the folks where Holy Scriptures and the ancient Vedas were taught to
students. This also was a secure place in times of warfare and political uproar.
o The societal structure at this time was divided amongst Brahmins and Non-Brahmins.
Several gods and goddesses were worshipped with Shiva being a popular source of strength for
the faithful.
o There are links of the relevance of the Chola Empire with the Trimula deity at Sri
Venkateshwara temple. The religious roots of the Chola Empire go far back to this time. The
Srirangam temple stands to be a highlight from this era. It was submerged in water for centuries and
was renovated later to its former glory.
o Art, religion and literature benefited greatly during this period. Several Shiva temples were built across
the banks of the Kaveri river. Thanjavur still stands to be the biggest and tallest amongst all the
temples in India of its time.
o The Tajore Brihadeeswara temple is adorned with natural colour paintings that are a feast for the
eyes even today. Several of these sites have been classified as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. These
include the Brihadisvara temple, the Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara temples.
Sculpting and art were also at an all-time high in this reign.
o Sculptures of gods and goddesses like Shiva, Vishnu and Lakshmi have been carved out of bronze and
serve as a golden reminder of this period.
o Literature was another crucial highlight of this period. Not only did devotional literature take shape
but Jain and Buddhist writings also got appreciation and recognition during this phase.
o The popular Nalayira Divya Prabandham from this period is a compilation of 4000 Tamil verses
and is widely savoured by literary scholars even to this day.
 ADMINISTRATION AND GOVERNANCE

o The king was at the top of the administration and Chola inscriptions refer to him as Ko, Perumal
Adigal (the great one) and Ko-Konmai Kondan (king of kings).
o The Chola Empire consisted of the current day territories of Tiruchirapalli, Tiruvarur, Perambalur,
Ariyalur, Nagapattinam, Pudukkottai, Vridhachalam, Pichvaram and Thanjavur districts of Tamil
Nadu.
o The Rashtriyam/Rajyam (empire) consisted of eight Mandalams (provinces) and each Mandalam
had a governor/viceroy (generally a prince).

o The provinces were further divided into Valanadus or Kottams and each Valanadus were divided
into Nadus (districts) under Nattar.
o The Nadus consisted of a number of autonomous villages. The guilds/Shrenis were also part of the
administration.
o The assembly of the mercantile groups/merchants was known as Nagaram and was specific to
different trades and specialised groups. For example, the Shankarappadi Nagaram were ghee and oil
suppliers, the Saliya Nagaram and Satsuma Parishatta Nagaram were associated with the textile trade.
The Ayyavole (the five hundred) in the Aihole, Karnataka and Manigramam were powerful and
important guilds. These guilds became more powerful and subsequently, independent.
Chola Village Administration

The Chola village administration had two types of assemblies:
o Ur – The general assembly of the local residents of non Brahmadeya villages (or Vellanvagai villages).
It is believed that members of the assembly were less than ten.
o Sabha or Mahasabha – Two inscriptions belonging to the period of Parantaka Ⅰ found at
Uttaramerur provide details about the formation and functioning of Sabhas. The Sabha was an
assembly of Brahmans/adult male members in the agraharas i.e, rent-free Brahmadeya villages which
enjoyed a large measure of autonomy.
o The Brahmana sabha and the Chola court were closely associated e.g, the resolution of the sabha was
made in presence of an official deputed by the king. The members of the committee were elected by
drawing lots or by rotation. The membership was governed by certain criteria such as the ownership of
land, knowledge of Vedas, good conduct, etc.
o The committee members were called Variya Perumakkal and usually met in a temple or under a
tree. The Chola village assembly was the absolute proprietor of the village lands and also of the newly
acquired lands.
o Land revenue was the main source of income for the Chola empire and it was usually one-sixth of the
produce. The revenue was collected by the village assembly and was paid in cash, kind or both. The
land survey was conducted by the Chola government. The inscriptions also refer to land transfers via
sale or gift.
o There are also certain references to villages that were headed by women. In a 902 CE
inscription, there is mention of a woman Bittaya who headed the village Bharangiyur.
 CHERA DYNASTY
o The Cheras were also known as ‘Keralaputras’ in the history.
o The Chera kingdom occupied the region of a narrow strip between the sea and the mountains of
Konkan range.
o The Chera rulers also occupied high position in the history of south India. Nedunjeral Adan was a
famous Chera king.
o He conquered Kadambas with his capital at Vanavasi (near Goa). He also defeated the Yavanas.
o Nedunjeral Adan had a good relation with the Greeks and Romans who came in large numbers
as traders and set up large colonies in south India.
o Nedunjeral Adan fought a battle with the father of the Chola king Karikala. In this battle, both
the kings were killed.
o Nedunjeral Adan was called as Imayavaramban. The literary meaning of the term Imayavaramban
is “one who had the Himalaya Mountains as the boundary of his kingdom." However, it seems to be
mere exaggeration.
o Sengutturan was the greatest king of the Chera dynasty as mentioned in the Chera tradition.
He had defeated the Chola and the Pandya kings.

o The Chera power declined at the end of the 3rd century A.D. They again acquired power in the 8th
century A.D.
o The important facts about the three early kingdoms of south India are −
 They constantly fought with each other;
 They made new alliances against the ones who became powerful; and
 They also fought regularly with Sri Lanka and ruled there at some point of time.
 IMPORTANT FACTS
o Everything that one knows today about the Cheras is through the texts of Sangam Literature. The most
common sources include the Pathitrupattu, the Akananuru, and the Purananuru
o Copper and lead coins were introduced by the Cheras, which were inspired by the Roman coins.
Most of these coins were found in the Amaravati riverbed and are the biggest source of Chera
historiography
o Most of the coins had bow and arrow engraved on them, which was the emblem of the Cheras
o Of the inscriptions found which depict the existence of the Chera dynasty is the Pugalur Tamil
Brahmi inscription which mentions three generations of Chera rulers, including Ko Athan Chel
Irumporai, his son Perunkkadungo and his son Elangkadungo
o There is some evidence reference in the Shilappadikaram (also referred to as,
Silappatikāram, or Silappathikaram) of the ‘king’s council’ and the other ‘five assemblies’.
The function of the five assemblies during the ancient Chera kingdom is not very well mentioned, but it
is probable that they were territorially organized
 PANDYA DYNASTY
o The capital of Pandya kingdom was Madurai. The Pandyan kingdom was very wealthy and
prosperous.
o The Sangam literature gives information and names of a few kings.
o Nedunjeliyan was a great Pandya king. He defeated the combined forces of Chera, Chola, and
five other minor states in a war against him at Madurai.
o The Pandyan kings assembled literary assemblies called as ‘Sangam’.
o Nedunjeliyan had performed several Vedic sacrifices. He may be taken to have ruled around A. D.
210.
o The capital Madurai and the port city Korkai were the great centres of trade and
commerce during the Pandyas’ reign.
o The traders profited from trade with the Roman Empire.
o Pandya kings even sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus and Trojan.
o The Roman emperor Julian received an embassy from a Pandya about 361 CE. The dynasty revived
under Kadungon in the early 7th century CE and ruled from Madura (now Madurai) or farther south
until the 16th century. The small but important (9th–13th century) dynasty of Pandya of Ucchangi, a
hill fort south of the Tungabhadra River, may have originated from the Madura family.
o The Pandya kings were called either Jatavarman or Maravarman. From being Jains they
became Shaivas (worshipers of the Hindu deity Shiva) and are celebrated in the earliest Tamil
poetry.
o They ruled extensive territories, at times including the Chera (Kerala) country, the Chola country, and
Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) through collateral branches subject to Madura. The “Five Pandyas” flourished
from the 12th to the 14th century and eventually assumed control of all the plains of the extreme south
as far north as Nellore (1257).

o Family quarrels, however, and Muslim invasions, from 1311, culminating in the foundation of the
Madura sultanate, weakened Pandya influence. By 1312 control over Kerala was lost, and by the mid-
16th century all their territories had passed into other hands.
 ADMINISTRATION
o The territory of Pandyas is called Pandymandalam, Thenmandalam or Pandynadu, which lay in the
rocky, hilly regions and mountain ranges except the areas fed by the rivers Vaigai and Tamiraparni
o Pandya kings preferred Madurai as their capital
o As for political division, Pandy Mandalam or Pandy Nadu consisted of many valanadus, which, in turn,
were divided into many nadus and kurrams (meaning group of villages)
o Kings and local chiefs created Brahmin settlements called Mangalam or Chaturvedimangalam
with irrigation facilities. These settlements were given royal names and names of the deities
o Royal officials were called by different names:
 The prime minister was called Uttaramantri
 The royal secretariat was known as Eluttu Mandapam
 The titles of military commanders were Palli Velan, Parantakan Pallivelan, Maran Adittan and
Tennavan Tamizhavel
o Royal palaces were called Tirumaligai and Manaparanan Tirumaligai during the Pandya reign
and the royal couches they used were named after the local chiefs, which attested to the legitimacy of
the overlordship of the kings
o The political division of land was as follows:
 The land assigned to Brahmins was Salabogam
 The land assigned to Ironsmiths was called Tattarkani
 The land assigned to Carpenters was known as Taccu-maniyam
 The land donated to the Brahmin group for imparting education was called Bhattavriutti
o A scholar named Wassaff claims that the trade of horses was very common during this period
o Other goods that were traded included spices, pearls, precious stones, elephants and birds
o The busiest port town under the Pandyas was Kayalpattinam (now in Thoothukudi district)
o Literacy was also promoted during this period and the administrators used various methods to do so.
Singers were appointed to recite Bhakti hymns in temples to promote literacy, theatre plays were done
based on similar issues
 HOYSALA DYNASTY
o Hoysala dynasty, family that ruled in India from about 1006 to about 1346 CE in the southern
Deccan and for a time in the Kaveri (Cauvery) River valley. The first kings came from the hills
northwest of Dorasamudra (present-day Halebid), which became their capital about 1060.
o With their hardy hill-dwelling, Kannada-speaking followers, they gradually absorbed Gangavadi
(Mysore state) and the rich lands beyond the Tungabhadra toward Dharwar and Raichur. The
imperialistic programs of the Chalukyas of Kalyani helped them, for under the Hoysala rulers
Vinayaditya (reigned c. 1047–98) and his grandson Vishnuvardhana (reigned c. 1110–
41) they gained wide experience as feudatory generals.
o Vishnuvardhana won much territory from the tough Kadambas of Hangal, but his weak son Narasimha
I lost much of it. Yet Vishnuvardhana’s expulsion of the Cholas from the plateau succeeded.
o His grandson Ballala II (reigned 1173–1220) was invited into the plains to help the Cholas. He agreed
because his northern gains in 1189–1211 from the Chalukya dynasty beyond the Malprabha and
Krishna rivers proper had diminished under pressure from the Yadava dynasty of Devagiri. He
extended his dominions to the north of Mysore and defeated the Yadavas, making the Hoysala dynasty
the dominant power in southern India.

o Ballala II’s grandson Someshvara (reigned c. 1235–54) resided in the principality on the Kaveri
given by the Cholas, and his son Ramanatha (reigned 1254–95) was allowed to remain there by the
Pandya emperor. On his eviction, however, his attempt to take the plateau kingdom from his brother
Narasimha III weakened Hoysala resources.
o Ballala III (reigned c. 1292–1342), who helped the sultan of Delhi against the Pandyas, brought
about the dynasty’s downfall by his futile ambitions. The Vijayanagar dynasty succeeded the Hoysalas.
o Hoysala architecture and sculpture, especially ornate and intricate, are best seen at Halebid, Belur,
and Somnathpur. The family liberally patronized Kannada and Sanskrit literary artists.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q35. Consider the following statements regarding the general administration under the
Chola Empire:
1. The Council of Ministers had the real power over and above the king.
2. The basic unit of administration was Nadu.
3. The Governors of the provinces were selected from the local people through elections.
4. The administration in the villages was under the elders who were elected through lottery.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
a) 2 and 4 only b) 1 and 2 only c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 only
Q36. Consider the following statements with respect to the rule of the Chola king Rajaraja
1:
1. He extended his empire beyond India via sea routes.
2. He is renowned for building the Dravidian style temples in south India.
3. Temples of his age had inscriptions on wall, talking about his victories.
Notes
MEDIEVAL- SOUTH INDIA
 BAHMANI KINGDOM (1347-1526 A.D.)

o He was the founder of the Bahmani Kingdom.
Hasan Gangu o He was a Turkish officer of Devagiri.
Bahmani o His kingdom stretched from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal, included the
whole of Deccan up to the river Krishna with its capital at Gulbarga.

Muhammad o He was an able general and administrator.

Shah-I (1358- o He defeated Kapaya Nayaks of Warangal and the Vijayanagar ruler
1377.A.D.) Bukka-I.
o In 1378 A.D. Muhammad Shah-ll ascended the throne.
Muhammad
o He was a peace lover and developed friendly relations with his
Shah-ll (1378-
neighbours.
1397.A.D.)
o He built many mosques, madrasas (a place of learning) and hospitals.
Feroz Shah
o He was a great general
Bahmani (1397-
o He defeated the Vijayanagar ruler Deva Raya I.
1422 A.D.)
o He was an unkind and heartless ruler.
Ahmad Shah
o He conquered the kingdom of Warangal.
(1422-1435
o He changed his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
A.D.)
o He died in 1435A.D.
o In 1463A.D. Muhammad Shah III became the Sultan at the age of nine.
o Muhammad Gawan became the regent of the infant ruler.
Muhammad
o Under Muhammad Gawan’s able leadership, the Bahmani kingdom became very
Shah-III (1463-
powerful.
1482 A.D.)
o Muhammad Gawan defeated the rulers of Konkan, Orissa, Sangameshwar, and
Vijayanagar.
o He was a very wise scholar and an able administrator.
o He improved the administration, systematized finances, encouraged public
Muhammad education, reformed the revenue system, disciplined the army, and eliminated
Gawan corruption.
o In 1481, Muhammad Gawan persecuted by the Deccan Muslims who were jealous
of him and sentenced to death by Muhammad Shah.
Administration
o The kingdom was divided into four administrative units called ‘taraf’ or provinces. These
provinces were Daultabad, Bidar, Berar and Gulbarga.
o Every province was under a tarafdar who was also called a subedar.
o Some land was converted into Khalisa land from the jurisdiction of the tarafdar.
o Khalisa land was that piece of land which was used to run expenses of the king and the royal
household.
o Nobles used to get their salary either in cash or in form of grant of land or ‘jagir’.
Military
o Bahamani ruler depended for military support on his amirs.
o There were two groups in the ranks of amirs: One was the Deccanis who were immigrant Muslims
and had been staying for a long time in the Deccan region. The other group was Afaquis or Pardesis
who had recently come from Central Asia, Iran and Iraq.
o Bahamanis were familiar with the use of gunpowder in warfare.
Literature
o Persian ,Arabic and Urdu literature flourished in this period.

o Mohammad Gawan wrote poems in Persian language. Riyaz-ul-Insha, Manazir-ul-insha are

his works.
o A new dialect called “Dakhini urdu “ became popular during this time.
o The famous sufi saint of Gulbarga, Khwaja Bande Nawaz Gesu Daraj wrote in this language.

o They followed Indo-Islamic style of architecture with some improvisation. Local materials were used to
construct the buildings.
o The architecture was highly influenced by Persian architecture.
o Some features of this style are: Tall minarets, Strong arches, Huge domes, Spacious Hazaras, Crescent
moon at the top of the building.
Examples
o Monuments at Gulbarga: Shah bazaar mosque, Hafta Gumbaz, Jama maszid etc
o At Bidar : Mohammad Gawan’s madarasa, solah khamba mosque, Rangeen mahal, Janata mahal etc
o At Bijapur : Gol Gumbaz (built by Mohammad Adil shah in 1656AD), Ibrahim roza, Bara Kaman,
Anand mahal, Chand Bawdi etc.
 DECCAN SULTANATES
o The Deccan sultanates refer to five Muslim-ruled late medieval kingdoms–-Bijapur, Golkonda,
Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar of south-central India.
o The Deccan sultanates located on the Deccan Plateau, between the Krishna River and the Vindhya
Range.
o They had become independent states during the breakup of the Bahmani Sultanate:
Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, and Berar in 1490, Bidar in 1492, and Golkonda in 1512. In 1510, Bijapur
repulsed an invasion by the Portuguese against the city of Goa, but lost it later that year.
o Although generally rivals, they allied against the Vijayanagara empire in 1565,
permanently weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota.
o In 1574, after a coup in Berar, Ahmadnagar invaded and conquered Berar.
o In 1619, Bijapur annexed Bidar.
o The Mughal Empire later conquered the sultanates, stripping Berar from Ahmadnagar in 1596, taking
Ahmadnagar completely between 1616 and 1636, and Aurangzeb's 1686-1687 campaign conquered
Golkonda and Bijapur.
o As in the north, they left a rich legacy of architecture, literature, and art in the southern region of
India. As with the Muslims in the north, the Deccan sultanates' rich legacy of culture helped shape
India today.
 AHMADNAGAR SULTANATE
o Malik Ahmed Shah Bahri, after defeating the Bahmani army led by general Jahangir Khan on May
28, 1490, declared independence and established the Nizam Shahi dynasty of Ahmadnagar or
Ahmadnagar sultanate.
o The territory of the sultanate situated in the northwestern Deccan, between the sultanates of Gujarat
and Bijapur.
o Initially Junnar served as his capital. In 1494, Bahri laid the foundation for the new capital
Ahmadnagar.
o Malik Ahmed Shah, after several attempts, secured the great fortress of Daulatabad in 1499.
o Murtaza Shah annexed Berar in 1574. Chand Bibi, as a regent of Bahadur Shah bravely repulsed an
attack led by Murad in 1596.
o After the death of Chand Bibi in 1599, Ahmadnagar was conquered and Bahadur Shah imprisoned.

o But Malik Ambar and other Ahmadnagar officials defied the Mughals and declared Murtaza Shah II as
sultan in 1600, at a new capital Paranda. Later, the capital shifted first to Junnar and then to a new city
Khadki (later Aurangabad).
o In 1636 Aurangzeb, then Mughal viceroy of Deccan finally annexed the sultanate to the
Mughal empire.
Rulers
 Malik Ahmad Shah I 1490-1510  Ibrahim Shah 1595-1596
 Burhan Shah I 1510-1553  Ahmad Shah II 1596
 Hussain Shah I 1553-1565  Bahadur Shah 1596-1600
 Murtaza Shah 1565-1588  Murtaza Shah II 1600-1610
 Miran Hussain 1588-1589  Burhan Shah III 1610-1631
 Isma'il Shah 1589-1591  Hussain Shah II 1631-1633
 Burhan Shah II 1591-1595  Murtaza Shah III 1633-1636
Cultural Contributions
o The Nizam Shahi rulers of Ahmadnagar enthusiastically patronized miniature painting. The
earliest surviving paintings took the form of illustrations of a manuscript Tarif-i-Hussain Shahi
(c. 1565), housed in Bharata Itihasa Samshodhaka Mandala, Pune.
o The Bibliothéque Nationale of Paris displays a miniature painting of Murtaza Nizam Shah (c. 1575)
while State Library, Rampur displays another one.
o Three other paintings, the Running Elephant in an American private collection, the Royal Picnic
in the India Office Library, London, and the Young Prince Embraced by a Small Girl in the
Edwin Binney 3rd collection in the San Diego Museum most probably belong to the period of Burhan
Nizam Shah II.
o Among the monuments of Nizam Shahi rulers in Ahmednagar, the tomb of Ahmad Shah I Bahri
(1509) at the center of Bagh Rouza, a garden complex had been the earliest one.
o The Jami Masjid also belong to the same period. Mecca Masjid, built in 1525, by Rumi Khan, a
Turkish artillery officer of Burhan Nizam Shah I has originality in its design.
o The Kotla complex constructed in 1537 as a religious educational institution. The impressive Farah
Bagh stood the centerpiece of a huge palatial complex completed in 1583.
o The other monuments in Ahmednagar of the Nizam Shahi period are Do Boti Chira (tomb of
Sharja Khan, 1562), Damri Masjid (1568), and the tomb of Rumi Khan (1568).
o The Jami Masjid (1615) in Khirki (Aurangabad) and the Chini Mahal inside the
Daulatabad fort had been constructed during the late Nizam Shahi period (1600–1636).
o The tomb of Malik Ambar in Khuldabad (1626) represents another impressive monument of that
period. The Kali Masjid of Jalna (1578) and the tomb of Dilawar Khan (1613) in Rajgurunagar also
belong to the Nizam Shahi period.
 BIJAPUR SULTANATE
o The Adil Shahi dynasty ruled the Bijapur sultanate from 1490 to 1686.
o The Adil Shahis originally reined as provincial rulers of the Bahmani Sultanate. But with the breakup
of the Bahmani state after 1518, Ismail Adil Shah established an independent sultanate, one of the five
Deccan sultanates.
o The Bijapur sultanate, located in southwestern India, straddling the Western Ghats range of southern
Maharashtra and northern Karnataka. Ismail Adil Shah and his successors embellished the capital at
Bijapur with numerous monuments.
o The Adil Shahis fought the empire of Vijayanagar, which lay to the south across the Tungabhadra
River, and fought the other sultanates as well.

o The sultanates combined forces to deliver a decisive defeat to Vijayanagar in 1565, after which the
empire broke up. Bijapur seized control of the Raichur Doab from Vijayanagar.
o In 1619, the Adil Shahis conquered the neighboring sultanate of Bidar, incorporating it
into their realm. In the seventeenth century, the Marathas revolted successfully under Shivaji's
leadership and captured major parts of the Sultanate except Bijapur.
o Aurangzeb conquered the weakened Sultanate in 1686 with the fall of Bijapur, bringing the dynasty to
an end.
Rulers
 Yusuf Adil Shah 1490-1510  Ibrahim Adil Shah II 1580-1627
 Ismail Adil Shah 1510-1534  Mohammed Adil Shah 1627-1656
 Mallu Adil Shah 1534-1535  Ali Adil Shah II 1656-1672
 Ibrahim Adil Shah I 1535-1558  Sikandar Adil Shah 1672-1686
 Ali Adil Shah I 1558-1580
Cultural Contributions
o The Adil Shahi rulers contributed greatly in the fields of art, architecture, literature and music. Bijapur
developed into a cosmopolitan city, attracting many scholars, artists, musicians, and Sufi saints from
Rome, Iran, Iraq, Turkey, and Turkestan.
o Among the major architectural works in Bijapur sultanate, the unfinished Jami Masjid (started by
Ali Adil Shah I in 1576) represents one of the earliest. With an arcaded prayer hall with fine aisles
supported on massive piers, it has an impressive dome.
o The Ibrahim Rouza, originally planned as a tomb for queen Taj Sultana, but later converted into
the tomb for Ibrahim Adil Shah II and his family, stands out as the most splendid monument built
during the reign of Ibrahim II. That complex, completed in 1626, consists of a paired tomb and a
mosque. The tomb presents an exquisite structure with delicate carvings. Ibrahim II also planned to
construct a new twin city to Bijapur, Nauraspur. The construction began in 1599 but never completed.
o Gol Gumbaz, the mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah, stands as the greatest monument in
Bijapur, completed in 1656. The diameter of the hemispherical dome measures 44 m. externally. The
other important architectural works of the period include the Chini Mahal, the Jal Mandir, the Sat
Manzil, the Gagan Mahal, the Anand Mahal, and the Asar Mahal (1646) in Bijapur, Kummatgi (16 km
from Bijapur), the Panhala fort and Naldurg (45 km. from Solapur)
o Persian artists of Adil Shahi court have left a rare treasure of miniature paintings, some well-preserved
in Europe's museums. The earliest miniature paintings ascribe to the period of reign of Ali Adil Shah I.
o The paintings in the manuscript of Nuzum-ul-Ulum (Stars of Science) (1570), kept in Chester
Beatty Library, Dublin, stand as the most significant of them. The manuscript consists about 400
miniature paintings.
o Two other illustrated manuscripts attributed to the period of Ali Adil Shah I include Jawahir-al
Musiqat-i-Muhammadi in British Library which contains 48 paintings and a Marathi commentary of
Sarangadeva’s Sangita-Ratnakara kept in City Palace Museum, Jaipur which contains four paintings.
o The maximum number of miniature paintings came down to us belong to the period of
reign of Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah II. Maulana Farrukh Hussain was renowned as the most
celebrated painter of his court.
o The Adil Shahi rulers published many literary works in Dakhani. Ibrahim Adil Shah II himself wrote
a book of songs, Kitab-i-Nauras in Dakhani. That book contains a number of songs whose tunes set
to different ragas and raginis.
o In his songs, he praised Hindu goddess Sarasvati along with the Prophet and Sufi saint Hazrat
Khwaja Banda Nawaz Gesudaraz. He had a unique tambur (lute) known as Moti Khan in his
possession.
o The famous Persian poet laureate Zuhuri served as his court poet.

o The Mushaira (poetic symposium), born in the Bijapur court, later traveled north.
o The Adil Shahi kings had been known for tolerance towards Hindus and non-
interference in their religious matters. They employed Hindus to high posts, especially as the
officers who deal with the accounts and the administration, since the documents pertaining to the both
remained in Marathi.
 GOLKONDA SULTANATE
o The Qutb Shahi dynasty stood as the ruling family of the sultanate of Golkonda in southern India.
Shia Muslims, they belonged to a Turkmen tribe from the Turkmenistan-Armenia region.
o The dynasty's founder, Sultan Quli Qutub-ul-Mulk, migrated to Delhi with some of his relatives
and friends in the beginning of the sixteenth century.
o Later, he migrated south to Deccan and served Bahmani sultan Mohammad Shah.
o He conquered Golkonda and became the Governor of Telangana region in 1518, after the disintegration
of the Bahmani sultanate into the five Deccan sultanates.
o Soon after, he declared independence from the Bahmani sultanate, took title Qutb Shah, and
established Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda. The dynasty ruled for 171 years, until the Mughal
emperor Aurangzeb's army conquered Golkonda in 1687.
Rulers
 Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk 1518-1543  Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah 1580-1611
 Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah 1543-1550  Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah 1611-1626
 Subhan Quli Qutb Shah 1550  Abdullah Qutb Shah 1626-1672
 Ibrahim Quli Qutub Shah 1550-1580  Abul Hasan Qutb Shah 1672-1687
o The fortified city of Golkonda stands out as one of the earliest architectural achievements of the
Qutb Shahi dynasty. The Jami Masjid (1518) erected by Quli-Qutb-ul-Mulk, the tomb of
Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (1611), the tomb of Muhammad Qutb Shah (1626), and the mosque of
Hayat Bakshi Begam (1666) represent the notable monuments in Golkonda.
o Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah decided to shift the capital to Hyderabad, 8 km east of Golkonda. Here,
he constructed the most original monument in the Deccan, the Char Minar in the heart of the
new city. That monument (completed in 1591) has four minarets of 56 meters height.
o The construction of the Mecca Masjid, located at the immediate south of Char Minar, started in 1617
during the reign of Muhammad Qutb Shah, finally completed construction in 1693. The other
important monuments of that period include the Toli Masjid (1671) and the Jami Masjid at
Gandikota.[10]
o The Qutb Shahi rulers had been great patrons of literature and invited many scholars, poets, historians
and Sufi saints from Iran to settle in their sultanate. The development of Dakhani language
embodies the most important contribution of the Golkonda sultanate in the field of literature.
o Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah patronized Telugu literature also. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah had
been not only a great patron of art and literature but also a poet of high order. He wrote in Dakhani,
Persian and Telugu and left an extensive Diwan (volume) in Dakhani, known as Kulliyat-i-Mohammad
Quli Qutb Shah. Apart from the praise of God and the Prophet, he also wrote on nature, love, and
contemporary social life.
o The Qutb Shahi rulers invited many Persian artists like Shaykh Abbasi and Muhammad Zaman into
their court, which left a profound impact of different phases of Iranian art on the miniature paintings
of the period.
o The earliest miniature paintings, like the 126 illustrations in the manuscript of Anwar-i-Suhayli (c.
1550–1560).
o First six of the total eight illustrations in the manuscript of Kulliyat-i-Mohammad Quli Qutb
Shah (c. 1590–1600) in Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad constitutes masterpieces.

o The five illustrations in a manuscript of the Diwan-i-Hafiz (c. 1630) in the British Museum, London
belonged to the period of reign of Abdullah Qutb Shah. The Procession of Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah
riding an elephant (c. 1650) in Saltykov-Shtshedrine State Public Library, St. Petersburg, stands
among the finest surviving Golkonda paintings.
o Qutb Shahi rulers appointed Hindus in important administrative posts. Ibrahim Quli
Qutb Shah appointed Murari Rao as Peshwa, second to only Mir Jumla (prime
minister).
 BERAR SULTANATE
o During the disintegration of Bahmani sultanate, Fath-ullah Imad-ul-Mulk, governor of Berar
declared independence in 1490, and founded the Imad Shahi dynasty of Berar sultanate. He
established the capital at Achalpur (Ellichpur). He also fortified Gavilgad and Narnala.
o His successor, Ala-ud-din, resisted the aggression of Ahmadnagar with the help from Bahadur Shah,
sultan of Gujarat. The next ruler, Darya, tried to align with Bijapur to prevent aggression of
Ahamdnagar, but failed. In 1574, Tufal Khan usurped Burhan Imad Shah, the last ruler of Imad Shahi
dynasty and in the same year Mutaza I , sultan of Ahmadnagar annexed it to his sultanate.
o The ruined palace of Hauz Katora, 3 km. west of Achalpur constitutes the only notable surviving Imad
Shahi monument
Rulers
 Fath-ullah Imad-ul-Mulk 1490–1510  Burhan Imad Shah 1562–1574
 Ala-ud-din Imad Shah 1510–1530  Tufal Khan (usurper) 1574.
 Darya Imad Shah 1530–1561
 BIDAR SULTANATE
o Qasim Barid, founder of Barid Shahi dynasty joined the service of Bahmani ruler Mahmud
Shah as a sar-naubat but later became mir-jumla of the Bahmani sultanate.
o In 1492, he declared independence and carved out Bidar sultanate. Bidar stood as the smallest of
the five Deccan sultanates.
o The last ruler of the Bidar, sulatante Amir Barid Shah III, fell in 1619, and Bijapur Sultanate annexed
the sultanate.
Rulers
 Qasim Barid I 1492–1504  Ali Barid Shah II 1591
 Amir Barid Shah I 1504–1543  Amir Barid Shah II 1591–1600
 Ali Barid Shah 1542–1580  Mirza Ali Barid Shah III 1600–1609
 Ibrahim Barid Shah 1580–1587  Amir Barid Shah III 1609–1619
 Qasim Barid Shah II 1587–1591
o The Barid Shahi rulers focused their architectural activities on garden tombs. The tomb of Ali
Barid Shah (1577) represents the most notable monument in Bidar. The tomb consists of a
lofty domed chamber, open on four sides located in the middle of a Persian four-square garden.
o The Rangin Mahal in Bidar, built during the reign of Ali Barid Shah constitutes a complete and
exquisitely decorated courtly structure. Other important monuments in Bidar during that period
include the tomb of Qasim II and Kali Masjid.
o An important class of metalwork known as Bidri originated from Bidar. Those metalworks used mainly
black zinc, inlaid with designs of silver and brass and sometimes copper.

PRACTICE QUESTION
Q37. With reference to the Bahmani kingdom of medieval India, the term "Bargirs" refers
to which of the following?
a) Bonded labour b) Land grant made to military officers
c) Loose auxiliaries d) Waterwheel used in the irrigation of land
Notes
 VIJAYNAGARA EMPIRE
Q. According to Portuguese writer Q. Regarding the taxation system of

Nuniz, the women in Vijayanagara Krishna Deva, the ruler of
Empire were expert in which of the Vijayanagar, consider the following
following areas? (UPSC Prelims statements: (UPSC Prelims 2016)
2021) 1. The tax rate on land was fixed
1. Wrestling 2. Astrology depending on the quality of the land.
3. Accounting 4. Soothsaying 2. Private owners of workshops paid an
Select the correct answer using the codes industries tax.
given below. Which of the statements given above
a) 1, 2 and 3 Only is/are correct?
b) 1, 3 and 4 Only a) 1 only
c) 2 and 4 Only b) 2 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Notes

 ABOUT
o The Vijayanagara kingdom was founded by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty in
1336.
o At the instance of their guru Vidyaranya, they established their kingdom with its capital at
Vijayanagar.
o Harihara became the first ruler, and by 1346 the whole of Hoysala kingdom passed into the hands of
the Vijayanagara rulers.
o Bukka succeeded his brother on the throne of Vijayanagara in 1336 and ruled till 1337. By 1337, the
Sultanate of Madurai had been annexed.
o The interests of the Vijayanagara rulers and the Bahamani kingdom which had come into existence in
1347, clashed in three separate and distinct areas: in the Tungabhadra doab, in the Krishna-
Godavari delta and in the Marathwada country.
o The beginning of the Vijayanagar-Bahmani conflict started on a large scale during the reign of Bukka I
in 1367. He also sent an embassy to the Emperor of China. Under Harihara II (1377-1406)
Vijayananara Empire embarked upon a policy of eastern expansion. He was able to maintain his
position in the face of the Bahmani-Warangal combination. He invaded Ceylon.
o Deva Raya I (1406-22) was defeated by the Bahmani ruler Firoz Shah in 1407. He had to
give his daughter in marriage to Firoz Shah. He defeated the Reddis of Kondavidu and recovered
Udayagiri. In 1419, he defeated Firoz Shah.
o Deva Raya II (1422-1446) was the greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty. He began the
practice of employing Muslims in the army. He was called Immadi Deva Raya. In his inscriptions he
has the title of Gajabetekara (the elephant hunter). Dindima was his court poet. Abdur Razzak of
Persia visited his kingdom. Deva Raya II is the author of two Sanskrit works Mahanataka
Sudhanidhi and a commentary on the Brahmasutras of Badrayana.
o There was confusion in the Vijayanagara Empire after the death of Deva Raya II. Since the rule of
primogeniture was not established, there was a series of civil wars among the contenders. After some
time, the throne was usurped by the king’s minister Saluva Narsimha and the Saluva dynasty was
established.
Saluva dynasty (1486-1505)

o Vira Narsimha (1503-04) the regent of Immadi Narasimha, usurped the throne after his assassination
and laid the foundation of the Tuluva dynasty in 1505.
Tuluva dynasty (1505-1570)

o Vira Narasimha had the title of Bhujabala (1505-09). After his brief reign, he was succeeded by his
younger brother Krishna Deva Raya (1509-30 A.D.) who was the greatest ruler of the Vijayanagar
Empire. Under him, Vijayanagara emerged as the strongest military power in the south. He defeated
the rebellious chiefs of Ummattur, the Gajapatis of Orissa and Sultan Adil Shah of Bijapur.
o He successfully invaded Gulbarga and Bidar and restored the puppet Sultan Mahmud to the throne.
To commemorate this act of restoration he assumed the title of’ Yavanarajya Sthapanacharya’
(The restorer of the Yavana kingdom). He conquered almost the whole of Telangana from the Gajapati
king Pratapraudra and the Sultan of Golcunda.
o Krishna Deva Raya maintained friendly relations with Albuquerque, the Portuguese governor
whose ambassador Friar Luis resided at Vijayanagar. His relations with Portuguese were governed
by two factors:
(a) Common enmity with Bijapur.
(b) The supply of imported horses by the Portuguese to Vijayanagar.
o Krishna Deva Raya was also a great patron of art and literature, and was known as Andhra Bhoja.
He was the author of the Telugu work Amuktamalyada and one Sanskrit work Jambavati

Kalyanam. His court was adorned by the Ashtadiggajas (the eight celebrated poets), of whom,
Allasani Peddana was the greatest.
 Allasani Peddanna – the author of Manucharitram, he was also known as Andhra Kavitapitamaha.
Also wrote Harikatha Saramsamu
 Nandi Thimmana – the author of Parijathapaharanam
 Madayagari Mallana
 Dhurjati
 Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi
 Pingali Surana
 Ramaraja Bhushana
 Tenali Ramakrishna
o Krishna Deva Raya also built the famous temples of Krishnaswamy, Hazara Ramaswamy and
Vitthalaswamy at his capital.
o Foreign travellers like Nuniz, Barbosa and Paes speak of his efficient administration and the
prosperity of his empire.
o After the death of Krishna Deva Raya, the struggle for succession followed among his relations. After
the uneventful reigns of Achyuta Raya and Venkata, Sadasiva Raya ascended the throne in 1543. But
the real power was in the hands of Rama Raja, the son-in law of Krishna Deva. The Bahmani rulers
except Berar combined to inflict a crushing defeat on Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota or
Rakshasa- Tangadi in 1565.
o This battle is generally considered to mark the end of the great age of Vijayanagara. Although the
kingdom lingered on for almost one hundred years under the Aravidu dynasty founded by Tirumala
Raya with its capital at Penugonda, it came it to an end in 1672.
 ADMINISTRATION
o The king was the absolute authority in judicial, executive and legislative matters.
o Succession to the throne was largely based on the principle of heredity, however, sometimes
usurpation to the throne also occurred (when Saluva Narasimha ended the Sangama dynasty
and founded the Saluva dynasty).
o In the Vijayanagara kingdom, the king was advised by a council of ministers which consisted of the
great nobles of the kingdom.
o The kingdom was divided into rajyas or mandalam (provinces), below which were nadu
(district), sthala (sub-district) and grama (village).
o The Chola traditions of village self-government were considerably weakened under Vijayanagara
rulers.
o The growth of hereditary nayakships tended to curb their freedom and initiative.
o At first, the royal princes served as the governors of the provinces. Later, persons belonging to vassal
ruling families and nobles were also appointed as governors.
o The provincial governor enjoyed a good measure of autonomy, for example, they had the power to
appoint their own officers, held their own courts and had their own armies. At times, they even issued
their own coins, though in small denominations.
o The term for a governor depended largely on his abilities and strength. The governor also had the
power to levy taxes or remit old ones. Each governor paid a fixed contribution in men and money to
the central government.
o Land revenue, tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal chiefs, customs collected at the ports, taxes on
various professions were the various sources of income to the government. Land revenue was generally
fixed at one-sixth of the produce.

Army and Military Organisation

o The Vijayanagara army was well organized and quite efficient. It consisted of the cavalry, artillery,
infantry, and elephants.
o The Vijayanagara rulers imported high-quality horses from Arabia and other Gulf regions.
o The Malabar port was the main centre of this trade and other luxury items.
o The Amara-Nayaka system was prevalent in the Vijayanagara kingdom.
o The top-grade officers were known as Nayaks or Poligars or Palaiyagars.
o They were granted land in lieu of the services while the soldiers were usually paid in cash.
o The Nayaka had the power to collect taxes in his area which was utilized in maintaining his army,
elephants, horses and warfare weapons that he had to supply to the Vijayanagara ruler.
o The Amara-Nayakas sent tributes to the king annually and personally appeared in the courts with gifts
to express their loyalty.
o In the 17th century, some of these Nayakas such as those of Tanjore and Madurai claimed
independence and established their separate states. These states weakened the structure of the
Vijayanagara kingdom contributing to the defeat of the Vijayanagara Empire in the battle of Talaikotta.
 SOCIAL LIFE
o Four castes were existent in the Vijayanagara society – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
Foreign travellers have left vivid accounts of the splendour of buildings and luxurious social life in the
city of Vijayanagar.
o Paes mentions the beautiful houses of the rich and the large number of their household servants.
Nicolo Conti refers to the prevalence of slavery. Mainly silk and cotton clothes were used.
o Gambling, wrestling, dancing, music and cockfighting were the means of entertainment among the
masses.
o The Sangama rulers were mainly Shaivites and Virupaksha was their family deity while
other dynasties were Vaishnavites.
o The Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja was very popular. However, all kings were tolerant towards other
religions.
o Barbosa referred to the religious freedom enjoyed by everyone. There were Muslims in the
administration who were allowed to practise their religion and build mosques.
o Deva Raya Ⅱ enrolled Muslims in his army and also allotted lands to them. A large number of temples
were built during this period and a number of festivals were celebrated.
o Women occupied a high position and took an active part in the political, social and literary life of the
empire.
o They were educated and trained in wrestling, in the use of various weapons of offence and defence, in
music and fine arts.
o Some women also received an education of high order.
o Nuniz writes that the kings had women astrologers, clerks, accountants, guards and wrestlers.
o Gangadevi, wife of Kumarakampana, who wrote the famous work Maduravijayam.
o Hannamma and Thirumalamma were the other two famous poets.
o Nuniz mentions that a large number of women were employed in the royal palaces as domestic
servants, dancers and palanquin bearers.
o The practice of sati (Sahagaman) was honoured. The attachment of dancing girls to temples
(devadasi) was in practice. The royal family also practised polygamy.
 ARCHITECTURE
o Vijayanagar architecture is a vibrant combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola styles ,
which evolved from prior empires in earlier centuries. It is also influenced by later Deccan and
Dravidian styles.

o Preferred for its durability, local hard granite was the building material of choice, as it had been for
the Badami Chalukyas.
o Vijayanagar temples are characterized by ornate pillared halls and rayagopurams, or
monumental towers adorned with life-sized figures of gods and goddesses that stand at the entrance of
the temple.
o Vijayanagar temples are surrounded by strong enclosures and characterized by ornate pillared
kalyanamandapa (marriage halls); tall rayagopurams (carved monumental towers at the
entrance of the temple) built of wood, brick, and stucco in the Chola style; and adorned with life-sized
figures of gods and goddesses. This dravida style became popular during the reign of Krishnadeva
Raya and is seen in South Indian temples constructed over the next two centuries.
o Vijayanagar temples are also known for their carved pillars , which depict charging horses, figures
from Hindu mythology, and yali (hippogriphs). Some of the larger temples are dedicated to a male
deity , with a separate shrine intended for the worship of his female counterpart. Some famous temples
exemplifying the Vijayanagar style include the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi and the Hazara Rama
temple of Deva Raya I.
o The courtly architecture of Vijayanagar is generally made of mortar mixed with stone rubble and often
shows secular styles with Islamic-influenced arches , domes , and vaults .
 SCULPTURE
o The mingling of South Indian styles under the Vijayanagar Empire resulted in a richness not seen in
earlier centuries, including a focus on reliefs and sculpture that surpassed that seen previously in
India.
o Soapstone, which was soft and easily carved, was commonly used for reliefs and sculptures. To cover
the unevenness of the stone, artists employed brightly painted plaster to smooth over and finish rough
surfaces.
o Sculpture was integrally linked with architecture in the creation of Vijayanagar temples.
o Large life-size figures of men, women, gods, and goddesses adorn many Vijayagara temples, and
temple pillars often have engravings of charging horses or hippogryphs (yali) and other elements of
Hindu mythology.
o Temple pillars often have engravings of charging horses or hippogryphs (yali)—horses
standing on hind legs with their fore legs lifted and riders on their backs. The horses on some pillars
stand seven to eight feet tall. On the other side of the pillar are often carvings from Hindu mythology.
o Another element of the Vijayanagar style is the carving and consecration of large monolithic statues,
such as the Sasivekalu Ganesha and Kadalekalu Ganesha at Hampi; the Gommateshvara (Bahubali)
monoliths in Karkala and Venur; and the Nandi bull in Lepakshi. Examples of this style can also be
seen in the Vijayanagara temples of Kolar, Kanakagiri, Shringeri and other towns of Karnataka; the
temples of Tadpatri, Lepakshi, Ahobilam, Tirumala Venkateswara, and Srikalahasti in Andhra
Pradesh; and the temples of Vellore, Kumbakonam, Kanchi, and Srirangam in Tamil Nadu.
 PAINTINGS
o The Vijayanagar school of painting was renowned for its frescoes of Hindu mythological themes on
temple walls and ceilings. The rulers of Vijayanagar encouraged literature, art, architecture, religious,
and philosophical discussions. With the fall of the Vijayanagar empire after the Battle of Talikota in
1565 CE, the artists who were under royal patronage migrated to various other places such as Mysore,
Tanjore, and Surpur.
o Absorbing the local artistic traditions and customs, the Vijayanagar school of painting gradually
evolved into many styles of painting in South India, including the Mysore and Tanjore schools of
painting.

o Mysore painting, an important form of South Indian classical painting, developed out of Vijayanagar
painting and originated in the southern town of Mysore, in Karnataka, during the reign of the
Vijayanagar emperors.
Characteristics of Vijayanagar Painting

o Mysore paintings are known for their elegance, muted colors, and attention to detail.
o Popular themes include Hindu gods and goddesses and scenes from Hindu mythology.
o The paintings are characterized by delicate lines, intricate brush strokes, graceful delineation of
figures, and the discreet use of bright vegetable colors and lustrous gold leaf. More than mere
decorative pieces, the paintings are designed to inspire feelings of devotion and humility in the viewer .
The painter’s individual skill in giving expression to various emotions is therefore of paramount
importance to this style of painting.
o The ancient painters in Mysore prepared their own materials. The colours were from natural
sources of vegetable, mineral, leaves, stones, and flowers. Brushes were made with squirrel hairs for
delicate work, and for superfine lines, a brush made of pointed blades of a special variety of grass was
used. Due to the long lasting quality of the earth and vegetable colours used, the original Mysore
paintings still retain their freshness and luster even today.
o Vijayanagar art includes wall paintings such as the Dashavatara (the Ten Avatars of Vishnu)
and the Girijakalyana (the marriage of Parvati, Shiva’s consort) in the Virupaksha Temple at
Hampi; the Shivapurana murals (the Tales of Shiva) at the Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi; and those
at the Kamaakshi and Varadaraja temples at Kanchi.
Manuscripts
o The most famous of the manuscripts detailing the various nuances of the Mysore school is the
Sritattvanidhi, a voluminous work of 1500 pages prepared under the patronage of Mummadi
Krishnaraja Wodeyar. This pictorial digest is a compendium of illustrations of gods, goddesses,
and mythological figures with instructions to painters on an incredible range of topics concerning
composition placement, color choice, individual attributes, and mood. The seasons, eco-happenings,
animals, and plant world are also effectively depicted in these paintings as co-themes or contexts.
o Other Sanskrit literary sources such as the Visnudharmottara Purana , Abhilasitarthacintamani, and
Sivatatvaratnakara also highlight the objectives and principles of painting, methods of preparing
pigments , brushes, qualifications of the chitrakar (the traditional community of painters), and the
technique to be followed.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q38. The Bahmani and Vijayanagara Empire clashed frequently over the territory of
a) Madurai b) Warangal c) Malabar d) Raichur doab
Q39. Which one of the following Vijayanagara ruler was the author of Amuktamalyada?
a) Bukka I b) Harjhara II c) Krishnadeva Raya d) Deva Raya II
Q40. Abdur Razzaq, who left a detailed account of the Vijayanagara Empire in Persian,
came to the Vijayanagara court as the envoy of Mirza Shah Rukh during the reign of
a) Harihara – II b) Bukka- II c) Deva Raya – II d) Krishnadeva Raya
Notes

 SUFI ORDERS
PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTION
Q. With reference to the religious 3. Recitation of holy songs to arouse a

history of medieval India, the Sufi state of ecstasy in their audience
mystics were known to pursue Select the correct answer using the codes
which of the following practices? given below:
(UPSC Prelims 2012) a. 1 and 2 only b. 2 and 3 only
1. Meditation and control of breath c. 3 only d. 1, 2 and 3
2. Severe ascetic exercises in a lonely
place
Notes
Sufi Founder
Key points
order and place
 It is the oldest silsila of India established by Khwaja Muinuddin
Chishti in Ajmer.
 He came to India during the reign of Muhammad Ghori.
 Sultan Iltutmish built Muinuddin Chishti’s dargah at Ajmer.
 Chishti saints led an austere life and did not accept private
Khwaja
property and state assistance.
Chishti Muinuddin
Chisti, Ajmer  Other notable saints of this order were Hamiduddin Nagori,
Qutubuddin Bhaktiyar Kaki, Baba Farid, and Nizamuddin Auliya.
 Baba Farid preferred to shun the company of rulers and nobles and
kept aloof from the state. For him renunciation meant distribution
of food and clothes to the poor. Amongst his followers was the
noted writer, Amir Khusrau.

 Sultan Iltutmish dedicated the Qutub Minar to Qutubuddin

Bhaktiyar Kaki.
 It was brought to India by Bahauddin Zakaria who established this
order in Multan.
 Another Suhravardi-Sufi Saint, Shaikh Sharfuddin Yahya Manairi
Shiabuddin
propagated Sufi-doctrines in Bihar. He was a good scholar and
Suhrawardi Suhrawari,
compiled several books. He laid great stress on the service of
Multan
humanity.
 Unlike Chishti saints, they lived a life of luxury and accepted state
assistance.
Badruddin
Firdausi Samarqandi,  It was influenced by Suhrawardi order.
Bihar
 This Order emphasized on observance of the laws of Shariat and
Khwaja Baqi denounced all innovations which were added afterwards to Islamic
Naqshbandi
Billah doctrines.
 Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was the successor of Khwaja Baqi Billah.
 The Qadri silsilah was popular in Punjab. Sheikh Abdul Qadir and
his sons were supporters of the Mughals under Akbar.
 The pirs of this Order supported the concept of Wahdat al Wajud
The Qadri Abdul-Qadir
(this doctrine postulates that God and His creation are one).
order Gilani
 Among the famous Sufis of this order was Miyan Mir who had
enrolled the Mughal princess Jahanara and her brother Dara
Shikoh as his disciples.
 BHAKTI SAINTS
PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTION
Q. Consider the following Bhakti Who among the above was/were

Saints: (UPSC Prelims 2013) preaching when the Lodi dynasty fell and
1. Dadu Dayal Babur took over?
2. Guru Nanak a. 1 and 3 b. 2 only
3. Tyagaraja c. 2 and 3 d. 1 and 2
Notes

Bhakti Saints Key points

 He was born in Tamil Nadu and had influence in Kanchi and Shrirangam.
Ramanuja (11th –  He was a Vaishnavite saint who believed in idol worship.
12th century)  He preached Visishtadvaita and emphasized on Bhakti over knowledge to attain
God.
 He was a Vaishnavite saint and believed in the philosophy of dualism or Dvaita
Nimabarka (12th
(creator is different from creation).
century)
 He worshipped Radha-Krishna and established his ashram in Vrindavana.
Madhvacharya  He was a Vaishnavite and believed in dualism. He was against the ideas of
(12th – 13th Shankara and Ramanuja.
century)  He established Brahma Samapradaya.
 He was the disciple of Ramanuja. He worshipped Rama instead of Vishnu.
 He preached in Hindi instead of Sanskrit and taught people belonging to all
Ramananda (15th varnas.
century)  However, he did not raise his voice against the caste system.
 Adi Granth (the sacred scripture of Sikhism) contains some of his preaching’s.
 Kabir and Ravidas were Ramananda’s disciples.
 He preached Hindu Muslim unity and did not believe in idol worship, caste
Kabir (15th – 16th system and untouchability.
century)  Adi Granth contains some of his preaching’s.
 Most of his teachings are compiled in Bijak.
 He did not believe in idol worship.
Ravidas (15th –
 Adi Granth contains some of his preaching’s.
16th)
 Mira Bai was his disciple.
Guru Nanak  Most of his teachings are similar to that of Kabir.
(15th -16th  He used to sing with a rabab in his hand and also accompanied by a sarangi.
century)
 He was Kabir’s disciple and did not believe in idol worship and caste system.
Dadu Dayal (16th  His main seat of influence was Rajasthan.
– 17th century)  He believed in leading a householder’s life and was once summoned by Akbar to
Fatehpur Sikri for religious discussions.
Chaitanya  He established Gaudiya Vaishnava dharma in Bengal and believed in advaita or

Mahaprabhu non-dualism.
(15th – 16th  He was among the few saints who did not oppose idol worship.
century)  He popularized the medium of Kirtana in Bhakti.
 He was the contemporary of Akbar and Jahangir.
Surdas 16th – 17th
century)  He was a Krishna devotee and believed in idol worship. His major composition
Sur Sagar was completed during Jahangir’s reign.
 He was the contemporary of Akbar and wrote Ramacharitamanas in Awadhi
Tulsidas 16th –
language.
17th century)
 His other compositions include Dohavali, Gitavali and Kavitavali.

Vallabhacharya  He established Rudra Sampradyaya and was a contemporary of Chaitanya

(15th -16th Mahaprabhu.
century)  He propagated Pushti Marga and Bhakti Marga to attain God.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q41. Which of the following statements is/are correct ?
1. The Sufi saints propagated that prayers, fasts and rituals were important for the mystic union of
man and God.
2. The Bhakti teachers taught that the relationship between man and God was based on love, and
worshipping God with devotion was better than merely performing any number of religious
ceremonies.
3. The Bhakti saints stressed the need for tolerance among men and religions.
4. The Bhakti movement was completely a religious movement. It has no influence on social ideas.
Code:
a) 1 and 2 b) 2 and 3 c) 2, 3 and 4 d) All the above
Q42. Which of the following are the principles of the bhakti movement of the 16th century ?
1. True devotion is the means to attaining God. 2. To worship God man should serve
humanity.
3. All men are equal. 4. Caste distinctions to be given up.
5. Meaningful rituals
Select the correct code :
a) 1, 2 and 5 b) 1, 3 and 5 c) 1, 2 , 3 and 4 d) All of them
Notes
 DELHI SULTANATE (1206 A.D. – 1526 A.D.)

Q. With reference to Indian history, 2. During the reign of Ala-ud-din

consider the following statements: Khalji, one Mongol assault marched
(UPSC Prelims 2022) up to Delhi and besieged the city.
1. The first Mongol invasion of India 3. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
happened during the reign of Jalal- temporarily lost portions of north-
ud-din Khalji. west of his kingdom to Mongols.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?

a) 1 and 2 b) 2 only 3. The office of ‘Mir Bakshi’ came into

c) 1 and 3 d) 3 only existence during the reign of Khalji
Sultans of Delhi.
Q. With reference to medieval India, Which of the statements given above
which one of the following is the is/are correct?
correct sequence in ascending order a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only
in terms of size? (UPSC Prelims c) 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
2021)
a) Paragana – Sarkar – Suba Q. With reference to the religious
b) Sarkar – Paragana – Suba history of medieval India, the Sufi
c) Suba – Sarkar – Paragana mystics were known to pursue
d) Paragana – Suba – Sarkar which of the following practices?
(UPSC Prelims 2012)
Q. Consider the following statements: 1. Meditation and control of breath
(UPSC Prelims 2019) 2. Severe ascetic exercises in a lonely
1. In the revenue administration of place
Delhi Sultanate, the in-charge of 3. Recitation of holy songs to arouse a
revenue collection was known as state of ecstasy in their audience
‘Amil’. Select the correct answer using the codes
2. The Iqta system of Sultans of Delhi given below:
was an ancient indigenous a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only
institution. c) 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
Notes
The period from 1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D. came to be known as the Delhi Sultanate period. This period
witnessed many dynasties and various rulers.
 SLAVE DYNASTY
o The Slave dynasty ruled from c. 1206 – 1290 CE.
o It was also named the ‘Mamluk’ dynasty; the word Mamluk is an Arabic word that means
“slave/owned”.
o In fact, three dynasties were established during this period. They were –
 Qutbi dynasty (c. 1206 – 1211 CE) – Its founder was Qutub-ud-din Aibak.
 First Ilbari dynasty (c. 1211- 1266 CE) – Its founder was Iltumish.
 Second Ilbari dynasty (c. 1266 – 1290 CE) – Its founder was Balban.

Qutub-ud-din Aibak (c. 1206 – 1210 CE)

o Qutub-ud-din Aibak founded the Slave dynasty. He was a Turkish slave of Muhammad Ghori
who played an important part in the expansion of the Turkish Sultanate in India after the Battle of
Tarain.
o Muhammad Ghori made him the governor of his Indian possessions. He raised a standing army and
established his hold over north India even during the lifetime of Ghori.
o After the death of Muhammad Ghori (c. 1206 CE), Tajuddin Yaldauz, the ruler of Ghazni claimed
his rule over Delhi and the governor of Multan and Uchch, Nasiruddin Qabacha wanted
independence. He also had to face many revolts from Rajputs and other Indian rulers. However, Aibak,
by displaying his mighty power as well as other conciliatory measures, was able to win over his
enemies.
o He defeated Yaldauz and severed all connections with Ghazni and thus founded the Slave
dynasty as well as the Delhi Sultanate.
o Muslim writers called Aibak “Lakh Baksh” or giver of lakhs because he donated liberally.
o He was titled “Sultan” and he made Lahore his capital.
o He also started the construction of the Qutub Minar (first storey only) after the name of the famous
Sufi saint Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar. It was later completed by Iltumish.
o Aibak died suddenly while playing Chaugan (horse polo) in c. 1210 CE.
Aram Shah (c. 1210 CE):

o Qutub-ud-din was succeeded by his son Aram Shah who was incapable as a ruler. He was opposed by
the Turkish armies and his rule lasted for only eight months.
Iltutmish (c. 1210 – 1236 CE)

o Iltutmish belonged to the Ilbari tribe and therefore, his dynasty was named the Ilbari dynasty. His
half- brothers sold him as a slave to Aibak who made him his son-in-law by giving his daughter to him.
o Later Aibak appointed him as Iqtadar of Gwalior.
o In c.1211 CE, Iltutmish dethroned Aram Shah and became the Sultan with the name of
Shamsuddin. He is regarded as the real consolidator of Turkish rule in India.
o During the first ten years of his reign, he mostly concentrated on securing his throne from his rivals.
The commanders of Muhammad Ghori like Yaldauz, Qabacha of Multan and Ali Mardan of Bengal and
Bihar rose against him.
o Iltutmish defeated Yaldauz in the battle of Tarain (c. 1215 CE) and also drove away Qabacha
from Punjab.
o In c. 1220 CE, the leader of the Mongols, Temujin, popularly known as Chengiz Khan, started
his march towards Central Asia. He defeated Jalal-ud-din Mangabarni, the ruler of Khwarizm.
Mangabarni escaped from the Mongols and sought asylum from Iltutmish. Iltutmish refused to
provide him shelter in order to save his empire from the onslaught of the Mongols. This diplomatic
policy of Iltutmish helped him to save his empire from the wrath of Chengiz Khan.
o Iltutmish brought Bengal and Bihar back into the Delhi Sultanate. He also suppressed the
Rajput revolts and recovered Ranthambore in c. 1226 CE and by c. 1231 CE, Iltutmish established his
control over Bayana, Mandor, Jalore and Gwalior.
o He led an expedition against the Chalukyas of Gujarat but that remained unsuccessful.
o Iltutmish was a great statesman. In c. 1229 CE, he received ‘mansur’, the letter of recognition from
the Abbasid Caliph by which he became the legal sovereign ruler of India.
o He completed the construction of Qutub Minar at Delhi, the tallest stone tower in India (238 ft).
o He also introduced the Arabic coinage in India and the silver tanka weighing 175 grams became a
standard coin in medieval India.
o The silver tanka remained the basis of the modern rupee.

o Iltutmish organised Turkan-i-Chahalgani, a new class of the ruling elite of forty powerful
military leaders, the Forty.
o He patronised many scholars and a number of Sufi saints came to India during his reign.
o Minhaj-us-Siraj (author of Tahaqqat-i-Nasuri), Taj-ud-din, Muhammad Junaidi, Fakhrul-
Mulk-Isami, Malik Qutub-ud-din Hasan were his contemporary scholars who added grandeur to
his court.
o He nominated his daughter as his successor.
Ruknuddin Feruz Shah (c. 1236 CE)

o He was the eldest son of Iltutmish who ascended the throne with the help of nobles.
o When the governor of Multan revolted, Ruknuddin Feroz Shah marched to suppress the revolt. Using
this opportunity, Iltutmish’s daughter Raziya with the help of the Amirs of Delhi seized the throne of
the Delhi Sultanate.
Raziya Sultan (c. 1236 – 1239 CE)

o Raziya Sultan was the first and only female ruler of medieval India’s Sultanate period.
o Raziya appointed an Abyssinian slave, Malik Jamal-ud-din Yaqut as master of the Royal
horses (Amir-i-akhur). The recruitment of a few other non-Turks to important positions aroused
resentment among the Turkish nobles. Raziya Sultan discarded the female apparel and held the court
with her face uncovered which further created resentment. She even went hunting and led the army.
o In c. 1240 CE, Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda (Sirhaind)
o revolted against her. Raziya alongside Yaqut marched against Altunia, but on the way, Turkish
followers of Altunia murdered Yaqut and took Raziya prisoner. In the meantime, the Turkish nobles
put Bahram, another son of Iltutmish on the throne. However, Raziya won over her captor, Altunia
and after marrying him, proceeded to Delhi. But she was defeated and killed on the way by Bahram
Shah.
Bahram Shah (c. 1240 – 1242 CE)

o The fall of Raziya Sultan paved the way for the ascendancy of ‘the Forty’.
o During the reign of Bahram Shah, there continued the struggle for supremacy between Sultan and the
nobles.
o The Turkish nobles supported Bahram Shah in the beginning but later became disordered and during
this unrest, Bahram Shah was killed by his own army.
Alauddin Masud Shah (c. 1242 – 1246 CE)

o He was the son of Ruknuddin Feroz Shah and nephew of Raziya Sultan.
o After the death of Bahram Shah, he was chosen as the next ruler.
o However, he was incompetent and incapable of handling the affairs in the government and was
replaced by Nasiruddin Mahmud.
Nasiruddin Mahmud (c. 1246 – 1265 CE)

o He was the grandson of Iltutmish who was young and inexperienced. He had ascended the throne with
the help of Balban/Ulugh Khan, a member of Chahalgani (the Forty) who himself assumed
the position of regent.
o He married his daughter to Nasirruddin and therefore, the real power lay in the hands of Balban.
Balban was powerful in the administration but he had to face the intrigues of his rivals in the royal
court. He overcame all the difficulties.
o In c. 1265 CE, Nasirruddin Mahmud died and according to some historians like Ibn Batuta and
Isami, Balban poisoned him and ascended the throne.

Balban (c. 1266 – 1286 CE)

o Balban’s experience as a regent made him understand the problems of the Delhi Sultanate. He knew
that the real threat to the monarchy was from the nobles called “The Forty”. He, therefore, was sure
that by enhancing the power and authority of the monarchy, he could solve the problem.
o According to Balban, the Sultan was God’s shadow on earth, Zil-e-Ilahi and the recipient of divine
grace, Nibyabat-e- Khudai.
o Balban enhanced the power of the monarchy. He introduced rigorous court discipline and
new customs like prostration (sajida) and kissing the Sultan’s feet (paibos) to prove his
superiority over the nobles.
o He introduced the Persian festival of Nauroz to impress the nobles and people with his wealth and
power.
o He stood forth as the champion of Turkish nobility. He excluded non-Turks from administration and
Indian Muslims were not given important positions in the government. To monitor the activities of the
nobles he appointed spies and developed an efficient spy system.
o Balban was determined to break the power of ‘The Forty’. He spared only the loyal nobles and
eliminated all others by fair or foul means. Malik Baqbaq, the governor of Bedaun, was publicly
flogged for his cruelty towards his servants. Haybat Khan, the governor of Oudh was punished for
killing a man who was drunk. The governor of Bhatinda, Sher Khan was poisoned.
o Balban had to deal with internal as well as external problems. The Mongols were looking for an
opportunity to attack the Sultanate, the Indian rulers were ready to revolt at the smallest opportunity,
distant provincial governors wanted to gain independence and the outskirts of Delhi were often
plundered by the Mewatis. To handle all these problems, he adopted a stern policy and organised a
strong central army to deal with internal issues and also to repel the Mongols.
o He established a separate military department, Diwan-e-arz and reorganised the army. He
deployed the army in different parts of his country to suppress the rebellious elements.
o Balban paid more attention to restore law and order instead of expanding his kingdom. Balban took
stern action against the Mewatis and prevented such robberies. Robbers were mercilessly pursued and
sentenced to death, as a result of which the roads became safe for travel.
o In c. 1279 CE, Tughril Khan, the governor of Bengal revolted against Balban. Balban sent his forces
to Bengal and Tughril Khan was beheaded. Balban appointed his son Bughra Khan as the governor
of Bengal.
o In the northwest, the Mongols reappeared and Balban sent his son Prince Mahmud against them. But
the prince was killed in the battle and it was a moral blow to Balban. Balban died in c. 1287 CE. He was
one of the main architects of the Delhi Sultanate. However, he could not fully safeguard India from the
Mongol invasion.
Kaiqubad (c. 1287 – 1290 CE)

o Kaiqubad was the grandson of Balban and was made the Sultan of Delhi by the nobles.
o He was soon replaced by his son, Kaimur.
o In c. 1290 CE, Feroz, the Ariz-e-Mumalik (the minister of war) murdered Kaimur and captured
the throne. He took the title of Jalal-ud-din Khalji and established the Khalji dynasty.
 KHILJI DYNASTY
Jalal-ud-din Khalji (c. 1290 – 1296 CE)
o Jalal-ud-din Khalji was the founder of the Khalji dynasty. He was 70 years old when he assumed
power. He had been the warden of the marches in the northwest and had fought many successful
battles against the Mongols during Balban’s reign.
o The Khaljis were of mixed Turkish-Afghan descent, they did not exclude the Turks from high
offices but the rise of the Khaljis to power ended the Turkish monopoly of high offices.

o He tried to mitigate some of the harsh aspects of Balban’s rule. He was the first ruler of the Delhi
Sultanate who clearly put forth his view that the state should be based on the willing
support of the governed and that since the large majority of the population in India were Hindus,
the state in India could not be an Islamic state.
o He adopted the policy of tolerance and avoided harsh punishments. For instance, Malik Chhajju,
nephew of Balban was allowed to remain the governor of Kara. When Chhajju revolted, it was
suppressed but he was pardoned. When the thugs (robbers) looted the country, they were allowed to
go after a severe warning. In c. 1292 CE, when Malik Chhaju revolted again, he was replaced by his
nephew and son-in-law, Alauddin Khalji.
o During the reign of Jalal-ud-din Khalji, Alauddin invaded Devagiri and accumulated enormous
wealth. During the reception in c. 1296 CE, he treacherously murdered his father-in-law near Kara and
usurped the throne of Delhi. He made generous gifts to the nobles and soldiers to win over them.
Alauddin Khalji (c. 1296 – 1316 CE)

o Alauddin Khalji was the nephew and son-in-law of Jalal-ud-din Khalji. He was appointed as the Amir-
i-Tuzuk (Master of ceremonies) and also Arizi-i-Mumalik (minister of war) during the
reign of Jalaluddin Khalji.
o He followed Balban’s policy of governance that was quite contrary to Jalaluddin’s policy of tolerance.
He was convinced that the general prosperity of the nobles, intermarriage between noble families,
inefficient spy system and drinking liquor were the basic reasons for rebellions. Therefore, he passed
four laws:
 The public sale of liquor and drugs was totally banned.
 The intelligence system was reorganised and all the secret activities of the nobles were immediately
reported to the Sultan.
 He confiscated the property of the nobles.
 Social gatherings and festivities without the permission of the Sultan were not allowed. By such
stringent rules, his reign was free from rebellions.
Military Campaigns of Alauddin Khalji

o Alauddin maintained a huge permanent standing army. He sent his army six times against the
Mongols. The first two were successful but the third Mongol invader, Khwaja came up to Delhi but
was stopped from entering the capital city.
o The next three Mongol invasions were also dealt with severely and thousands of Mongols were killed.
The northwestern frontier was fortified and Ghazi Malik (Ghayasuddin Tughlaq) was appointed
as the Warden of Marches to protect the frontier.
o Conquest of Gujarat – Alauddin Khalji sent an army under two of his generals, Nusrat Khan and
Ulugh Khan to capture Gujarat in c. 1299 CE. The ruler Rai Karan and his daughter escaped while
the queen was caught and sent to Delhi. Malik Kafur, a eunuch was also taken to Delhi and later he
was made the military commander.
o Conquest of Rajputana – After capturing Gujarat, Alauddin’s attention turned towards Rajputana.
o Ranthambore – It was considered to be the strongest fort of Rajasthan. Initially, the Khalji army
suffered losses and Nusrat Khan even lost his life. In c.1301 CE, the fort fell to Alauddin. The Rajput
women committed Jauhar or self-immolation.
o Chittor – Alauddin next turned against Chittor. It was another powerful state of Rajputana. In c. 1303
CE, Alauddin stormed the Chittor fort. According to some scholars, Alauddin attacked Chittor because
he coveted Padmini, the beautiful queen of Raja Ratan Singh. Raja Ratan Singh and his army fought
bravely but were defeated. The Rajput women including Rani Padmini performed Jauhar. This
Padmini episode was graphically mentioned in the book Padmavat written by Jayasi.
o Malwa and others – In c. 1305 CE, under the able leadership of Ain-ul-Mulk, the Khalji army
captured Malwa. Ujjain, Mandu, Chanderi and Dhar were also annexed. After this, Alauddin Khalji

sent Malik Kafur to the south and himself attacked Siwana. Raja Shital Deva, the ruler of Siwana
fought valiantly but was defeated. In c. 1311 CE, Jalore – another Rajput kingdom was annexed. Thus,
by c.1311 CE, Alauddin Khalji became the master of north India and captured large parts of Rajputana.
o Conquest of Deccan and the far South – Alauddin’s greatest achievement was the conquest of
Deccan and the far south. This region was ruled by four important dynasties – Yadavas of Devagiri,
Kakatiyas of Warangal, Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra and the Pandyas of Madurai.
Alauddin sent Malik Kafur to lead the Khalji dynasty invasions to south India.
o In c. 1306 – 1307 CE, Malik Kafur attacked Devagiri. The ruler of Devagiri, Rai Ramachandra
surrendered and was treated honourably. He was given a district of Gujarat and one of his daughters
was married to Alauddin. In c. 1309 CE, Malik Kafur launched his campaign against Warangal. Its
ruler Prataparudra Deva was defeated and an enormous booty was collected from him. Malik
Kafur’s next target was the Hoysala ruler Vira Ballala Ⅲ. He was defeated and a huge booty was
seized and sent to Delhi. Kafur then marched against the Pandyas. Vira Pandya fled the capital
Madurai and Kafur seized enormous wealth from the Pandya kingdom. According to Amir Khusrau,
Malik Kafur reached as far as Rameshwaram, built a mosque there and returned to Delhi with huge
wealth. Alauddin honoured Malik Kafur by appointing him Naib Malik of the empire.
o Alauddin Khalji died in c. 1316 CE. Although the Sultan was illiterate, he patronized poets like Amir
Hasan and Amir Khusrau. He built a famous gateway known as Alai Darwaza and constructed a
new capital at Siri.
o Alauddin assumed the title of Sikander-i-Azam and gave the title of Tuti-i-Hind to Amir
Khusrau.
Administration of Alauddin Khalji

o Military Reforms – Alauddin Khalji maintained a large permanent standing army and paid them in
cash from the royal treasury. According to historian Ferishta, he recruited 4,75,000 cavalrymen. He
introduced the system of dagh (branding of horses) and prepared huliya (descriptive list of
soldiers). In order to have maximum efficiency, a strict review of the army from time to time was
carried out.
o Market Reforms – Alauddin established four separate markets in Delhi, one for grain
(mandi); another for cloth, sugar, dried fruits, oil and butter; third for horses, cattle
and slaves and the fourth market for miscellaneous commodities.
 Each market was under the control of a high officer called Shahna-i-Mandi. The supply of grain was
ensured by holding stocks in government storehouses. There were regulations in place to fix the price
of all commodities.
 A separate department called Diwan-i-Riyasat was created under an officer called Naib-i-Riyasat.
Every merchant was registered under the market department. There were secret agents called
munhiyans who sent reports to the Sultan regarding the functioning of these markets. The Sultan
also sent slave boys to buy various commodities to check prices. Any violation of the Sultan’s orders
resulted in severe punishment. No hoarding was permissible and even during famines, the same price
was maintained.
o Land Revenue Administration – Alauddin took important steps in the land revenue
administration. He was the first sultan of Delhi who ordered measurement of land. Land revenue was
collected in cash which enabled the Sultan to pay the soldiers in cash. His land revenue reforms
provided a basis for the future reforms of Sher Shah and Akbar. The state officer measured the land
and fixed land revenue accordingly.
 TUGHLUQ DYNASTY
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq/Ghazi Malik
o Founder of the Tughlaq dynasty.
o Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq laid the foundation for Tughlaqabad (a strong fort) near Delhi.

o Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent his son Jauna Khan/Muhammad bin Tughlaq against Warangal
(Kakatiyas) and Madurai (Pandyas).
o His relationship with the Sufi saint Sheikh Nizam ud din Aulia was not cordial.
o It is believed that Jauna Khan treacherously killed his father and ascended the throne with the title
Muhammad bin Tughlaq in c. 1325 CE.
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq/Jauna Khan (c. 1325 – 1351 CE)

o He was a very attractive character in the history of medieval times because of his ambitious schemes
and novel experiments. However, his novel experiments and enterprises failed miserably as they were
far ahead of their time.
o He introduced many reforms:
o Transfer of Capital – Muhammad bin Tughlaq wanted to shift his capital from Delhi to Devagiri so
that he might be able to control south India better. He forcibly moved the entire population to the new
capital, Devagiri which was renamed as Daulatabad. After two years, the Sultan abandoned
Daulatabad and shifted back to Delhi due to the scarcity of water supply in Daulatabad. The distance
between the two places was more than 1500 kilometres and many people died during the rigorous
journey in summer.
o Token Currency – In c. 1329 CE, Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced a token currency,
made of copper to replace gold and silver coins. It was modelled based on the Chinese example
(Kublai Khan issued paper money in China). Very few people exchanged gold/silver for copper and the
tokens were easy to forge which led to heavy losses. Later on, Muhammad bin Tughlaq repealed his
verdict and all coins were redeemed in gold/silver, making the treasury empty.
o Taxation in Doab – The failure of the above two experiments resulted in a huge loss of money. In
order to improve the financial condition, Muhammad bin Tughlaq increased the land revenue on the
farmers of the doab land between the Ganga and Yamuna rivers. It was an excessive and arbitrary step
on the farmers. A severe famine struck the region at that time which made the farmers revolt.
However, the harsh steps taken by Muhammad bin Tughlaq crushed the revolt.
o Agricultural Reforms – He launched a scheme by which takkavi loans (loans for cultivation)
were given to the farmers to buy seeds and to extend cultivation. He set up a separate department for
agriculture, Diwan-i-amir-Kohi. A model farm under the state was created in an area of 64 square
miles for which the government spent around seventy lakh tankas. This experiment was further
continued by Firoz Tughlaq.
o Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the only Delhi Sultan who had received a comprehensive
literary, religious and philosophical education.
o He was very tolerant in religious matters. He maintained diplomatic relations with far off
countries like Iran, Egypt and China. The famous traveller Ibn Batuta (author of Safarnama
Rehla) visited India during this period (c. 1334 CE) and was appointed Qazi at Delhi for a period
of eight years.
o During the latter part of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign, the kingdom witnessed a spate of rebellions
by the nobles and provincial governors. The Sultanate of Madurai was established due to the
rebellion of Hassan Shah. In c. 1336 CE, the Vijaynagara kingdom was founded. In c. 1347 CE, the
Bahmani kingdom was established. The governors of Sindh, Multan and Oudh rose in revolt against
the authority of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. In Gujarat, Taghi revolted against the Sultan who spent
nearly three years chasing him.
o Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in c.1351 CE due to the worsening of his health condition. According to
Baduani, the Sultan was freed from his people and the people from the Sultan. According to Barani,
Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a mixture of opposites. His reign marked the beginning of the process of
its decline.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (c. 1351 – 1388 CE)

o After the death of Muhammad bin Tughlaq in c.1351 CE, Firoz Shah Tughlaq was chosen as the Sultan
by the nobles.
o He appointed Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu Brahmin convert as wazir (Prime Minister). He
helped the Sultan in his administration and maintained the prestige of the Sultanate during this
period.
o After ascending the throne, he focussed on strengthening his position over north India instead of
claiming his authority over south India and Deccan. He led two expeditions to Bengal which were
unsuccessful and as a result, Bengal became free from the control of the Delhi Sultanate.
o Firoz Shah Tughlaq also attacked Jajnagar (modern Orissa) and collected large booty from the
temples (such as the Puri Jagannath temple). He also marched against Nagarkot and made its ruler
pay tributes.
o During this campaign, Firoz Shah collected 1300 Sanskrit manuscripts from the Jwalamukhi
temple library and Arizuddin Khan translated these into the Persian language. Firoz Shah
then marched against Thatta (Sindh region) and crushed a rebellion there.
Administrative Reforms
o He ran his administration in accordance with the advice of the ulemas. He pleased the nobles and
assured hereditary succession to their properties. Thus, the iqta system was revived and was also
made hereditary.
o He levied taxes as per the teachings of Islam. Jiziya was imposed on non-Muslims. The special
tax on 28 items was discarded by him since they were against the laws of Islam.
o He was the first sultan to impose an irrigation tax. But at the same time, he also built a number
of irrigation canals and wells. The longest canal was about 200 km in length from Sutlej to Hansi.
Another canal was between Yamuna and Hissar.
o During his reign, there were around 1200 fruit gardens in and around Delhi generating more revenue.
o He developed royal factories called karkhanas in which thousands of slaves were employed. He also
increased the number of slaves by capturing the defeated soldiers and young persons. There were
around one lakh eighty thousand slaves during his reign.
o New towns (around 300) were built during his reign. The famous one being Firozabad near Red Fort
(now called Firoz Shah Kotla). Monuments like Qutb Minar and Jama Masjid were repaired and
Ashokan pillars from Meerut and Topara were brought to Delhi during his reign.
o Diwan-i-Khairat, a new department was established to support orphans and widows. Free hospitals
like Dar-ul-Shifa and marriage bureaus for poor Muslims were also established.
o Firoz patronised scholars like Barani who wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz Shah, and Fatawa-i-Jahandari
and Khwaja Abdul Malik Islami who wrote Futah-us- Sulatin. He himself authored the book,
Futuhat-e-Firozshahi.
o Firoz Shah Tughlaq died in c. 1388 CE and after that, the struggle for power between the Sultan and
nobles started again. His successors (like Muhammad Khan, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah Ⅱ, Abu Bakr
Shah, Nasiruddin Muhammad) had to face the rebellions of the slaves created by Firoz.
o In the following years, the Delhi Sultanate disintegrated and many provinces like Gujarat and Malwa
declared independence. The invasion of Timur in c. 1398 CE, further aggravated the situation.
o Timur was a Mongol leader of Central Asia, head of Chagatai Turks. His kingdom stretched from lower
Volga to river Indus, included modern Turkey, Afghanistan, Transoxiana, Iran, and portions of Punjab.
When Timur entered Delhi there was barely any opposition. He sacked Delhi for three days killing
thousands of people and gathering huge wealth.
o He withdrew from India in c. 1399 CE and his invasion gave a death blow to the Tughlaq dynasty.

 SAYYID DYNASTY
Khizr Khan (c. 1414 – 1421 CE)
o Before Timur left India, he appointed Khizr Khan as governor of Multan. He captured Delhi and
founded the Sayyid dynasty in c. 1414 CE.
o He did not adopt the title of Sultan and was content with Rayat-i-Ala.
o He is considered to be an important ruler of the Sayyid dynasty. He tried to consolidate the Delhi
Sultanate but in vain. He died in c. 1421 CE.
o Khizr Khan was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah (c. 1421 – 1433 CE).
Muhammad Shah (c. 1434 – 1443 CE)

o Muhammad Shah who succeeded Mubarak Shah was always busy acting against conspirators and
gradually lost control over his nobles.
o Muhammad Shah died in c. 1445 CE and was succeeded by his son Alam Shah.
Alam Shah (c. 1445 – 1451 CE)

o He was the weakest amongst all Sayyid princes and proved to be incompetent.
o His wazir, Hamid Khan invited Bahlul Lodhi to take charge of the army. Alam Shah realised that it
would be difficult to continue as a ruler, so he retired to Badaun.
 LODHI DYNASTY
o The Lodhis/Lodis were the last ruling dynasty of the Sultanate period and the first to be headed by the
Afghans, who ruled over Sirhind when the Sayyids ruled in India.
Bahlol Lodhi (c. 1451 – 1489 CE)

o He founded the Lodhi dynasty.
o In c. 1476 CE, he defeated the sultan of Jaunpur and annexed it to Delhi Sultanate. He also
brought the ruler of Kalpi and Dholpur under the suzerainty of Delhi.
o He annexed the Sharqui dynasty and introduced Bahlol copper coins.
o He died in c. 1489 CE and was succeeded by his son, Sikander Lodhi.
Sikander Lodhi (c. 1489 – 1517 CE)

o He was the greatest of the three Lodhi sovereigns. He brought the whole of Bihar under his control and
many Rajput chiefs were defeated. He attacked Bengal and forced its ruler to conclude a treaty with
him and extended his kingdom from Punjab to Bihar.
o He was a good administrator, he built roads and many irrigation facilities were provided for the
benefit of the peasantry.
o He introduced the Gazz-i-Sikandari, a new measurement yardstick and a system of auditing of
accounts.
o He re-imposed Jiziya on non-Muslims.
o In c. 1504 CE, he founded Agra and wrote Persian verses under the name Gulrakhi.
Ibrahim Lodhi ( c. 1517 – 1526 CE)

o Sikander Lodhi was succeeded by his eldest son, Ibrahim Lodhi who was an arrogant and repressive
ruler. He insulted his nobles in the court and the ones who revolted were put to death.
o Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of Punjab was humiliated and disaffection between king and
courtier became very common during his reign. Greatly displeased by the attitude of Ibrahim Lodhi,
Daulat Khan Lodhi invited Babur to invade India.

o Babur marched against Delhi, defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat in c.
1526 CE. The Afghan kingdom thus lasted for only seventy-five years.
o Thus, the Sultanate of Delhi which had its birth on the battlefield of Tarain (c. 1192 CE), ended just a
few miles away on the battlefield of Panipat (c. 1526 CE).
 DELHI SULTANATE- ADMINISTRATION

o The effective administrative system under the Delhi Sultanate made a great impact on the Indian
provincial kingdoms and later on the Mughal administrative system. At its peak, the Delhi Sultanate
controlled regions as far south as Madurai.
o The Turkish ruler Mahmud of Ghazni was the first to adopt the title of Sultan. The Delhi
Sultanate was an Islamic State with its religion as Islam.
o The sultans were considered to be the representatives of the Caliph. The name of the Caliph
was included in the khutba (prayer) and also inscribed on their coins. This practice was even
followed by Balban, who called himself “the shadow of God”.
o Iltutmish, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq and Feroz Tughlaq obtained a ‘mansur’ (letter of investiture)
from the Caliph.
o The ultimate authority for the legal, military & political activities was with the Sultan. All the Sultan’s
sons had an equal claim to the throne since there was no unambiguous succession law at the time.
Iltutmish had even nominated his daughter Raziya over his sons. However, such nominations had to
be accepted by the nobles. At times, the Ulemas also played a pivotal role in getting a favourable public
opinion. Nevertheless, military might was the chief factor when it came to succession.
Central Administration
o There were many departments and officials who helped the Sultan in administration.
o The Naib was the most influential post and virtually enjoyed all the powers of the Sultan. He had
control over all the other departments.
o The post of Wazir was next to the Naib and he headed the finance department known as the
Diwan-i-Wizarat. An Auditor-General for examining expenditure and an Accountant General for
checking income worked under the Wazir. The period of wazir-ship of Feroz Shah Tughlaq Khan-i-
Jahan is generally considered as the high watermark period of the Wazir’s influences.
o Diwan-i- Ariz was the military department that was commanded by the Ariz-i-Mumalik. He
would recruit the soldiers and administer the military department. However, Sultan himself acted as
the Commander-in-chief of the army. During the reign of Alauddin Khalji, the number of soldiers in
the department was about three lakh. The efficient army helped in containing the Mongol invasions
along with the Decan expansion. The Turks also had a large number of properly trained elephants for
war purposes. The cavalry was given prime importance and was considered more prestigious.
o The department of religious affairs, Diwan-i-Risalat dealt with pious foundations and granted
stipends to deserving scholars and men of piety. This department granted funds for the construction of
madrasas, tombs and mosques. It was headed by Chief Sadr who also functioned as Chief Qazi,
the head of the judicial system. Other judges and Qazis were appointed in different parts of the
Sultanate.
o Sharia or Muslim personal law was followed in civil matters.
o The Hindus were governed by their own personal law and their cases were dispensed by
the village panchayat. The criminal law was dictated by the rules and regulations established by the
Sultans.
o Diwan-i-Insha was the department of correspondence. All the correspondence between the
ruler and the sovereigns of other states as well as with his junior officials was managed by this
department.
Diwan-i-Risalat Department of appeals In charge of foreign affairs and dealing with

diplomatic correspondences
Responsible for maintaining the royal army and
Diwan-i-arz Department of Military recruiting troops. This department was introduced by
Balban.
Diwan-i-Ishtiaq Department of pensions In charge of pensions
Diwan-i-
Department of arrears This was the department of revenue
Mustakhraj
In charge of managing the agricultural activities in the
Diwan-i-kohi Department of agriculture kingdom.This department was created by Muhammad
Bin Tughlaq.
Department of In charge of the royal correspondence and the
Diwan-i-insha
correspondence regulations set by the Sultans were the basis of law
Diwan-i-
Department of slaves In charge of slaves
Bandagan
Diwan-i-Qaza Department of justice Managing justice in the empire
Diwan-i-Khairat Department of charity In charge of charity
Provincial Government
o Iqtas, the provinces under the Delhi Sultanate were
initially under the dominion of the nobles.
o Muqtis or Walis was the name given to the
governors of the provinces and were responsible for
maintaining law and order and collecting the land
revenue.
o The provinces were further divided into Shiqs,
which was under the control of the Shiqdar.
o The Shiqs were further divided into Pargana,
comprising a number of villages and was headed by
the Amil.
o The village remained the basic unit of administration and its headman was called Chaudhri or
Muqaddam.
o Patwari was the village accountant.
 DELHI SULTANATE- ECONOMY

o Under the Delhi Sultanate, certain land reforms were introduced in the revenue department. The lands
were categorised into three classes-
 Iqta land – the lands which were allotted to the officials as iqtas instead of payment for their services.
 Khalisa land – it was directly under the control of the Sultan and the revenue generated was utilised
for maintaining the royal court and royal household.
 Inam land – it was allotted to religious institutions or religious leaders.
o The farmers paid 1/3rd of their produce as land revenue and sometimes even half of the
produce. They also had to pay other taxes and lived miserable lives. However, Sultans like Muhammad
Bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq provided better irrigation facilities and also takkavi loans which
helped in the increased agricultural production. They also promoted the cultivation of crops like wheat
rather than barley.
o A separate agriculture department, Diwan-i-Kohi was set up by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq.
Firoz Tughlaq promoted the growth of the horticulture sector.

o A number of cities and towns had grown during this period which led to rapid urbanisation. The
important cities were – Multan, Lahore (north-west), Anhilwara, Cambay, Broach (west), Lakhnauti
and Kara (east), Jaunpur, Daulatabad and Delhi. Delhi was the largest city in the east.
o A large number of items were exported to the Persian Gulf countries and West Asia and also to
Southeast Asian countries. Overseas trade was dominated by Khurasanis (Afghan Muslims) and
Multanis (mostly Hindus). Inland trade was under the control of Gujarati, Marwari and Muslim
Bohra merchants. These merchants were rich and lived luxurious lives.
o Roads were built and maintained for facilitating smooth transport and communication. The royal
roads were especially kept in good shape. In addition to the royal road from Peshawar to Sonargaon,
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq built a road to Daulatabad. Sarais or rest houses were constructed on the
highways for the benefit of the travellers.
o During the Delhi Sultanate, the silk and the cotton textile industry thrived. The introduction of
sericulture on a large scale made India less reliant on other countries for the import of raw silk.
Paper was widely used from the 14th and 15th centuries which led to the growth of the paper industry.
Other crafts like carpet weaving, leather making and metal crafts also flourished due to the rise in their
demand.
o The goods needed by the Sultan and his household were supplied by the royal karkhanas. Expensive
articles made of gold and silver were produced by the royal karkhanas. The nobles were paid well and
they copied the lifestyle of the Sultans and lived a pleasurable life.
o The system of coinage had also boomed during the Delhi Sultanate. Several types of tankas were
issued by Iltutmish.
o During the Khalji rule, one tanka was divided into 48 jitals and 50 jitals during the
Tughlaq rule.
o After the south Indian conquests by Alauddin Khalji, gold coins or dinars became popular.
Copper coins were fewer in number and dateless. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq experimented with token
currency and also issued different types of gold & silver coins. The coins were minted at different
places. At least twenty-five different types of gold coins were issued by him.
o The Turks popularised a number of crafts and techniques like the use of iron stirrup, use of armour
(for both the rider and the horse), improvement of Rahat (Persian wheel which helped in lifting the
water from deeper levels), the spinning wheel and an improved loom for carpet weaving, use of
superior mortar, which helped to erect magnificent buildings based on the arch and dome, etc.
 DELHI SULTANATE SOCIETY

o There were hardly any changes in the structure of the Hindu society during the Delhi Sultanate. The
Brahmins continued to enjoy the highest place in the social strata.
o The severest restrictions were placed on mingling with the chandalas and other outcasts.
o During this period, the practice of keeping women in seclusion and asking them to veil their faces in
the presence of outsiders (purdah system) became prevalent among the upper-class Hindus
(particularly in North India).
o The Arabs and Turks brought the purdah system into India and it became a symbol of the
higher classes in society.
o The practice of sati was widely prevalent in different regions of the country.
o Ibn Batuta mentions that permission from the Sultan had to be taken for the performance of
sati.
o During the Sultanate period, the Muslim society remained divided into ethnic and racial
groups. The Afghans, Iranians, Turks and Indian Muslims developed as exclusive groups and rarely
married each other. Converts from the lower sections of Hindus were also discriminated against.
o For the Hindu subjects, from the time of the Arab invasion of Sindh, they had been given the status of
zimmis or protected people i.e, those who accepted the Muslim rule and agreed to pay a tax called
jaziya.

o At first, jaziya was collected along with land revenue. Later, Firoz Tughlaq made jaziya a
separate tax and levied it on Brahmins also, who were earlier exempted from the jaziya.
o Slavery had existed in India for a long time, however, it thrived during this period. There existed slave
markets for men and women. Slaves were generally bought for domestic service, for company or
for their special skills. Firoz Shah Tughlaq had about 1,80,000 slaves.
 DELHI SULTANATE- ART, ARCHITECTURE, LITERATURE

Delhi Sultanate – Art and Architecture
o Art and architecture was a combination of Islamic and Indian styles that took a new direction
during the Delhi Sultanate. Domes, arches, lofty towers, minarets, Islamic script were introduced by
the Turks.
o The dome is the prominent feature of the mosques in contrast to the shikhara of Hindu
temples.
o Delhi Sultans had a great taste for architecture. The architecture was a blend of Indian and Islamic
styles.
o Qutub Minar is a towering 73m high tower constructed by Qutub-ud-din Aibak and completed by
Iltutmish in memory of the Sufi saint Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki. Later
o Alauddin Khalji built an entrance to the Qutub Minar called Alai Darwaza.
o The palace complex of Tughlaqabad was built during the reign of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
o Muhammad Bin Tughlaq built the tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq on a high platform. He also built
Jahanpanah, one of the cities of Delhi.
o Firoz Shah Tughlaq built Hauz Khas, a pleasure resort and also built the Feroz Shah Kotla
fort. The Tughlaq rulers started building the tombs on an elevated platform.
o The Lodhi Gardens in Delhi is an example of the architecture of the Lodhis.
Delhi Sultanate Music

o The sarangi and the rabab, new musical instruments were introduced during this period.
o Also, new ragas like ghora and sanam were introduced by Amir Khusrau. He is also credited
with fusing the Iranian and Indian musical systems to create Qawwali.
o He also invented the Sitar.
o Ragadarpan, the Indian classical work, was translated into Persian during the rule of Firoz Shah
Tughlaq.
o Pir Bhodan was a Sufi saint who was regarded as the greatest musician of his age.
o Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was a great patron of music and encouraged the composition of the great
work on music called Man Kautuhal.
Delhi Sultanate Literature

o The Delhi Sultans gave huge importance to literature and showed more interest in the progress of
Persian literature.
o Apart from poetry and theology, history writing was also promoted.
o The most renowned historians of this time were Minhaj-us-Siraj, Zia-ud-din Barani, Hasan
Nizami and Shams Siraj.
o Tabaqat-i-Nasari was authored by Minhaj-us-Siraj which gives a general account of the history
of Muslim dynasties up to c. 1260 CE.
o The history of the Tughlaq dynasty, Tarikh-i-Firoz was written by Barani.
o Prince Muhammad, the eldest son of Sultan Balban was a great patron of scholars and provided
protection to two great scholars of his time i.e, Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan.
o Amir Khusrau has been regarded as the greatest Persian poet of his age.
o He is said to have written more than 4 lac couplets.
o He created a new style of Persian poetry called Sabaq-i-Hind (Indian style).

o His important works include Khazain-ul-Futuh, Tughlaqnama and Tarikh-i-Alai.

o He was a great singer and was given the title ‘Parrot of India’.
o Translation of certain Sanskrit books was done into the Persian language during this period. Zia
Nakshabi was the first to translate Sanskrit stories into the Persian language.
o The book Tutu Nama or the Book of the Parrot was first translated into Turkish and then to many
European languages.
o The famous book Rajatarangani written by Kalhana belonged to the era of Kashmiri ruler Zain-
ul-Abideen.
o In the Arabic language, Al-Beruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind is the most important work.
o Al-Beruni or Alberuni was an Arabic and Persian scholar patronized by Mahmud of Ghazni.
o He learnt Sanskrit and translated two Sanskrit works into Arabic.
o He was impressed by the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita.
o In his work Kitab-ul-Hind (also known as Tarikh-ul-Hind), he had mentioned the socio-economic
conditions of India.
o A large number of scholars flourished at the courts of provincial rulers as well. Chand Bardai, a
Hindi poet, was the author of Prithviraj Rasau.
o Nusrat Shah patronised the translation of Mahabharata into Bengali.
o Krittivasa prepared a Bengali translation of the Ramayana from Sanskrit.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q43. Slave dynasty ruler Balban was known for his policies and consolidating his empire.
In this context, which of the following statements are correct?
1. He subdued the powers of the Chahalgani and took major control of the empire.
2. He introduced the practice of Zaminbosi and Paibosi.
3. To counter Mongol attacks, he created the Department of Military Affairs (Diwan-i-arz).
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Q44. Which of the following statements are correct about Iltutmish?

1. The hereditary succession to the Delhi Sultanate was initiated by Iltutmish.
2. He patronized scholars like Minhaj-us- Siraj and Nizam-ul-mulk Muhammad Janaidi.
3. He introduced the Arabic coinage into India.
Q45. With reference to the Khalji rule in India, consider the following statements:
1. Jalaluddinn Khalji began the secular policy of rule in India and revived nobility.
2. Khalji rule is known for market reforms and standing army.

1. The Sultanate rulers imported horses via sea routes in Sindh and Gujarat.
2. Jauhar concept was acknowledged by Amir Khusrau.
3. The Sultanate rule was limited to the Malwa region and the Ganga River in the east.
a) 1 and 2 only b) 3 only c) 2 and 3 only d) 1 and 3 only
Q47. Mohammad-bin Tughlaq was known for taking bold experiments. In this context,
which of the following statements are correct?

1. He decided to transfer the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad, to have better control in South
India.
2. He introduced token currency in the form of bronze coins, which was beneficial in controlling
the currency valuation.
3. He began inducting officers on the basis of merit, irrespective of their background.
Q48. Which of the following is/are NOT correct regarding the architecture of the Turks ?
1. In the sphere of decoration, the Turks eschewed representation of human and animal figures in
their buildings.
2. The Turks used geometrical and floral designs, combining them with panels of inscriptions
containing verses from the Quran.
3. The Turks did not borrow from Hindu motifs.
4. The Turks did not add colour to their buildings. They used only white marble.
Code :
a) 1 and 2 b) 2 and 4 c) 3 and 4 d) 2 and 3
Q49. Who among the following Sultans of Delhi assumed the title Sikandar-i-Sani?
a) Balban b) Alauddin Khalji c) Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq d) Sikandar Lodi
Q50. Who patronised scholars like Hasan Nizami and Fakhr – i – Mudabbir?
a) Iltutmish b) Balban c) Muhammad – bin – Tughlaq d) Qutubuddin
Aibak
Notes

 MUGHALS
Q. With reference to Mughal India, c. Jahangir d. Shah Jahan

what is/are the
difference/differences between Q. The arrival of Babur into India led to
Jagirdar and Zamindar? (UPSC the (UPSC Prelims 2015)
Prelims 2019) 1. introduction of gunpowder in the
1. Jagirdars were holders of land subcontinent.
assignments in lieu of judicial and 2. introduction of the arch and dome
police duties, whereas Zamindars in the region’s architecture.
were holders of revenue rights 3. establishment of Timurid dynasty in
without obligation to perform any the region.
duty other than revenue collection. Select the correct answer using the code
2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were given below:
hereditary and revenue rights of a. 1 and 2 only b. 3 only
Zamindars were not hereditary. c. 1 and 3 only d. 1, 2 and 3
Select the correct answer using the code
Q. Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri was
given below.
(UPSC Prelims 2014)
a. 1 only b. 2 only
c. Both 1 and 2 d. Neither 1 a. the mosque for the use of Royal
nor 2 Family
b. Akbar’s private prayer chamber
Q. Who among the following Mughal c. the hall in which Akbar held
Emperors shifted emphasis from discussions with scholars of various
illustrated manuscripts to album religions
and individual portrait? (UPSC d. the room in which the nobles
Prelims 2019) belonging to different religions
a. Humayun b. Akbar gathered to discuss religious affairs
Notes

 BABUR (1526-1530)
o Babur is the founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
o He was a descendant of Timur (on his father’s side) and Genghis Khan (on his Mother’s
side).
o His original name was Zahiruddin Muhammad.
o In 1494 at the age of 11, Babur became the ruler of Farghana succeeding Umar Shaikh Mirza, his
father.
o Daulat Khan, the most powerful noble of Punjab, who was discontented with Ibrahim Lodhi, invited
Babur to invade India.
o He undertook four expeditions to India in order to conquer it between the years 1519 and 1523.
Babur’s Military Conquests

o In 1504, Babur occupied Kabul.
o In 1524, Babur occupied Lahore but had to retreat to Kabul after Daulat Khan turned against him.
o In November 1525, Babur attacked and occupied Punjab again.
o On 21st April 1526, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat and quickly occupied
Delhi and Despite vast and superior troops, Ibrahim Lodi lost in the battle due to Babur’s superior
strategy and use of artillery.
o The First Battle of Panipat marked the foundation of Mughal dominion in India.
o Babur conquered Delhi and sent his son Humayun to seize Agra.
o Babur announced himself as “Emperor of Hindustan”.
Rana Sangha & Babur

o Rana Sangha of Mewar was a great Rajput warrior.
o He gave the toughest resistance to Babur’s expansion plans.
o On March 16, 1527, Rana Sangha, along with rulers of Marwar, Amber, Gwalior, Ajmer and Chanderi
and Sultan Mahmood Lodi (whom Rana Sangha had acknowledged as ruler of Delhi) met Babur in a
decisive contest at Kanhwa, a village near Agra. The aim was to prevent the imposition of another
foreign repression.
o Babur succeeded over them by using similar tactics as in the Battle of Panipat. Then, he took on the
title of “Ghazi”.
o In the year 1528, Chanderi was captured by Babur from Rajput king Medini Rai.
o On May 6, 1529, Babur met the allied Afghans of Bihar and Bengal on the banks of Gogra, near
Patna and defeated them. With this battle, Babur occupied a considerable portion of northern India.
o On December 26, 1530, Babur died at Agra aged 40. His body was first laid at Arambagh in Agra but
was later taken to Kabul, where it was buried.
Estimate of Babur
o He was an eminent scholar in Arabic and Persian.
o His mother tongue was Chaghatai Turkic.
o He was said to be a statesman.
o He wrote his memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Baburi in Turki language.
 HUMAYUN (1530-1540, 1555-1556)

o Humayun was the eldest son of Babur.
o Humayun means “fortune” but he remained the most unfortunate ruler of the Mughal Empire.
o Six months after his succession, Humayun besieged the fortress of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand,
gained a decisive victory over Afghans at Douhrua and drove out Sultan Mahmood Lodhi from
Jaunpur, and even defeated Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. His victories, however, were short-lived
due to the weakness of his character.

o Humayun had three brothers, Kamran, Askari and Hindal

o Humayun divided the empire among his brothers but this proved to be a great blunder on his part.
o Kamran was given Kabul and Kandahar.
o Sambhal and Alwar were given to Askari and Hindal respectively.
o Humayun captured Gujarat from Bahadur Shah and appointed Askari as its governor
o But soon Bahadur Shah recovered Gujarat from Askari who fled from there.
o In the east, Sher Khan became powerful. Humayun marched against him and in the Battle of Chausa,
held in 1539, Sher Khan destroyed the Mughal army and Humayun escaped from there.
o Humayun reached Agra to negotiate with his brothers.
o In 1540, in the Battle of Bilgram or Ganges also known as Battle of Kanauj, Humayun was
forced to fight with Sher Khan alone and after losing his kingdom, Humayun became an exile for the
next fifteen years.
o During his wanderings in deserts of Sindh, Humayun married Hamida Banu Begum, daughter of
Sheikh Ali Amber Jaini, who had been a preceptor of Humayun’s brother Hindal.
o On November 23, 1542, Humayun’s wife gave birth to Akbar.
o Amarkot’s Hindu chief Rana Prasad promised Humayun to help him to conquer Thatta
o However, Humayun could not conquer Bhakker or secure it. Thus, he left India and lived under the
generosity of Shah Tahmashp of Persia.
o Shah of Persia agreed to help Humayun and lend him a force of 14,000 men on a condition to confirm
to Shia creed, to have the Shah’s name proclaimed in his Khutba and to give away Kandhar to him on
his success.
o In 1545, with Persian help, Humayun captured Kandhar and Kabul but refused to cede Kandhar to
Persia.
o Humayun sought help from the Safavid ruler.
o Later, he defeated his brothers Kamran and Askari.
o In 1555, Humayun defeated the Afghans and recovered the Mughal throne.
o After six months, he died in 1556 due to his fall from the staircase of his library.
o Humayun was kind and generous, though he was not a good General and warrior.
o He also loved painting and wrote poetry in the Persian language.
 SHERSHAH (INTERREGNUM)
o Sher Shah was the founder of Sur Dynasty.
o His original name was Farid.
o He was the son of Hasan Khan, a jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar.
o He was given the title Sher Khan for his bravery under the Afghan Rule of Bihar.
o Sher Shah Sur’s conquests include Bundelkhand, Malwa, Multan, Punjab, and Sind.
o His empire occupied the whole of North India except Assam, Gujarat, Kashmir, and Nepal.
o Though his rule lasted for only 5 years, he has organized an excellent administrative system.
o The king was aided by four important ministers.
 Diwan –i- Wizarat or Wazir – in charge of Revenue and Finance
 Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army
 Diwan-i-Rasalat – Foreign Minister
 Diwan-i-Insha – Minister for Communications
o Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty-seven Sarkars
o Each sarkar was further divided into various Parganas and in charge of various officers.
 Shiqdar – Military Officer
 Amin – Land Revenue
 Fotedar – Treasurer

 Karkuns – Accountants
o Under Sher Shah, the land revenue administration was well organized.
o The land survey was sensibly done.
o All cultivable lands were classified into three classes – good, middle and bad.
o The state’s share was one-third of the average production and it was paid in cash or crop.
o Sher Shah introduced new copper coins called “Dam”. It is believed that this coin is one of the
possible sources for the English phrase “I don’t give a dam(n)″, due to its small worth.
o Police were competently restructured and crime was less during his regime.
o Shah borrowed many ideas like the branding of horses from Alauddin Khalji
o Sher Shah had also developed the communications by laying four important highways.
 Sonargaon to Sind
 Agra to Berhampur
 Jodhpur to Chittor
 Lahore to Multan
Estimate of Sher Shah

o Sher Shah remained a pious Muslim and generally tolerant towards other religions.
o He also employed Hindus in important offices.
o The old fort called Purana Qila and its mosque was built during his period.
o He also built a Mausoleum at Sasaram, which is considered as one of the masterpieces of Indian
architecture.
o The famous Hindi work Padmavat by Malik Muhammad Jayasi was written during his
reign.
o In 1545, Sher Shah died and his successors ruled till 1555 later when Humayun reconquered India.
 AKBAR (1556-1605 AD)

o Akbar was one of the greatest monarchs of the Mughal dynasty. He was the son of Humayun and
Hamida Banu Begum, born at Amarkot in c. 1542 CE.
o When Humayun fled to Iran, young Akbar was captured by his uncle Kamran, but he treated him
well. Akbar was reunited with his parents after the capture of Qandahar.
o When Humayun died, Akbar was at Kalanaur in Punjab, commanding operations against the
Afghan rebels there.
o He was crowned at Kalanaur in c. 1556 CE at the young age of 13 years and 4 months.
o During the first few years of Akbar’s reign (c. 1556 – 1560 CE), Bairam Khan acted as his regent.
Bairam Khan was Humayun’s confidante and gained the title of Khan-i-Khanan.
o Bairam Khan represented Akbar in the Second Battle of Panipat (c. 1556 CE) with Hemu
Vikramaditya (wazir of Adil Shah of Bengal) who led the Afghan forces. Hemu was almost on
the point of victory but an arrow pierced his eye and he became unconscious. His army fled and
fortune favoured the Mughals.
o During the regency period of Bairam Khan, Mughal territories were extended from Kabul up to
Jaunpur in the east, and Ajmer in the west. Gwalior was also captured.
o Bairam Khan emerged as the most powerful noble and started appointing his own supporters on
important positions neglecting the old nobles. This caused resentment among other nobles who
managed to influence Akbar as well. The growing arrogance of Bairam Khan also aggravated the
problem.
o Akbar removed him and gave him the option of serving at the court or anywhere outside it or retiring
to Mecca. Bairam Khan chose Mecca but on his way was killed by an Afghan at Patan near Ahmedabad.
Bairam’s wife and his young child were brought to Akbar at Agra.

o Akbar married his widow and brought

up Bairam’s child as his own who later
became famous as Abdur Rahim
Khan-i-Khanan, a noted Hindi poet
and an influential noble.
o Akbar had to face rebellions from many
groups and individuals in the nobility.
This included his foster mother,
Maham Anaga and her relations,
particularly her son, Adham Khan.
o In c. 1561 CE, Adham Khan defeated
Baz Bahadur and emerged victorious at
Malwa. Adham Khan followed his
victory at Malwa with an almost total
massacre of the defending army,
women and even children and sent only
parts of the booty to Akbar. Removed
from command, he laid claim to the
post of wazir and when this was not
granted, he stabbed the acting wazir in
his office. Akbar was enraged and threw
him down from the Agra Fort.
o Uzbeks held important positions in
eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and
Malwa. Between c. 1561- 1567 CE, they broke out in rebellion several times. Meanwhile, a rebellion by
the Mirzas, who were Timurids, also turned against the emperor. Encouraged by these rebellions,
Akbar’s half brother, Mirza Hakim, who had seized control of Kabul advanced into Punjab and
besieged Lahore.
o The Uzbek rebel nobles declared Mirza Hakim as the emperor of Hindustan. However, by sheer grit,
determination and a certain amount of luck, Akbar overcame these rebellions. Mirza Hakim was forced
to flee to Kabul and the rebellion of the Mirzas was crushed, while the Uzbeks were completely routed
by c. 1567 CE.
 EARLY EXPANSION OF THE EMPIRE (C. 1560- 1576 CE)

Conquest of Gwalior, Malwa and Gondwana
o The first expedition was sent to capture Gwalior (c. 1559-1560 CE) before moving towards Malwa.
o Adham Khan, son of Akbar’s foster mother, Maham Anaga defeated the ruler of Malwa, Baz Bahadur
(c. 1561 CE). Due to the senseless cruelties of Adham Khan and his successor, there was a reaction
against the Mughals which enabled Baz Bahadur to recover Malwa. After successfully dealing with a
number of rebellions, Akbar sent another expedition to Malwa. Baz Bahadur had to flee and he took
shelter under the Rana of Mewar. Later he moved from one place to another and finally surrendered at
Akbar’s court and was appointed as a Mughal mansabdar. Thus, Malwa came under the Mughal rule.
o The kingdom of Garh-Katanga (Gondwana) included the Narmada Valley and the northern parts
of present-day Madhya Pradesh. The kingdom consisted of a number of Gond and Rajput
principalities. It was ruled by Durgavati, the Chandella princess from Mahoba and the widow of
Dalpat Shah, son of Sangram Shah. She ruled the kingdom with great vigour and courage. Meanwhile,
the cupidity of Asaf Khan, the Mughal governor of Allahabad was aroused by the stories of the splendid
wealth and beauty of Rani Durgavati. In c.1564 CE, he attacked Gondwana; Rani Durgavati fought
bravely but lost the battle. She stabbed herself to death and Gondwana was captured by Asaf Khan.

o Akbar later restored the kingdom of Garh-Katanga to Chandra Shah, the younger son of
Sangram Shah, after taking ten forts to round off the kingdom of Malwa.
Conquest of Rajasthan
o Akbar was well aware of the importance of the Rajput kingdoms and wanted them as allies in order to
establish a large empire.
o The Rajput policy of Akbar was notable. He married the Rajput princess Jodha Bai, daughter of
Raja Bharamal of Amber.
o He inducted Rajputs into Mughal services and many of them rose to the position of military generals.
Bhagwant Das, son of Raja Bharamal was appointed joint governor of Lahore, his son Man Singh
was appointed the governor of Bihar and Bengal.
o The Rajput kingdoms Merta and Jodhpur were captured without much resistance.
o A major step in his campaign against the Rajput states was the siege of Chittor which was
considered a key to central Rajasthan. In c. 1568 CE, Chittor fell after a gallant siege of 6 months. At
the advice of his nobles, Rana Udai Singh retired to the hills, leaving the famous warriors – Jaimal
and Patta in charge of the fort..
o The Ranas of Mewar continued to defy despite several defeats. In the famous Battle of Haldighati,
Rana Pratap Singh, ruler of Mewar was defeated by the Mughal army led by Man Singh in 1576.
o After the fall of Chittor, Ranthambhore (the most powerful fortress in Rajasthan) and
Kalinjar were conquered. As a result of these successful conquests, most of the Rajput Rajas,
including those of Bikaner and Jaisalmer submitted to Akbar. By c. 1570 CE, Akbar had conquered
almost the whole of Rajasthan.
o In spite of the subjugation of the whole of Rajasthan, there was no hostility between the Rajputs and
the Mughals. Akbar’s Rajput policy was combined with broad religious toleration.
o He abolished the pilgrim tax and the practice of forcible conversion of prisoners of war.
o In c. 1564 CE, he abolished the jizya which was often considered a symbol of Muslim domination
and superiority. The Rajput policy of Akbar proved beneficial to the Mughal empire as well as to the
Rajputs. The alliance secured to the Mughal empire the services of the bravest warriors in India. The
steadfast loyalty of the Rajputs became an important factor in the consolidation and expansion of the
empire.
Conquest of Gujarat, Bihar and Bengal

o Since the death of Bahadur Shah, Gujarat was in a state of confusion. Also, the Mirzas who rebelled
against the Mughal rule had taken refuge in Gujarat. Akbar did not want Gujarat which was a rich
province to become a rival centre of power. In c. 1572 CE, Akbar advanced on Ahmedabad via
Ajmer and defeated Muzaffar Shah, the Gujarat ruler without much resistance.
o Akbar built the Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri to celebrate the win of Gujarat. Akbar
then turned his attention to the Mirzas who held Broach, Baroda and Surat. In a short span of time,
most of the principalities of Gujarat were brought under Mughal control.
o Akbar organised Gujarat into a province and placed it under Mirza Aziz Koka and returned
to the capital. However, just within six months, rebellions broke out all over Gujarat. Hearing the
news, Akbar quickly marched out of Agra and reached Ahmedabad in just ten days. He defeated the
enemy and suppressed the rebellion (c. 1573 CE). After this, Akbar turned his attention to Bengal.
o Bengal and Bihar were dominated by the Afghans. They had also captured Orissa and killed its
ruler. Internal fights among the Afghans and the declaration of independence by the new ruler, Daud
Khan, gave Akbar the excuse he was seeking. Akbar first captured Patna and then returned to Agra,
leaving Khan-i-Khanan Munaim Khan in charge of the campaign.
o The Mughal forces invaded Bengal and Daud Khan was forced to sue for peace. However, he soon
revolted and in a stiff battle in Bihar in c. 1576, Daud Khan was defeated and executed on the spot.
This ended the last Afghan kingdom in Northern India. It also brought an end to the first phase of
Akbar’s expansion of the empire.

Rebellions and further expansion of the Mughal Empire

o Around c. 1580 – 1581 CE, Akbar had to deal with a series of rebellions, particularly in Bengal, Bihar,
Gujarat and the northwest.
o The main cause of the rebellion was the strict enforcement of the dagh system or branding
of the horses of the jagirdars and strict accounting of their income. The discontent was further
aggravated by some religious divines who were unhappy at Akbar’s liberal views, and his policy of
resuming the large revenue-free grants of land which had been obtained by them sometimes illegally.
The rebellions kept the Mughal empire distracted for almost two years (c. 1580 – 1581 CE).
o Due to the mishandling of the situation by local officials, Bengal and almost the whole of Bihar passed
into the hands of the rebels who proclaimed Mirza Hakim (who was in Kabul) as their ruler. Akbar
sent a large force under Raja Todar Mal and Shaikh Farid Bakshi, and brought the situation in
the east under control. Raja Man Singh and Bhagwan Das offered a stout defense to Mirza Hakim’s
attack on Lahore. Akbar crowned his success by marching to Kabul (c. 1581 CE). Akbar handed over
Kabul to his sister, Bakhtunissa Begum and later on, Raja Man Singh was appointed
governor of Kabul and it was handed over to him as jagir.
o Abdullah Khan Uzbek, the hereditary enemy of the Mughals, had been gradually gaining strength in
Central Asia. In c. 1584 CE, he overran Badakhshan which had been ruled by the Timurids and next, he
was aiming at Kabul. Mirza Hakim and the Timurid princes who were ousted from Badakhshan now
appealed to Akbar for help. Akbar sent Man Singh to Kabul and himself moved to Attok on the river
Indus. Akbar wanted to block all roads to the Uzbeks, so he sent expeditions against Kashmir (c. 1586
CE) and against Balochistan. The whole of Kashmir including Ladakh and Baltistan (called
Tibet Khurd and Tibet Buzurg) came under the control of Mughals.
o Expeditions were also sent to clear the Khyber pass which had been blocked by the rebellious
tribesmen of Roshanai. The sect was established by a soldier called Pir Roshanai and his son Jalala
was the head of the sect. In this expedition, Akbar’s favourite, Raja Birbal lost his life. But the
tribesmen were gradually forced to submit.
o In c. 1590 CE, the conquest of Sindh opened the trade down the river Indus for Punjab. By c. 1595 CE,
Mughal supremacy was established over the northwest region. Akbar stayed at Lahore till c. 1598 CE
when the death of Abdullah Uzbek finally removed the threat from the side of the Uzbeks. The
consolidation of the northwest and fixing a frontier of the empire were two major contributions of
Akbar.
o After the consolidation of the northwest region, Akbar turned his attention towards the affairs of
eastern and western India, and the Deccan.
o In c. 1592 CE, Raja Man Singh, the Mughal governor of Bengal conquered Orissa which at
that time was under the control of Afghan chiefs.
o He also conquered Cooch-Bihar and parts of East Bengal, including Dacca.
o Mirza Aziz Koka, the foster brother of Akbar, brought Kathiawar in the west under the
domain of the Mughal empire.
o In c. 1591 CE, Akbar adopted a policy of aggression towards the Deccan and sent an expedition to the
Deccan under the command of Prince Murad (who was the governor of Gujarat) and Abdul
Rahim Khan Khanan.
o In c. 1595 CE, Mughal forces invaded Ahmednagar and Chand Bibi (who was the sister of
the deceased Sultan Burhan) was defeated.
o After huge losses, an agreement was signed and Chand Bibi ceded Berar to the Mughals. After some
time, Chand Bibi tried to regain control over Berar with the help of Adil Shahi and Qutab Shahi.
o The Mughals suffered huge losses but could retain their position.
o Meanwhile, differences grew between Prince Murad and Abdul Rahim Khan Khanan that weakened
the Mughal position.
o Akbar recalled Khan Khanan and deputed Abu Fazl to the Deccan.
o After Prince Murad’s death in c. 1598 CE, Prince Daniyal (youngest son of Akbar) and Khan
Khanan were sent to the Deccan and Ahmednagar was again captured.

o Soon, Mughals also captured Asirgarh and adjoining regions bringing them into direct conflict with the
Marathas.
o Akbar died in c. 1605 CE and was buried at Sikandra (near Agra).
 ART AND ARCHITECTURE

o During the reign of Akbar, many indigenous art styles were encouraged which led to the
common use of sandstone.
o Akbar built a series of forts, the most famous of which is the fort at Agra (in red sandstone). His
other forts are at Lahore and Allahabad.
o Akbar built Fatehpur Sikri (city of victory) near Agra. Many buildings of Gujarati and Bengali
styles are found in this complex. The most magnificent building in it is the Jama Masjid and the
gateway to it is called Buland Darwaza (176 ft high), built in c. 1572 CE to commemorate Akbar’s
victory over Gujarat. Other important buildings at Fatehpur Sikri are Jodha Bai’s palace and Panch
Mahal with five storeys.
o He built his own tomb at Sikandra (near Agra) which was completed by Jahangir.
o Akbar built a temple of Govindadeva at Vrindavan.
o He also built Jahangir Mahal in Agra Fort.
o Akbar commissioned the illustrations of several literary and religious texts. He invited a large number
of painters from different parts of the country to his court. Both Hindus and Muslims joined in this
work.
o Baswan, Miskina and Daswant attained great positions as Akbar’s court artists.
o Illustrations of Persian versions of Mahabharata and Ramayana were produced in
miniature form.
o Many other Indian fables became miniature paintings in the art studio established by Akbar.
o Historical works like Akbarnama also remained the main themes of Mughal paintings.
o Hamzanama is considered to be the most important work which consisted of 1200 paintings. Indian
colours such as peacock blue, Indian red began to be used.
o Akbar patronised Tansen of Gwalior who composed many ragas..
o The Persian language became widespread in the Mughal empire by the time of Akbar’s reign. Abul
Fazl was a great scholar and historian of his period. He set a style of prose writing and it was followed
for many generations.
o Many historical works were written during this period. They include Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama
by Abul Fazl.
o The translation of Mahabharata into the Persian language was done under the
supervision of Abul Faizi (brother of Abul Fazl).
o Utbi and Naziri were the other two leading Persian poets. From the time of Akbar, Hindi poets were
attached to the Mughal court.
o The most famous Hindi poet was Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the Ramayana – the
Ramacharitmanas.
 ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM OF AKBAR

Organisation of Government
o Akbar paid great attention to the organisation of the central and provincial governments. His system of
central government was based on the structure of government that had evolved under the Delhi
Sultanate but the functions of various departments were carefully reorganised and meticulous rules
and regulations were laid down for the conduct of affairs.
o The territories of the empire were classified into Jagir, Inam and Khalisa.
 The Inam lands were those which were allotted to the religious and learned men.
 Jagirs were allotted to nobles and members of the royal family including the queens.
 Income from the Khalisa villages went directly to the royal exchequer.

Central Administration
o The emperor was the supreme head of the administration and controlled all military
The emperor and judicial powers.
o He had the authority to appoint, promote and remove officials at his pleasure.
o The Central Asian and Timurid tradition was of having an all-powerful wazir under
whom various heads of departments functioned.
o He was the principal link between the ruler and the administration.
o Bairam Khan, in his capacity as wakil, exercised the power of an all-powerful
wazir.
o Akbar reorganised the central machinery of administration based on division of
power between various departments, and of checks and balances.
o Akbar took away the financial powers from the Wazir.
Wazir
o While the post of wakil was not abolished, it was stripped of all power. This post was
given to important nobles from time to time, but they played little part in
administration.
o The head of the revenue department continued to be wazir, but he was no
longer the principal adviser to the ruler.
o The wazir was an expert in revenue affairs and was titled diwan or diwan-i-aala.
o The diwan was responsible for all incomes and expenditures and held control over
Khalisa, Inam and Jagir lands.
o Mir Bakshi was the head of the military department and also the head of the
nobility.
o Recommendations for appointment to mansabs or for promotions, etc. were
made to the emperor through him. After acceptance of the recommendations by the
emperor, it was sent to the diwan for confirmation and for granting a jagir to the
Mir Bakshi appointee.
o He was also the head of the intelligence and information agencies of the empire.
o Intelligence officers (Barids) and news reporters (waqia-navis) were
posted to all parts of the empire.
o It was Mir Bakshi who presented the intelligence reports to the emperor.
o An important officer who was in charge of the royal household and royal
workshops called karkhanas.
o He was responsible for all kinds of purchases, manufacturing of different kinds of
Mir Saman items for use and their storage for the royal household. Only trustworthy nobles
were appointed to this post.
o The maintenance of etiquettes at the court, the control of royal bodyguards, etc.
were all under the supervision of Mir Saman.
o Chief Qazi was the head of the judicial department.
o This post was sometimes combined with that of the Chief Sadar (Sadrus Sudur)
who was responsible for all charitable and religious endowments. Interestingly, the
Chief Qazi/ chief Qazi during Akbar’s reign, Abdun Nabi, was accused of corruption. Later,
Sadrus several restrictions were imposed on the authority of the Sadar for the award of
Sudur revenue-free grants.
o Two important features of the inam grants were-
 Akbar made it a deliberate part of his policy to grant inam lands to all persons
irrespective of religious faith and beliefs. Sanads of grant to various Hindu

maths made by Akbar are still preserved.

 Akbar made it a rule that half of the inam land should consist of cultivable
wasteland. Thus, inam holders were encouraged to extend cultivation.
o These were appointed to ensure the general observance of the rules of morality.
Mutasibs
o They also examined weights and measures and enforced fair prices, etc.
Provincial Administration
o In c. 1580 CE, Akbar divided the empire into 12 subas or provinces.
o These were Bengal, Bihar, Allahabad, Awadh, Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Kabul, Ajmer, Malwa and
Gujarat.
o Later on, Berar, Ahmednagar and Khandesh were added. With the expansion of the Mughal empire,
the number of provinces rose to twenty.
o The empire was divided into-
o Each suba was under the control of a Subedar (provincial governor) who was directly
appointed by the emperor. He maintained general law and order.
o The head of the revenue department in the suba was Diwan. He supervised the
revenue collection in the suba and maintained accounts of all expenditures.
o Also, taccavi (advance loans) were given to peasants through his office.
o The Bakshi was appointed at the recommendations of the Mir Bakshi, and he performed
the same functions as were performed by Mir Bakshi at the centre. He issued the pay
Suba bills of both the mansabdar and the soldiers.
o Sadar was the representative of the central Sadar at the provincial level. He was in
charge of the judicial department and supervised the working of the qazis. He
also looked after the welfare of those who were engaged in religious activities and
learning.
o Darogai-i-Dak, appointed at the provincial level, was responsible for maintaining
the communication channel.
o He used to send letters to the court through the Merwars (postal runners).
Sarkar The chief officers of the Sarkar were:

o Faujdar – He was primarily responsible for maintaining law and order.

o Amalguzar – The Amalguzar or Amil was responsible for the assessment and collection
of the land revenue.
o The faujdari was an administrative division whereas Sarkar was a territorial and revenue
division.
o The shiqdar was the executive officer at the level of the pargana.
o He assisted the Amil in the collection of revenue.
Pargana
o The Quanungo was in charge of land records in the Pargana.
o The Kotwals in the towns were responsible for maintaining law and order.
o The village headman was called the Muqaddam and the patwari looked after the land
revenue records.
Village
o The zamindars maintained law and order in their areas and also helped in revenue
collection.
Land Revenue Administration

o The land revenue system of Akbar was called Zabti or Bandobast system.
o It was based on Sher Shah’s land revenue system with certain modifications.
o It was further improved by Raja Todar Mal and was named as Dahsala system which was
completed in c. 1580 CE.
o By this system, Todar Mal introduced a uniform system of land measurement. The revenue was
fixed on the average yield of land assessed on the basis of the past ten (dah) years.
o One-third of the average produce was the state share and payments were generally made in cash.
o The land was classified into four-
 Polaj (cultivated every year)
 Parauti (cultivated once in two years)
 Chachar (cultivated once in three or four years) and
 Banjar (once in five or more years).
 Both chachar and banjar were assessed at concessional rates.
o Officials called karoris were appointed who were responsible for the collection of crores of dams (Rs.
2,50,000) and also checked the facts and figures issued by the qanungos.
o Akbar was keenly interested in the improvement and expansion of cultivation.
o The Amil (revenue officers) were directed to advance money by way of taccavi (loans) to the peasants
for implements, seeds, animals, etc. in times of need and to recover them in easy installments.
o Akbar’s settlement (with some changes) remained the basis of the land revenue system of the Mughal
empire till the end of the 17th century.
Mansabdari System
o Akbar organised the nobility as well as his army by means of the mansabdari system.
o Under this system, every officer was assigned a rank – mansab.
o The highest rank was 5000 for the nobles and the lowest was 10.
o Princes of the royal families received even higher mansabs.
o Two premier nobles of the empire, Mirza Aziz Koka and Raja Man Singh were honoured
with the rank of 7000 each.
o All appointments, promotions and dismissals were made by the emperor himself.
o At first, there was only one rank but later, the ranks were divided into two-
 Zat Rank – The word ‘zat’ means personal. It fixed the personal status of a person, and also the salary
due to him.

 Sawar Rank – It indicated the number of cavalrymen (sawars) a person was required to maintain.
 There were three categories in every rank (mansab). A person who was required to maintain as many
sawars as his zat was placed in the first category of that rank; if he maintained half or more, then in the
second category and if he maintained less than half then in the third category.
o Persons holding ranks below 500 zat were called mansabdars, those from 500 to below 2500 were
called amirs and those holding ranks of 1500 and above were called amir-i-umda or amir-i-azam.
However, the word mansabdar is sometimes used for all categories.
o Apart from status, this classification had a significance, an amir or an amir-i-umda could have another
amir or mansabdar to serve under him, but a mansabdar could not do so. Persons were usually
appointed at low mansab and gradually promoted depending upon their merits and the favour of the
emperor.
o In addition to meeting his personal expenses, the mansabdar had to maintain a stipulated quota of
horses, elephants, beasts of burden (camels and mules) and carts out of his salary. Later, these were
maintained centrally but the mansabdar had to pay for them out of his salary. The Mughal mansabdars
formed the highest-paid service in the world.
o The chehra (descriptive roll of every soldier) and dagh system (branding of horses) was
followed. Every noble had to bring his contingent for periodic inspection before persons appointed by
the emperor for the purpose. Ideally, a 10-20 rule was followed which meant that, for every 10
cavalrymen, the mansabdar had to maintain 20 horses. Interestingly, a sawar with only one horse was
considered to be only half a sawar.
o Provision was made that the contingent of the nobles should be a mixed one – drawn from all the
groups, Mughal, Pathan, Rajput and Hindustani. Thus, Akbar tried to weaken the forces of tribalism
and parochialism.
o The mansabdari system as it developed under the Mughals was a distinctive and unique system that
did not have any exact parallel outside India. However, the lack of a strong navy remained a key
weakness of the Mughal empire.
The Jagirdari System

o Jagirdari system was assigning revenue of a particular territory to the nobles for their services to the
state.
o It was a modified version of Iqta of the Delhi Sultanate and was an integral part of the
mansabdari system.
o The office of the central Diwan would identify parganas the sum total of whose jama was equal to
the salary claim of the mansabdar. If the recorded jama was greater than the salary claim, the
mansabdar was asked to deposit the extra with the central treasury. However, if the jama was less than
the salary claim the remaining was paid from the treasury.
o Classification of jagirs:
Tankha Jagirs given in lieu of salaries and were transferable

were hereditary and non-transferable. It was given to zamindars or rajas in their
local dominion. When a zamindar was appointed as mansabdar, he was given
Watan Jagirs
tankha jagir in addition to his watan jagir if the salary of his rank was more than his
income from watan jagir
Mashrut Jagirs jagirs assigned on certain conditions
Altamgha Jagirs assigned to Muslim nobles in their family towns or place of birth
o Zamindars had hereditary rights over the produce of the land and had a direct share of 10-25
% in the peasants’ produce.
o He assisted the state in the collection of the revenue and also rendered military services to the state at
times of need.

o The zamindar was not the owner of all the lands comprising his zamindari.
o The peasants who actually cultivated the land could not be dispossessed as long as they paid the land
revenue.
o Both the zamindars and peasants had their own hereditary rights over the land.
 RELIGIOUS POLICY UNDER AKBAR

o Akbar laid the foundation of an empire based on equal rights to all citizens, irrespective of their
religious beliefs. After marrying Jodha Bai of Amber, he abolished jizya and also the pilgrim tax.
o The liberal principles of the empire were strengthened by bringing able Hindus into the nobility.
For instance, Raja Todar Mal rose to the post of diwan and Birbal who was a constant companion of
Akbar.
o Akbar was deeply interested in religion and philosophy. At first, Akbar was an orthodox Muslim. He
held in high esteem the leading qazi of the state, Abdun Nabi Khan, who was Sadr-us-Sadur. Gradually
he moved away from the path of narrow orthodoxy.
o In c. 1575 CE, Akbar built a hall called Ibadat Khana or the Hall of Prayer at his new capital,
Fatehpur Sikri wherein he invited learned scholars from all religions like Hinduism, Jainism,
Christianity and Zoroastrianism and used to conduct religious discussions with them. Some of the
scholars were –
 Dastur Maharji Rana – Parsi (of Navsari)
 Hira Vijaya Suri – Jain saint of Kathiawar
 Purushottam Das – Hindu
 Aquaviva and Monserrate – Christian (sent by the Portuguese on Akbar’s request)
o In c. 1582 CE, Akbar discontinued the debates in the Ibadat Khana as it led to bitterness, the
representative of each religion denounced the other and tried to prove that his religion is the best.
o In c. 1579 CE, Akbar also issued a declaration or mahzar which was called “Decree of
Infallibility” by which he asserted his religious powers.
o He was entitled to choose any of the interpretations of the holy book, Quran, if there were a
difference of opinion among the ulamas.
o In c. 1582 CE, he set up a new religion called Din-i-Ilahi/Tawhid-i-Ilahi (Divine
Monotheism) which believes in one God and Sulh-i-Kul i.e, equal toleration and respect to all religious
sects. It contained the good points of various religions.
o The Tawhid-i-Ilahi was an order of the Sufistic type. It, however, virtually died with the death
of Akbar.
Akbar’s Navratnas
o Nine of the courtiers were known as Akbar’s navratnas (nine jewels).
o He authored Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari.

Abul Fazl o He led the Mughal army in its war in Deccan.
o On the orders of Prince Salim, he was killed by Bir Singh Bundela.
o He was a great Persian poet.
o Brother of Abul Fazl.
Faizi o Under his supervision, the Mahabharata was translated into the Persian
language.
o He also translated Lilavati (a work on mathematics) into Persian.
o He served as a great musician in the court of king Ramachandra who titled
Tansen
him “Tansen”. He was born as Tanna Mishra.

o Akbar gave him the title of “Mian”.

o It is believed that he could bring fire and rain through singing the ragas Deepak
and Megh Malhar respectively.
o His original name was Mahesh Das.
Raja Birbal o Akbar gave him the title of “Raja” and “Birbal”.
o He died on the northwest frontier fighting the Yusuf Shahis.
o He was the head of the revenue system. He introduced standard weights and
measures.
Raja Todar Mal
o He had earlier worked under Sher Shah Suri.
o Akbar honoured him with the title of “Diwan-i-Ashraf”.
Raja Man Singh o One of the trusted generals of Akbar.
o He was one of the chief advisors of Akbar.
Fakir Aziao Din
o He was a Sufi mystic.
Abdul Rahim o Son of Bairam Khan.
Khan-i-Khanan o He was a great poet. He translated Baburnama into Persian.
o Also known as Khan-i-Azam or Kotaltash.
Mirza Aziz Koka o Foster brother of Akbar.
o He was also appointed Subedar of Gujarat.
 JAHANGIR (1605-1627 AD)

o Salim was the eldest son of Jodha Bai and Akbar, who succeeded to the throne in c.1605 CE, after the
death of Akbar. He assumed the title of Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir (conqueror of the
world).
o He married Mehr-un-nisa in c.1611 CE (widow of Sher Afghan) who was also known as Nur
Jahan (light of the world).
o Her father Itimad Ud daulah was a respectable man and was made chief Diwan by Jahangir. Her
other family members also benefited from this alliance.
o Her elder brother, Asaf Khan was appointed as Khan-i-Saman, a post reserved for the nobles. In c.
1612 CE, Asaf Khan’s elder daughter, Arjmand Banu Begum (later known as Mumtaz) married
Jahangir’s third son, Prince Khurram (later known as Shah Jahan).
o Nur Jahan immensely influenced the life of Jahangir. She was the only woman in the Mughal court
and coins were struck in her name. Also, all royal farmans had her name. She even accompanied
Jahangir in hunting.
o Jahangir had to face rebellions from his sons – Khusrau and Khurram.
Khusrau’s rebellion
o Jahangir’s eldest son (with Man Bai, daughter of Bhagwan Das), broke out into rebellion. However,
Khusrau’s rebellion proved to be short-lived.
o Jahangir defeated him at a battle near Lahore and soon afterwards he was captured and imprisoned.
Arjun Dev, the fifth Sikh Guru was beheaded for supporting Khusrau.
Shah Jahan’s rebellion

o Some modern historians are of the opinion that Nur Jahan, along with her father, brother and in
alliance with Khurram, formed a group or ‘junta’ which managed Jahangir so that without its support
no one could advance in his career.

o It is further said that Nur Jahan’s political ambitions led to the differences between her and Shah
Jahan. These differences drove Shah Jahan into rebellion against his father in (c. 1622 CE), since he
felt that Jahangir was completely under the influence of Nur Jahan.
o However, some historians believe that Shah Jahan revolted against his father due to his personal
ambitions.
o The immediate cause of the rebellion was Shah Jahan’s refusal to proceed to Qandahar
which had been besieged by the Persians. He was afraid that the campaign would be a long and
difficult one and that intrigues would be hatched against him during his absence from the court.
Hence, he put forth a number of demands like full command of the army which included the veterans
of the Deccan, complete sway over Punjab, control over a number of important forts, etc.
o In the battle near Delhi, Shah Jahan was defeated by the forces led by Mahabat Khan. This
rebellion distracted the Mughals for 4 years till c. 1626 CE when both father and son reconciled.
o This rebellion led to the loss of Qandahar and emboldened the Deccan to recover all the territories
surrendered to the Mughals during Akbar’s reign.
Mughal expansion under Jahangir

o The main achievement of Jahangir was the settlement of the outstanding dispute with Mewar.
o In c. 1615 CE, Amar Singh of Mewar (son of Maharana Pratap) submitted before
Jahangir. Rana’s son, Karan Singh was made mansabdar with the rank of 5000, which had
earlier been accorded to the rulers of Jodhpur, Bikaner and Amber. Thus, Jahangir completed the task
begun by Akbar, and further strengthened the alliance with the Rajputs.
o With the help of Maratha sardars, Khan-i-Khanan inflicted a crushing defeat on the
combined forces of Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda in c. 1616 CE. This defeat shook the
Deccani alliance against the Mughals.
o Jahangir was the first Muslim ruler to annex Kangra (in c. 1620 CE).
o In c. 1622 CE, Mughals lost Qandahar and was captured by Shah Abbas of Persia.
o Jahangir tried to follow an expansionist policy in the Deccan, however, he achieved little success. This
was mainly due to Malik Ambar, who led the Deccani struggle against the Mughals.
o Malik Ambar with the help of the Marathas and Ibrahim Adil Shah, ruler of Bijapur,
made it difficult for the Mughals to consolidate their position in Berar, Ahmednagar and Balaghat.
o During Jahangir’s reign, conflict arose in the east. In c. 1608 CE, Jahangir sent Islam Khan, the
grandson of Sheikh Salim Chisti (famous Sufi saint) to Bengal. Islam Khan handled the revolt
with great energy and foresight. He defeated the Afghan rebels and thus Mughal power was firmly
established in East Bengal.
o After the death of Jahangir in c. 1627 CE, Shah Jahan reached Agra and with the support
of the nobles, chief Diwan Asaf Khan, and the army, Shah Jahan ascended the throne.
o Nur Jahan was given a pension and lived a retired life till her death 18 years later, and was buried at
Lahore.
o During Jahangir’s reign, the British visited Machilipatnam. Captain Hawkins (c. 1608-
1611CE) and Thomas Roe (c. 1615- 1619 CE) visited his court.
o Thomas Roe got the farman for setting up an English factory at Surat.
o He mostly stayed in Lahore and banned the killing of animals for food on Tuesdays and Fridays.
o He wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in Persian. He also patronised Farhang-i-
Jahangiri, a valuable dictionary.
o During his reign, Khafi Khan wrote Muntakhab-i-Lubab and Hamid Lahori wrote Padshah
Namah.
o Constructing buildings with marble and decorating the walls with floral designs made of semi-
precious stones (Pietra Dura) started during his reign.
o He visited Kashmir and laid a number of gardens there like Shalimar Bagh, Nishat Bagh.
o He built the Moti Masjid at Lahore and also his own mausoleum at Lahore.
o Mughal painting reached its peak under Jahangir.

o The use of “halo” or “Divine lights” behind the king’s head started under him.
 SHAH JAHAN (1628-1658 AD)

o Shah Jahan ascended the throne in c.1628 CE at Agra. His mother was a Hindu Jagat Gosain. He
was married to Arjmand Banu Begum (Mumtaz Mahal).
Deccan Policy
o As a ruler, Shah Jahan’s first concern was to recover the territories in the Deccan which had been lost
to the Nizam Shahi ruler. He deputed Khan-i-Jahan Lodhi for this purpose but he failed and he was
recalled to the court. Soon, Khan-i-Jahan Lodhi joined the Nizam Shahi ruler. This infuriated Shah
Jahan and he decided to follow an aggressive policy to recover lost territories of the Deccan.
o His Deccan policy was more successful than Akbar and Jahangir. After ascertaining the facts,
he came to the conclusion that there could be no peace for the Mughals in the Deccan as long as
Ahmednagar continued as an independent state. He successfully isolated Ahmednagar by
winning over Bijapur and the Marathas.
o Fath Khan, the son of Malik Ambar, also joined the Mughals and Shah Jahan appointed Mahbat
Khan as Mughal viceroy of Deccan. But the conflict with the Deccan states continued and finally,
in c 1636 CE, ahdnama (treaties) were signed with Bijapur and Golconda.
o According to the agreement with Bijapur, Adil Shah agreed to recognise the Mughal
suzerainty, to pay an indemnity of twenty lakh rupees and to not interfere in the affairs of Golconda
which was brought under Mughal protection.
o Any dispute between Bijapur and Golconda was to be referred to the Mughal emperor for
arbitration. Adil Shah also agreed to cooperate with the Mughals in reducing Shahji to submission.
o In return for these, territory worth about twenty lakh huns (about 80 lakh rupees) annually belonging
to Ahmednagar was ceded to Bijapur. Shah Jahan also sent to Adil Shah a solemn farman impressed
with the mark of the emperor’s palm that the terms of this treaty would never be violated.
o Shah Jahan completed the settlement of the Deccan by entering into a treaty with Golconda
as well. The ruler agreed to include the name of Shah Jahan in the khutba and to exclude the
name of the Iranian emperor from it.
o Qutb Shah took an oath of loyalty towards the Mughal emperor. The annual tribute of four
lakh huns which Golconda was previously paying to Bijapur was remitted, instead, Golconda was
required to pay two lakh huns annually to the Mughal emperor.
o The treaties of c. 1636 CE with Bijapur and Golconda enabled Shah Jahan to realise the
ultimate objectives of Akbar. The suzerainty of the Mughal emperor was now accepted over the length
and breadth of the country.
o Peace with the Mughals enabled the Deccani states to expand their territories towards the south.
o In the decade following the ahdnama of c. 1636 CE, Bijapur and Golconda overran the rich and fertile
land of Karnataka, from the river Krishna to Tanjore and beyond.
o In a short span of time, the territories of these two states were more than doubled and they reached the
climax of their power and prosperity. However, rapid expansion weakened the internal cohesion these
states had.
o Ambitious nobles such as Shahji and his son Shivaji, in Bijapur and Mir Jumla, the legendary noble of
Golconda started carving out spheres of influence for themselves and this again led to the conflicting
atmosphere in the Deccan. The Mughals demanded a price for their benevolent neutrality during the
expansionist policy of these states. In c. 1656 CE following the death of Muhammad Adil Shah, treaties
were ignored. Shah Jahan asked his son, Aurangzeb, to conquer and annex the territories of the
Deccan kingdom.
o In c. 1632 CE, Shah Jahan defeated the Portuguese near Hugli due to regular abuse of trading
privileges by them.

o Shah Jahan captured Qandahar (in c. 1639 CE) and fortified it, but Persia wrestled Qandahar
from the Mughals. Shah Jahan launched a prolonged campaign in the northwest frontier to recover
Qandahar and other ancestral lands. However, realising the futility of his ambition, he stopped fighting
and Qandahar became a permanent loss for the Mughals.

o Shah Jahan’s reign is considered the “The Golden Age” of the Mughal empire.
o Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal, one of the seven wonders of the world. Its construction was started in
c. 1631 CE and was completed in 22 years. Its design was prepared by Ustad Isa and Isa
Muhammad Effendi and the main dome was designed by Ismail Khan.
o During Shah Jahan’s reign, mosque building reached its peak. He constructed the Moti Masjid at
Agra (built in white marble), the Sheesh Mahal, Musalman Burj at Agra (where he spent his
last days in captivity) and Jama Masjid at Delhi (in red stone).
o Fort building also reached its peak during the reign of Shah Jahan. The famous Red Fort at Delhi
with its Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-am and Diwan-i-khas was built by him.
o He also built Shalimar Bagh in Lahore and the city of Shahjahanabad. He also got Bebadal
Khan to build the Peacock Throne, on which is inscribed the famous Amir Khusrao couplet “if
there is paradise on earth, it is here”.
o Shah Jahan’s reign is described by French travellers Bernier and Tavernier, Italian
traveller Manucci, and Peter Mundy described famine during Shah Jahan’s time.
o Shah Jahan also patronised many authors and historians like Inayat Khan who wrote Shah
Jahan Nama, his son, Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavad Gita and the Upanishads into
the Persian language.
o The last years of Shah Jahan’s reign were clouded by a bitter war of succession among his four sons –
Dara Shikoh (eldest and crown prince), Shuja (governor of Bengal), Aurangzeb
(governor of Deccan) and Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat). Towards the
end of c. 1657 CE, Shah Jahan fell ill at Delhi for some time but later recovered. But the princes started
fighting for the Mughal throne.
o In the battle of Samugarh (c. 1658 CE), Aurangzeb defeated Dara Shikoh, which practically
decided the issue of succession.
o Aurangzeb crowned himself with the title of “Alamgir” (conqueror of the world) but the civil
war continued for more than two years.
o In the battle of Khajwa (Allahabad) Aurangzeb defeated Shuja and emerged victorious. The
battle of Deorai (c. 1659 CE) was the last battle Dara Shikoh fought against Aurangzeb. Dara Shikoh
was again defeated by Aurangzeb and he had to flee to Afghanistan. However, he was captured,
imprisoned and later, executed by Aurangzeb.
o After the battle of Deorai, the second coronation of Aurangzeb took place.
o Aurangzeb entered the Agra Fort and forced Shah Jahan to surrender. Shah Jahan was confined to the
Agra Fort and strictly put under vigil. Shah Jahan was lovingly nursed by his daughter, Jahan Ara.
He died in c. 1666 CE and was buried beside his wife’s grave in the Taj Mahal.
 AURANGZEB (1658-1707 AD)

o Aurangzeb was one of the ablest of the Mughal kings. He assumed the title “Alamgir” (world
conqueror).
o Aurangzeb ruled for almost 50 years and during his long reign, the Mughal empire reached its
territorial climax. It stretched from Kashmir in the north to Jingi in the south, and from
Hindukush in the west to Chittagong in the east.

North-East Conquest
o In c. 1662 CE, Mir Jumla, the governor of Bengal led the expedition against the Ahoms. He
penetrated up to the limit of the Ahom kingdom, and forced the Ahom king to sign a favourable treaty
(c. 1663 CE). Mir Jumla died soon after his brilliant victory.
o In c. 1667 CE, the Ahoms renewed the contest and recovered the areas ceded to the Mughals.
o Shaista Khan, who succeeded Mir Jumla as the governor of Bengal, captured the island of Sondip
and Chittagong. He also chastised Arakanese pirates.
Conquest of Deccan
o When Aurangzeb became Mughal emperor, for the first 25 years he concentrated on the northern
regions. At that time, Maratha ruler Shivaji carved out an independent kingdom in the territories of
north and south Konkan. To contain the spread of the Marathas, Aurangzeb decided to invade Bijapur
and Golconda.
o He defeated Sikandar Shah of Bijapur and annexed his kingdom (c. 1686 CE). Then he
proceeded against Golconda, eliminated the Qutb Shahi dynasty and annexed it (c. 1687
CE). Along with Bijapur and Golconda, he also seized the territory of Karnataka.
o Aurangzeb made Khirki, founded by Malik Ambar, the capital of Mughal Deccan and
named it Aurangabad.
o In fact, the destruction of the Deccan kingdoms is considered to be a political blunder on the part of
Aurangzeb. The barrier between the Mughals and the Marathas was removed and there ensued a direct
confrontation between them. Also, his Deccan campaigns exhausted the Mughal treasury. According to
J.N Sarkar, the Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangzeb.
Religious Policy and Rebellions

o It is believed that the various rebellions that took place during Aurangzeb’s reign were the outcome of
his harsh religious policy. This included the rebellion of the Jat peasantry at Mathura.
o In c. 1669 CE, the revolt was under the leadership of a local zamindar, Gokla. In a stiff battle,
the Jats were defeated, Gokla captured and executed.
o In c. 1685 CE, there was a second uprising of the Jats under the leadership of Rajaram
and later, under his successor, Churaman (in c. 1691 CE).
o In c. 1672 CE, there was a conflict between the Satnamis and the Mughal state at Narnaul.
The satnamis were mostly peasants, artisans and considered of ‘low caste’.
o At the beginning of his rule, he forbade the kalima being inscribed on coins and abolished the
festival of Navroz (as it was considered a Zoroastrian practice favoured by the Safavid rulers of
Iran).
o The celebration of Muharram was stopped. In fact, his invasions against the Deccan Sultanates
were partly due to his hatred of the Shia faith.
o In c. 1675 CE, he executed the ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, which resulted in the
rebellion of the Sikh community against him.
o Muhtasibs were appointed in all the provinces. These officers were entrusted with the job
of enforcing moral codes and the Sharia.
o He forbade singing in the court, however, instrumental music and naubat (royal band)
continued.
o It is pertinent to mention that the largest number of Persian works on classical music was
written in Aurangzeb’s rule and that Aurangzeb himself was proficient in playing the
veena.
o Aurangzeb discontinued the practice of Jharokha darshan (showing himself to the public from
the balcony), since he considered it anti-Islamic.
o In c. 1679 CE, he reimposed jizya and pilgrim tax.

o Aurangzeb’s Rajput policy also alienated the Rajputs and they gradually lost their position in the
administrative set-up.
o Aurangzeb’s policy towards Mewar and Marwar was clumsy and blundering and brought no advantage
of any kind to the Mughals. He wanted to divide the state of Marwar between the two branches of the
family. The Rathore sardars led by Durgadas rejected the proposal of the division of state
which they felt would be against the best interests of the state.
o The ruler of Mewar (Rana Raj Singh) strongly opposed the Mughal interference in the internal
affairs of the Rajputs, such as the questions of succession. This led to the long drawn out war of the
Mughals with Mewar and Marwar which weakened the Mughal alliance with the Rajputs. It created
doubts about the firmness of Mughal support to old and trusted allies and the ulterior motives of
Aurangzeb.
o Aurangzeb’s conflicts in the northeast and with the Jats, Afghans, Sikhs and Rajputs put a strain on the
empire. However, the real conflict lay in the Deccan.
Art and Architecture during his reign

o He constructed the Moti Masjid at Delhi and the Badshahi Mosque at Lahore.
o Ishwar Das Nagar authored Fatahat-i-alamgiri.
o Nimat Khan Ali authored Wakai-i-Hyderabad, the conquest of Golconda by Aurangzeb.
o Mirza Mohammad Qasim authored Alamgirnama.
 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL LIFE UNDER THE MUGHALS

o During the Mughal rule, many European travellers and traders came to India and their accounts
contain valuable information regarding the social and economic conditions of India.
o In general, they described the wealth and prosperity of India and also the luxurious life of the
aristocratic class.
o On the other side, they also mentioned the poverty and sufferings of the ordinary masses like artisans
and peasants.
o Nikitin observed that the people of the Deccan were bare-footed, possibly due to the high cost of
leather. The nobles of the Mughal period formed a privileged class. Most of them were foreigners such
as Turks and Afghans and got readily assimilated into the Indian society and culture.
Growth of Trade
o The Indian trading classes were large in number and spread throughout the country.
o They were well organized and highly professional. Local traders were called baniks while Seth,
Bohra traders specialized in long-distance trade.
o Banjaras were another class of traders who carried goods in bulk. The banjaras used to move long
distances with their goods on the back of oxen.
o The trading communities belonged to all faiths/religions. For instance, the Gujarati traders
included Hindus, Muslims and Jains.
o In Rajasthan, Oswals, Agarwals and Maheshwaris were called the Marwaris.
o Afghanis, Khatris and Multanis traded with Central Asia.
o The Chettis of the Coromandel coast and the Muslim merchants of Malabar were the most
important trading communities in South India.
o Bengal exported sugar, rice as well as delicate muslin and silk.
o The Coromandel coast became a centre of textile production.
o Gujarat was an entry point for foreign items. From there, fine textiles and silk were taken to north
India.
o Items like food grains and indigo were exported from north India through Gujarat. It also became the
distribution centre for the luxury products of Kashmir such as shawls and carpets.

o Certain metals like copper and tin, war horses and luxury items like ivory were the major goods
of import.
o The growth of foreign trade led to the increased import of gold and silver in the 17th century.
o The foreign traders have described Indian traders as alert and brisk.
o The foreign trade witnessed further increase due to the setting up of the European trading companies
and their direct participation in the Euro-Asian and intra-Asian trade.
o The common people food was pulses, millets and rice.
o In coastal region fish was common.
o Milk and milk products were surplus, salt and sugar were expensive, while ghee and oil were cheaper.
o A large variety of crops such as barley, gram, pulses, rice, and wheat were cultivated.
o Commercial crops such as indigo, oil-seeds, cotton and sugarcane were also cultivated.
o During the seventeenth century two new crops, viz., tobacco and maize were added.
o On a note, no new agricultural technique was introduced during this period.
o India was able to export food items like rice and sugar to the neighbouring countries.
 PAINTINGS
o The foundation for the Mughal painting was laid by Humayun while staying in Persia.
o He brought with him two painters – Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad to India.
o Akbar commissioned the illustrations of several literary and religious texts.
o He invited a large number of painters from different parts of the country to his court.
o Both Hindus and Muslims joined in this work.
o Baswan, Miskina and Daswant attained great positions as Akbar’s court as artists.
o Illustrations of Persian versions of Mahabharata and Ramayana were produced in miniature form.
o Art Studio established by Akbar. Historical works such as Akbar Nama also remained the main themes
of Mughal paintings
o Mughal paintings reached its climax during the reign of Jahangir.
o He employed a number of painters like Abul Hasan, Bishan Das, Madhu, Anant, Manohar,
Govardhan and Ustad Mansur
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

o Persian language became widespread in the Mughal Empire by the time of Akbar’s reign.
o Many historical works were written during this period.
o They include Ain-i-Akbari and Akabar Nama authored by Abul Fazl.
o The leading poet of that period was his brother Abul Faizi.
o The translation of Mahabharata into the Persian language was done under his supervision.
o Utbi and Naziri were the two other leading Persian poets.
o Jahangir’s autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri was famous for its style
o He also patronized many scholars like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib Khan and Niamatullah
o Shah Jahan also patronized many writers and historians like Abdul Hamid Lahori, author of
Padshah Nama and Inayat Khan who wrote Shah Jahan Nama.
o His son Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavat Gita and Upanishads into the Persian language
o Regional languages such as Bengali, Oriya, Rajasthani and Gujarati had also developed during
this period.
o Many devotional works including the Ramayana and Mahabharata were translated into regional
languages.
o The most influential Hindi poet was Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the Ramayana, the
Ramcharitmanas.

 ADMINISTRATIVE DEPARTMENTS
Category Department Responsibilities
Regulating Revue Settlement
Diwan-i-
Revenue and Finance Fixing Taxes
Wazarat
Controlling Empire expenses
Diwan-i-Arz Military Regulating and preserving the Royal Army
Diwan-i- Maintaining trade and economic relations with foreign
Foreign Affairs
Rasalatmuhtasib rulers/entities
Custodian of In charge of the Royal correspondence for all matters,
Diwan-i-insha
Government papers including confidential affairs
Diwan-i-qaza Judicial Managing justice in the empire
Intelligence
Diwan-i-Barid Managing intelligence affairs
Department
In charge of Royal
Diwan-i-Saman Managing the royal household
Household
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q51. With respect to the “First Battle of Panipat”, consider the following statements:
1. It was fought between the forces of Akbar and Ibrahim Lodi.
2. It opened the gate for Mughal-Afghan contest.
3. Mughal forces used modern tactics of warfare and introduced the deadly combination of
Tulghuma and Araba.
Q52. Arrange the following events of Akbar's period in chronological order:

1. Abolition of Zaziya
2. Abolition of Pilgrim tax
3. Promulgation of Mahzar
4. Stopping of forcible conversions of persons captured during war.
Choose the correct code:
a) 1, 2, 3, 4 b) 4, 2, 1, 3 c) 2, 1, 4, 3 d) 4, 1, 3, 2
Q53. Manasabdari system fixed which of the following for Mansabdars:

1. Rank and Status
2. Salary
3. Number of horsemen required to be maintained
4. Amount of land revenue to be collected
a) 1 and 2 only b) 1, 2 and 3 only c) 2, 3 and 4 only d) All of the above
Q54. Consider the following statements.

1. Zabti system was the revenue system in which assessment of land revenue was made on the
basis of measurement of land.
2. Under the Dahsala System, the average produce of different crops as well as the average prices
of the past 10 years were calculated.

3. Mansabdari system was a Military cum civil bureaucracy in which ranks were assigned to
government officials and military commanders.
Which among the above is/are correct?
a) 1 and 2 b) 2 and 3 c) 3 only d) All of the above
Q55. Arrange the following conquests of Akbar in chronological order:

1. Conquest of Bengal 2. Conquest of Gujarat
3. Annexation of Malwa 4. Conquest of Asirgarh
Code:
a) 3, 2, 1, 4 b) 3, 1, 2, 4 c) 3, 4, 2, 1 d) 4, 3, 2, 1
Q56. Who among the following was the first to adopt the new religion propounded by
Akbar called Din-i-Ilahi?
a) Abul Fazal b) Faizi c) Birbal d) Raja Todarmal
Q57. Which writer of the Mughal period was titled ‘Mahapatra’ by Akbar ?
a) Harinath b) Narhari c) Ganj d) Raja Man Singh
Q58. Nur Jahan’s Junta, apart from herself, consisted of

1. Prince Khurram 2. Asaf Khan
3. Itimad-ud-daula 4. Prince Khusrau
Choose the correct code :
a) 1, 2 and 3 b) 1, 2 and 4 c) 2, 3 and 4 d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Notes

 IMPORTANT FOREIGN TRAVELLERS

Megasthenes 302 B.C. – 298 B.C.
o He was the ambassador of Seleucus.
o He visited India during the supremacy of Chandragupta Maurya.
o Chandragupta was known to the Greeks as Sandrocottus.
o He was also the author of the book ‘Indica’.
Fa-Hien 405 A.D. – 411 A.D.

o He was a Chinese Buddhist monk.
o He visited India during the reign of Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II).
o He is known for his visit to Lumbini.
o His voyage is described in his travelogue “Record of Buddhist Kingdoms”.
Huien Tsang 630 A.D. – 645 A.D.

o He was a Chinese traveller.
o He visited India during the supremacy of Harsha Vardhana.
o Si-yu-ki or ‘The Records of the Western World’ was written by him.
Al-Masudi 957 A.D.

o Al-Masudi was An Arab traveller.
o In his book Muruj-ul-Zehab he has explained his journey.
Alberuni 1024 A.D. – 1030 A.D.

o He was a Persian scholar.
o He accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni and wrote a book titled ‘Tahqiq-i-hind’.
o He is considered the father of Indology.
Marco Polom 1292 A.D. – 1294 A.D.

o He was a European traveller.
o He visited Southern India during the reign of Rudramma Devi of the Kakatiyas.
Ibn Battuta 1333 A.D. – 1347 A.D.

o He was a Moroccan traveller.
o He visited India during the rule of Mohammed Bin Tughlaq.
o Rihla is a book written by Ibn Batuta.
Nicolo Conti 1420 A.D. – 1421 A.D.

o He was an Italian merchant.
o He visited India during the reign of Deva Raya I of Vijayanagar.
Abdur Razzak 1443 A.D. – 1444 A.D.

o He was a Persian scholar.
o He was also an ambassador of Persia.
o He visited India during the rule of Deva Raya II of Vijayanagar.
Captain William Hawkins 1608 A.D. – 1611 A.D.

o Captain William Hawkins led the first expedition of the English East India Company to India in 1609.
o He visited India during the reign of Jahangir.

o He carried a personal letter from King James I of England.

o He did not succeed in getting Jahangir’s permission to start a factory.
Thomas Roe 1615 A.D. – 1619 A.D.

o Sir Thomas Roe was an English diplomat.
o He visited India during the reign of Jahangir in 1615.
o He came to seek protection for an English factory at Surat.
o His “Journal of the Mission to the Mughal Empire” is a treasured contribution to the history of India.
Francois Bernier 1656 A.D. – 1668A.D.

o He was a French physician and traveller.
o He was in India from 1656-1668
o He visited India during the reign of Shah Jahan.
o He was physician to Prince Dara Shikoh and later was attached to the court of Aurangzeb
o ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’ was written by Francois Bernier.
o The book mainly talks about the rules of Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb.
MOSAIC- ART & CULTURE
 CLASSICAL DANCES
o Natyshastra written by Bharat Muni defines principles of Indian classical dance. All four vedas
contribute towards this art form. Pathya (words) are taken from Rigveda. Abhinaya (gestures) taken
from Yajurveda. Geet (music) taken from Samaveda and Rasa (emotions) taken from Atharvaveda.
o It includes two basic aspects i.e. Tandava which is male characteristic of power and strength and
Lasya which comprises of feminine grace, bhava, rasa and abhinaya.
o The following equation expresses complete dance:
NRITTA NATYA NRITYA
+ =
(Basic dance) (Expressions) (Complete dance)
Sangeet Nataka Academy has given status of classical dance to eight dances.
 BHARATNATYAM, TAMIL NADU (OLDEST)
o It is a solo dance and is said to have evolved from Devadasi system.
o Literary reference to this dance form is found in Silappadikaram.
o Its movements resemble dancing flame/ elements of fire.
o Both basic aspects Tandava and Lasya are its part.
o It emphasizes on hand movements to convey emotions. One dancer takes many roles.
o Bharatnatyam poses are found on the Gopurams of Chidambaram temple.
o Musicians include vocalist, veena, flautist, cymbal player.
o Rukmini Devi Arundale promoted it to the global level.
o Famous proponents: Yamini Krishnamurthy, Mallika Sarabhai, Padma Subramanium and
Mrinalini Sarabhai
 KATHAKALI, KERALA
o The ritual performing arts of Koodiyattam, Krishnattam, Ramanattam and Chakiarkoothu
have direct influence on this dance.
o For body movements and choreographical patterns, it is also indebted to the early martial arts of
Kerela.
o Its poses are depicted on the frescoes of Mattancheri temple, Kerela.
o It is a blend of dance, music and acting based on Indian epics.

o It includes hastamudras and facial expressions following the verses (padams).

o The entire body is used during this dance performance.
o Most Kathakali recitals are a grand representation of the eternal conflict between good and evil.
o It gets its textual sanction from Balarama Bharatam (a treatise on natyam) and Hastalakshana
Deepika (a treatise on natyam).
o The characters in a Kathakali performance are divided into satvika, rajasika and tamasika types.
o Kathakali music follows the traditional Sopana sangeet of Kerela.
o This dance form symbolizes the element of sky.
o Famous proponents: Guru Kunchu Kurup, Gopi Nath
 KATHAK, NORTH INDIA

o The name ‘Kathak’ is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Katha’ or ‘story’ and from ‘Katthakar’ or
‘storyteller’.
o It developed during the Bhakti movement.
o Kathak is indigenous to northern India.
o It incorporates legends from ancient mythology and great Indian epics, especially from the life of
Lord Krishna. Emergence of Raslila in the Braj region with Radha-Krishna theme influenced this
dance form.
o The Kathakars communicate stories through rhythmic foot movements, hand gestures, facial
expressions and eye work.
o It is the only classical dance form which has links with Muslim culture.
o Under Mughals a transition from the temple courtyard to the palace durbar took place which changed
its presentation and great stress was laid on nritya and bhava.
o In both Hindu and Muslim courts, Kathak became highly stylised and came to be regarded as a
sophisticated form of entertainment.
Gharanas
o Lucknow Gharana: Golden age of Kathak began under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah (last
Nawab of Oudh).
o Jaipur: The Jaipur gharana known for its layakari or rhythmic virtuosity.
o Banaras: It developed under Janakiprasad. It sees a greater use of footwork and lays special
emphasis on symmetry.
Elements of a Kathak recital
o Movements include intricate system of footwork, torso movements without any use of sharp bends or
curves of the upper or lower parts of body.
o Jugalbandi is the main attraction of kathak recital which shows a competitive play between the
dancer and the tabla player.
o In Kathak, Ananda is the introductory item through which the dancer enters the stage.
o Vandana: The dance starts with the shloka of God's rituals (Hindu Vedic Recitation) or prayer of
the God.
o Padhant is recitation. Normally dancers recite the tabla bol before dancing. This helps the musicians
set the laya.
o Tarana comprises of pure rhythmic movements before the end.
o Ghat bhaav is dance without any music or chanting. This is used to outline different mythological
episodes.
o Kathak is generally accompanied with dhrupad music.
o Note: It is the only classical dance form wedded to North Indian music. Musical instruments include:
Pakhawaj, type of Mridangam or a pair of Tabla.
MANIPURI, MANIPUR
o The dance gives legendary references to the dances of Shiva and Parvati and other gods and
goddesses who created the universe.

o Lai Harbola is the earliest form of dance which forms the basis of all stylized dances in Manipur.
o With the arrival of Vaishnavism in 15th century A.D. Radha Krishna theme was introduced.
o Rasleela dances originated under King Bhagyachandra.
o Its popular forms include Ras, Sankirtana and Thang Ta (martial dancers).
o Manipuri dance and music have a highly evolved tala system.
o This dance is unique in its emphasis on devotion and not on sensuality.
o The Manipur classical style of singing is called Nat and main musical instruments include Pung
(drum type), Pena (stringed instrument), cymbals and flute.
o Famous proponents: Nayana, Suverna
 ODISSI, ODISHA
o Archaeological evidence dates it back to 2nd century B.C. with evidence found in Udayagiri and
Khandagiri caves, Bhubaneshwar.
o The dance is based on Natyashastra and Abhinaya Darpana.
o The Natya Shastra refers to it as Odra-Magadhi.
Traditions
o There are three traditions of the Odissi Dance viz.
o Maharis were the chief repositories of this dance. Maharis were Oriya devadasis or temple girls,
their name deriving from Maha (great) and Nari or Mahri (chosen) particularly those at the
temple of Jagganath at Puri.
o Later a class of boys called Gotipuas was trained in the art. Gotipuas were boys dressed up as
girls and taught the dance by the Maharis.
o Nartaki dance took place in the royal courts.
Mudras and postures
o This dance form symbolizes the element of water.
o It is accompanied by Hindustani music.
o Its form is unique in its representation of gracefulness, sensuality and beauty.
o It is similar to Bharatnatyam in the use of Mudras and posture to express emotions.
o The dancers create intricate geometrical shapes and patterns with her body. Hence, it is known
as mobile sculpture.
o Movement technique includes two basic postures of Chowk (masculine) and Tribhanga (feminine).
Hand gestures and torso movement are its vital part.
o The chowk posture (it is a position imitating a square) - a very masculine stance with the weight of
the body equally balanced.
o The tribhanga posture (i.e. the three-bended form of the body) is innate to Odissi dance form).
Elements of Odissi dance form
o Mangalacharam- Mangalacharan is the beginning where the dancer slowly enters the stage with
flowers in her hands and makes an offering to mother Earth.
o Batu-In Batu, the basic concepts of the Odissi nritta technique are highlighted bringing out the
duality of the masculine and the feminine through the basic stance of the chauk and
tribhanga. This is danced in praise of Batukeshwar Bhairav or Shiva.
o Pallavi- It includes the facial expressions and the representation of the song.
 KUCHIPUDI, ANDHRA PRADESH
o In the 17th century Kuchipudi style of Yakshagaana was conceived by Siddhendra yogi,a Vaishnava
poet. He composed Bhaamaakalaapam.
o Lakshminarayan Shastry introduced many new elements including solo dance and training of
female dancers in this style.
o By the middle of 20th century Kuchipudi fully crystallized as a separate classical solo dance style.
o There are now two forms of Kuchipudi; the traditional musical dance drama and the solo dance.
o Most of the Kuchipudi recitals are based on the stories of Bhagwata purana but have secular theme.

o Both Tandava and Lasya elements are important in the Kuchipudi dance form.
o This form uses Carnatic music and instruments include mridangam, veena and cymbals.
o Famous proponents: Radha Reddy, Raja Reddy, Indrani Rehman
 SATTRIYA, ASSAM
o It was introduced in 15th century A.D. by Vaishnava saint Sankaradeva.
o This dance form is influenced by earlier dance forms like Devadasi and Ojapali. Assamese folk
dances like Bihu, Bodos etc also bear an influence.
o The dance is governed by hastamudras, footworks and aharyas.
o The focus of the Sattriya recital is on the devotional aspect of dance and narrates mythological stories
of Vishnu.
o Khol and flute form the major accompanying instruments of this dance form.
 MOHINIATTAM, KERALA
o It is a classical solo dance form. Mohini here refers to the celestial enchantress of Hindu
mythology.
o It borrows heavily from both Kathakali and Bharatanatyam.
o It traces its origin to the temples of Kerela and was performed only by women.
o It generally narrates the story of the feminine dance of Vishnu.
o Movement technique includes feminine movements, hand gestures and soft footwork.
o The element of air is symbolized through a Mohiniattam performance.
o This dance form was structured into its present day classical format by the Travancore Kings,
Maharaja Tirunal and Maharaja Swati Tirunal (18th – 19th century C.E.).
o The early specimens of this dance include Nangiars (women of Nambiar community) and
Dasiyattam.
o Mahakavi Vallatol a poet laureate of Kerela succeeded in giving this art form a distinct classical solo
style. He established Kerala Kalamandalam, a pioneer institute for training in art forms.
o Famous proponents: Sunanda Nair, Madhuri amma, Jayaprabha Menon
 FOLK DANCES
DANCE STATE
Bihu Assam
Bhangra Punjab
Graba Gujarat
Jhoomar Punjab
Gidha Punjab
Kummi Tamil Nadu
Changu Odisha
Therukoothu Tamil Nadu
Chhau Odisha
Yakshagana Karnataka
Jatra West Bengal
Bamboo dance/ Cheraw Mizoram
Ghommar Rajasthan

Bhavai Rajasthan
Kalbeliya Rajasthan
 PAINTINGS
 WALL/ MURAL PAINTINGS
o Early examples can be seen in Buddhist art such as painted cave temples of Ajanta. The subject
matter is mostly associated with the jatakas recording previous births of Lord Buddha.
o Other depictions include flying apsaras. The painting of Bodhisatva Padampani from Cave 1 is
one of the masterpieces of Ajanta paintings.
o Cave 17 represents Buddha’s visit to the door of Yashodhara’s abode.
o Ajanta also offers few Brahmanical figures of iconographical interest. For example: Depiction of
Lord Indra.
o The earliest Brahmanical paintings are found in Badami caves belonging to 6th century A.D.
o The paintings of Sittannavasal are intimately connected with Jaina themes and symbology.
o In Ellora, a number of Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina temples were excavated. Of significance is the
Kailashnath temple. It is a free standing structure which is in fact a monolith. Ellora paintings are a
departure from the classical norms of Ajanta paintings.
o The most important wall paintings in South India are from Tanjore, Tamil Nadu. The dancing
figures from Rajarajeswara temples of Tanjore (11th century A.D.) are beautiful examples of
medieval paintings. The technique used here is a true fresco method over surface of the rock.
o Vijaynagar paintings found on South Indian temples are significant in terms of art. They are found
on Veerabhadra temple, Lepakshi, Virupaksha temple and Kalyana Sundareswara
Temple.
o Veerabhadra temple paintings are influenced by Badami mural paintings. The depictions are scenes
from Ramayana, Mahabharta and Puranas.
o Vijayanagar paintings have covered the ceiling of Virupaksha temple at Hampi. The ceiling depicts
Vidyaranya, the guru of Harihara and Bukka being carried in a palanquin. Shaivite depictions
are common.
o At Kalyana Sundareswara, a recently discovered painting depicts Naradar playing veena an artist
holding a pair of cymbals. Moon and child skanda holding a lotus.
o The last series of wall paintings are from Lepakshi temple (16th century A.D.) which are pressed
within broad friezes and illustrate Saivaite and secular themes.
 MINIATURE PAINTING
o Pala School (11th – 12th century): Nalanda, Odantapuri, Vikramsila and Somarupa were
great centres of Buddhist learning and art. They had workshops for casting of bronze images. The
surviving examples of the Pala illustrated manuscripts belonging to the Vajrayana School of
Buddhism.
o Western Indian School (12th – 16th century): It comprised of the regions of Gujarat,
Rajasthan and Malwa. It was influenced by Jainism and patronized by Chalukyas who ruled these
areas. The Kalpasutra and Kalakacharya –Katha are two popular Jaina texts illustrated with
paintings.
o Mughal School (1560-1800 A.D.):
o It began with Akbar under whose rule an atelier of painting was established under the supervision of
two Persian masters, Mir Sayyed Ali and Abdul Samad Khan.
o The Mughal style evolved as a result of a happy synthesis of the indigenous Indian style of painting
and the Safavid school of Persian painting.

o Under Akbar, European painting was introduced at the court by the Portuguese priests. Under their
influence, the principles of fore-shortening, whereby near and distant people and things could be
placed in perspective was quietly adopted. They majorly have secular themes.
o Tutinama appears to be the first work of the Mughal School. Hamzanama illustrations appeared on
cloth.
o Famous painters during Akbar’s period include Dasvanath, Baswan, Manohar, Daulat, Mansur
etc.
o Under Jahangir an animal fable book called Ayar-i-danish was prepared. Another famous painting of
his reign includes Jahangir holding a picture of Virgin Mary in his right hand.
o It was a fashion in the Mughal school for faces, bodies and feet of the people in a single picture to be
painted by different artists.
o Jahangir claims that he could distinguish the work of each artist in a picture.
o Important illustrated manuscripts under Shah Jahan include Gulistan and the Bustan of Sadi.
 THEATRE
Theatre art forms in India include a framework of acting, dialogue, poetry and music.
THEATRE
STATE KEY POINTS
FORM
o Music includes surnai, nagaara and dhol.
Bhand Pather Kashmir
o Actors belong mainly to farming community.
Haryana,
Swang Uttar o Its two important styles are from Rohtak and Haathras.
Pradesh
Uttar o Popular centres are Haathras, Kanpur and Lucknow.
Nautanki
Pradesh o Important personality is Gulab Bai of Kanpur.
Rasleela o Exclusively based on Lord Krishna’s legends.
o Main centres are Kutch and Kathiawar.
Bhavai Gujarat o Instruments used are Bhungal, tabla, flute, pakhwaaj, rabbab,
sarangi and manjeera.
o They are musical plays in fairs in honor of gods or religious
rituals.
Jatra West Bengal
o Krishna jatra became popular due to Chaitanya’s
influence.
Madhya
Maach o Songs are given prominence in between dialogues.
Pradesh
o It is a presentation of Ankia Naat.
Bhaona Assam o There are cultural glimpses of Assam, Bengal, Orissa, Mathura
and Brindavan.
o It evolved from the folk forms such as Gondhal, Jagran and
Tamaasha Maharashtra Kirtan.
o Here the female actress is the chief exponent known as murki.
Konkan and o Performance shows the ten incarnations of Vishnu.
Dashavatar
Goa o Performers wear masks of wood and papier mache.

o It came into existence in 17 th century under the patronage of King

Krishnattam Kerala Manavada of Calicut.
o It is a cycle of eight plays performed for eight consecutive days.
o It is celebrated in the month of Vrischikam (November-
December).
Mudiyettu Kerala
o It is usually performed only in Kali temples.
o It depicts the triumph of goddess Bhadrakali over asura Darika.
o It is based on Sanskrit theatre traditions.
o It deals with the plays of eminent Sanskrit dramatists such as
Koodiyaattam Kerala Bhasa, Harsha, Kalidasa, Maendravikrama and Saktibhadra.
o It is officially recognized by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the
Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
o It is based on mythological stories and Puranas.

Yakshagaana Karnataka
o The most popular episodes belong to Mahabharata.
o It literally means street play.

o It is mostly performed at the annual temple festivals of
Therukoothu Tamil Nadu Mariamman (Rain goddess) to achieve rich harvest.
o At its core there is a cycle of eight plays based on the life of
Draupadi.
 PUPPET FORMS
o The earliest reference to the art of puppetry is found in Tamil classic Silappadikaaram written
around the 1st or 2nd century B.C.
o It was written by Jain-poet, Ilango Adigal.
o The excavation sites at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro have yielded puppets with sockets attached to
them, which suggest the presence of puppetry as an art form then.
o Stories adapted from puranic literature, local myths and legends usually form the content of
traditional puppet theatre in India.
THERE ARE FOUR TYPES OF PUPPETS:
 STRING PUPPET
o They flourish in Rajasthan, Orissa, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
o Rajasthan: Here they are known as Kathaputli. They are carved from a single piece of wood and
wear medieval Rajasthani style of dress.
o Orissa: Here they are known as Kundhei. They have no legs with long flowing skirts. Their costumes
resemble to those worn by actors of the Jatra traditional theatre.
o Karnataka: Here they are known as Gombeyatta. They are styled and designed like the characters
of Yakshagana, the traditional theater form of the region.
o Tamil Nadu: Here they are known as Bommalattam. They combine the techniques of both rod and
string puppets. The Bommalattam puppets are the heaviest and most articulate of all traditional
Indian marionettes.

 SHADOW PUPPET
o They are flat figures, cut out of leather and treated to make it translucent. The figures are painted
identically on both sides of the leather. They are pressed against the screen with a strong source of
light behind it. Shadow puppets tradition survives in Orissa, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
These puppets are mostly small in size.

Togalu
Gombeyatta- The puppets however differ in size according to their social status. For
instance, large size for kings and religious characters and smaller size for common
(Karnataka)
people or servants.
The puppets are large in size and have joints.
Tholu They are coloured on both sides. Hence, these puppets throw coloured
Bommalata- shadows on the screen.
(Andhra The music is dominantly influenced by the classical music of the region and the
Pradesh) theme of the puppet plays are drawn from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and
Puranas.
The puppets are in one piece and have no joints.
They are not coloured, hence throw opaque shadows on the screen.
Ravanchhaya- The manipulation requires great skill as there are no joints.
(Odisha) The puppets are made of deer skin.
It depicts bold and dramatic postures.
There is use of non-human puppets, such as trees and animals as well.
 THOPAVAKKOOTHU
o Tholpavakkoothu is the unique shadow puppet form of Kerala, South India.
o It evolved from Koonathara village near Shoranur (Kerala).
o In this puppetry form, Kamba Ramayana is used as its basic text.
o Kamba Ramayanam, is a Tamil epic that was written by the Tamil poet – Kamban, during the 12th
century.
o It is also known as Ramavataram.
o Performers of the shadow puppetry form Tholpavakkoothu are now spreading the egalitarian
concept of Onam.
o In this concept, they are making Asura king Mahabali the central character of their latest series of
performances.
o It is only a deviation from their age-old practice of adapting it only from Kamba
Ramayana.
o It is preserved as a family tradition by the Pulavars.
o K.K. Ramachandra Pulavar is a famous puppeteer of this puppetry form.
 ROD PUPPETS
o They are an extension of Glove puppet but supported by rods from below.
o This form is mostly found in West Bengal and Orissa.
o West Bengal: Here it is known as Putul Nautch/Nachh. They are costumed like the actors of
Jatra, a traditional theatre form prevalent in the state.
o Bihar: Here it is known as Yampuri.

 GLOVE PUPPETS
o They are known as hand, sleeve or palm puppets.
o The tradition of glove puppets is popular in Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and Kerala.
o In Uttar Pradesh, glove puppet plays usually present social themes,
o in Orissa plays are based on stories of Radha and Krishna and the main instrument is Dholak.
o In Kerala: Here it is known as Pavakoothu. It came into existence during 18th century due to the
influence of Kathakali. The theme of the plays is either Ramayana or Mahabharata.
 CLASSICAL LANGUAGES
The Article 343 (1) of the Indian Constitution declares the official language of the Union shall be
Hindi in Devanagri script. For Sanskrit, there is a special status mentioned in article 351, whereby
Sanskrit was given a position of the primary source language for many languages including Hindi.
CRITERIA FOR CLASSICAL LANGUAGES IN INDIA
o The government of India currently follows the following criteria to determine the eligibility of language
to be considered for classification as “classical language”:
o High antiquity of its early texts/ recorded history over a period of 1500-2000 years;
o A body of ancient literature/ texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers;
o The literary tradition should be original and not borrowed from another speech community;
o The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity
between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.
Current classical languages
The following six languages are included in the list of Classical Languages:
Tamil (since 2004)
Sanskrit (since 2005)
Telugu (since 2008)
Kannada (since 2008)
Malayalam (since 2013)
Odia (since 2014)
 MARTIAL ARTS
Kalarippayattu is a famous Indian martial art of Kerala and one of the oldest
existing martial arts in the world.
It is practiced in most of the part of south India.
Kalarippayattu A kalari is the school or training hall where martial arts are taught.
It includes strikes, kicks and some weapon based practiced.
Footwork patterns are most important key in Kalarippayattu.
Silambam is a weapon-based Indian martial art from Tamil Nadu.
Silambam Silambam art also used animal movements of snake, tiger, eagle forms and
footwork patterns play a key role here as well.
Gatka is a weapon-based Indian martial art basically created by the Sikhs of
Gatka Punjab.

There are many weapons used in Gatka like Stick, Talwar, kripan and kataar.
The attacking and defense methods are based upon the positions of the hands, feet
and nature of weapons used.
The sport form is played by two opponents wielding wooden staves called gatka.
These sticks may be paired with a shield. Points are scored for making contact with
the stick.
It is based on the basic principle of unification of the mind, body, and spirit in a
rhythm of life to train a saint-soldier to be able to defend himself/herself.
It is unarmed martial art of the oldest city of India “Varanasi “.
Musti yuddha Techniques used in this martial art are punches, kicks, knees, and elbow strikes.
Thang Ta is popular term for the ancient Manipuri martial art, also known as
Huyen lallong.
Manipuri martial arts with swords and spears, is a strong yet gracefully
sophisticated art.
Thang Ta
The armed component called thang-ta is named after the system's main
weapons, the thang (sword) and ta (spear). Practitioners spar through cheibi
gatka in which a foam sword is used together with a shield.
Lathi is an ancient armed martial art of India.
It also refers one of the world’s oldest weapons used in martial arts.
Lathi
Lathi or stick martial arts practiced in Punjab and Bengal region of India.
Mardani Khel is an armed method of martial art created by the Maratha.
Mardani Khel This traditional martial art of Maharashtra is practiced in Kolhapur.
Pari-khanda is a style of sword and shield fighting from Bihar.
This art is created by the Rajputs.
Pari-khanda
Pari-khanda steps and techniques are also used in Chau dance.
 INDIAN MUSIC
 HINDUSTANI MUSIC
o It is influenced by ancient Hindu musical traditions, Vedic philosophy (Rigveda,
Yajurvedic chants), Natya Shastra (gives information on scales, melodic forms, tala and musical
instruments) and also by the Persian elements.
o Focus Area: It is primarily vocal-centric. It focuses more on the musical structure and the
possibilities of improvisation in it.
o The major vocal forms associated with Hindustani classical music are the dhrupad, khayal,
thumri, tappa and tarana.
o An important text includes Sangeeta Ratankara (13th century) written by Sarangadeva.
O Important points
o A characteristic contribution of India to musical rhythm is the Tala which is the cyclic arrangement of
time units.
o Musical forms can be divided into two broad categories anibadhha and nibaddha sangeeta.
o Anibaddha sangeeta is not restricted by meaningful words and tala. Its finest form is the alap.
o Prabhandha is used as a generic term to indicate nibaddha songs among which Jayadeva’s (12th
century) compositions are best known. His significant work was Gita Govinda and his songs are
called ashtapadis.

o Another formal aspect in Nibaddha Sangeet is met within the Dhrupad. Man Singh Tomar, the
Maharaja of Gwalior was responsible for the enormous vogue of Dhrupad. The Been and
Pakhwaj were closely associated with Dhrupad.
o Today the pride in classical Hindustani music is occupied by the Khyal. It was given impetus in 13th
century by Amir Khusrou. It attained its maturity at the hands of Niyamat Khan Sadarang and
Adarang of the 18th century.
o There are Gharanas in Khyal which are schools of singing founded or developed by various
individuals or patrons such as king or noblemen.
o Important gharanas are Gwalior gharana (oldest), Agra gharana (founded by Khuda Baksh)
and Jaipur gharana (directly took off from Dhrupad), Rampur Saheswan gharana (Uttar
Pradesh).
o Thumri and Tappa are popular types heard in concerts. Thumri is a love song whereas Tappa
consists of the song uttered in a fast note patterns.
 DHRUPAD
o Dhrupad is a Sanskrit blend of Dhruva (the immovable) and Pad (the Verse).
o It has been mentioned in Natyashastra, which dates back to 3rd century B.C.
 NATYASHASTRA
o Writer: Written by Bharata Muni, is an ancient Indian treatise on the performing arts
encompassing theatre, dance and music.
o It covers stage design, music, dance, makeup, and virtually every other aspect of stagecraft.
o Importance: It is the only text which gives such details about the music and instruments of the
period.
o It is one of the oldest forms of Hindustani classical music.
o Dhrupad consolidated its position as a classical form of music in the 13th century and it
reached its zenith in the court of Emperor Akbar.
o Akbar employed and patronized musical masters like Swami Haridas and Tansen.
Style
o Dhrupad singing generally consists of four styles of singing:- Gauhar vani, Khandar vani,
Nauhar vanis and Dagar bani.
o Among these, Dagar bani style of Dhrupad singing is owed to successive generations of the Dagars’
devoting their lives to Dhrupad music.
o Dhrupad style of singing is traditionally performed by men with a tanpura and pakhawaj
(musical instruments).
o In Dhrupad Dagari gharana, Darbhanga gharana, Betia gharana and Talwandi gharana are
famous.
o Nomenclature: The names of the gharanas have been mostly derived from a geographical
location which is usually a city, district or state where the founder lived or resided.
 GWALIOR GHARANA
o It is one of the oldest Khayal Gharana.
o The rise of the Gwalior Gharana started with the reign of the great Mughal emperor, Akbar.
o Tansen was related to this Gharana.
o The Gharana was further enriched with the introduction of Tan by Bade Mohammad Khan.
o The style was later enhanced by Hassu Khan and Haddu Khan.

Basic features
o Very powerful throwing of the voice
o Dhrupad based Khayal
o Straight and Sapat tanas
o Powerful Boltans (improvisations)
o The most popular expounder of this Gharana is Nathu Khan and Vishnu Palushankar.
 THUMRI
o It originated in the eastern part of Uttar Pradesh, mainly in Lucknow and Benaras.
o It was patronised in the court of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Lucknow.
o It is based on mixed ragas and is commonly considered to be semi-classical Indian music.
o The text of thumari is romantic and devotional in nature.
o It usually revolves around a girl's love for Krishna.
o This was inspired by the Bhakti Movement.
o The language of the compositions is usually Hindi of Awadhi dialect or the Braj Bhaasha
dialect, and Urdu.
o It allows the singer to improvise during the performance and so they have greater flexibility with
the raga.
o The compositions are usually sung in a female voice.
o Thumri is also used as a generic name for some other forms such as Dadra, Hori, Kajari, Saavan,
Jhoola and Chaiti.
Types
o Purbi Thumari: It is sung in the slower tempo.
o Punjabi Thumari: It is sung in a fast and lively tempo.
o The main Gharanas of Thumari are based in Banaras and Lucknow.
o In Benaras Gharana, the words in the text of a song are musically embellished to bring out their
meaning.
o Eminent persons of this Gharana: Siddheshwari Devi, Rasoolan Bai, Badi Moti Bai, Mahadev
Mishra, Girija Devi
o Lucknow gharana presents intricately embellished and delicate thumris that are explicit in their
eroticism.
o Eminent persons of this Gharana: Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, Quadar Piya, Sanad Piya, Kenwar Shyam
 CARNATIC MUSIC
o The ancient Tamils of south India developed a highly evolved system of music. Silappadhikaram
(2nd century A.D.) contains vivid description of music of this period. Tolkapiyyam and Kalladam
are other sources of musical history.
o Hindustani and Carnatic came into vogue after the advent of Muslims, particularly during the reign of
the Mughal Emperors of Delhi. It developed along its own original lines.
o Purandaradasa termed as ‘Carnatic Sangeeta Pitamaha’ introduced the Malavagowla scale
as the basic scale for music instruction.
o Venkatamakhi introduced 72 Melakartas which was used by Tyagaraja to invent many beautiful
ragas.
o The birth of the musical trinity-Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri at
Tiruvarur between the years 1750 A.D. to 1850 A.D. is an era of dynamic development in Carnatic
music. They were contemporaries of Beethoven, Mozart, Wagner and Haydn.

o Some musical forms of Carnatic music are Gitam, Varnam, Jatiswaram, Kirtanam, Pada,
Tillana, Pallavi and Tanam.
o Regional Music: Musical instruments differ from that of classical music. Cruder forms of tabla like
dholak or nal are used. Sitar is absent in folk music. Also the instruments of classical music are
created by artisans but folk instruments are crafted by musicians themselves.
 FOLK MUSIC LIST

MUSIC STATE KEY POINTS
 Rasiya is a folk song of Braj region.
Rasiya geet Uttar Pradesh
 Rasiya songs are sung in the regional Hindi dialect of Brajbhasha.
Pankhida Rajasthan  Its literal meaning is lover and is sung by peasants.
Lotia Rajasthan  It is sung during Chaitra month.
Pandavani Chhattisgarh  In this song, tales from Mahabharat are sung.
 Songs deal with love, tragedy and both social injustice and political
Mando Goa
resistance during Portuguese rule.
 It is a typical ballad of Bundelkhand which narrates the heroic deeds of
Alha and Udal, two warrior brothers who served Raja Parmal of Majoba.
Alha Uttar Pradesh
 It highlights the high principles of morality, chivalry, and nobility prevalent
in those times.
Chhakri Kashmir  Most popular form of Kashmiri folk music.
Tappa Punjab  They are the folk songs of camel riders.
 It was brought from Persia around 13th century.
Qawwali -
 Amir Khusrou was regarded as the father of Qawwali.
 It is meant as blessings for new year and the dance is associated with
Bihu Assam
ancient fertility cult.
 Saikuti, a poetess of Mizoram composed songs in praise of warriors, brave
Saikuti Zai Mizoram hunters, young men aspiring to be great warriors and hunters etc.
 Mizo is traditionally a singing tribe.
 Burrakatha is a highly dramatic form of ballad.
Burrakatha Andhra Pradesh
 Tambura is played by main performer.
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
o In Natyashastra musical instruments have been divided into four main categories on the basis of
how sound is produced. These include Stringed, wind, percussion and solid instruments.
o Santoor a stringed instrument is very popular in Kashmir.
o The Kamaicha is a bowed lute played by the Manganiars of west Rajasthan.
o The shehnai is a reed instrument and its use is known as Mangal Vadya. In the early fifties of this
century, Ustad Bismillah Khan is credited for popularizing this instrument. Pt. Anant Lal and
Pt. Daya Shankar are also noted players.
o The tabla is a set of two vertical Oordhwaka drums. The right side is called tabla and the left is
Bayan or Dagga. Prominent musicians are Ustad Alia Rakha Khan, Zakir Hussain, Shafat
Ahmed and Samata Prasad.

o In Sun temple, Konarak (Odisha), a large sculpture of a female Jhanj player is found.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS (ANSWER KEY)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
c d c a d d c c b a
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
d c c a d d b d c a
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
c a a a b b d b d c
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
d d a b a d c d c c
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
b c d d c a b c b d
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58
b b b d a c b a

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NOTE FOR STUDENTS

RAPID REVISION BOOK-1

Highlights of this book:

o Curation of content as per relevance with the coming examination.

2 HISTORY 2- MODERN INDIA

3 INDIAN POLITY AND GOVERNANCE

4 ECONOMY AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

5 GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT

6 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

7 IMPORTANT GOVT. SCHEMES

OCHRE COLORED POTTERY (OCP) 13 SAKAS 63

RIG VEDIC PERIOD (1500 BC – 1000 13 POST MAURYAN AGE 64

BC) TEMPLE ART AND 72

LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000 BC – 18 ARCHITECTURE

600 BC) NAGARA STYLE IN VARIOUS 73

VEDIC LITERATURE 20 REGIONS

ORTHODOX SCHOOLS OF INDIAN 24 SANGAM AGE 77

PHILOSOPHY GUPTA EMPIRE 84

UNORTHODOX SCHOOLS OF 26 VAKATAKA DYNASTY 89

SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK (ANCIENT INDIA)

PANDYA DYNASTY 115

HOYSALA DYNASTY 116 MOSAIC- ART & CULTURE

BAHMANI KINGDOM (1347-1526 117 FOLK DANCES 175

SHERSHAH (INTERREGNUM) 151

SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK (ANCIENT INDIA)

Cultures in Lower Palaeolithic era

www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 1

Cultures in Middle Palaeolithic era

Main Chalcolithic cultures / sites of India

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Paintings in Kupgallu (Telangana), Piklihal and Tekkalkota (both in Karnataka)

o Linear representations of animals like bison, tigers, elephants, rhinos, and

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 INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION

Q. Which one of the following is not a c) 1, 2 and 3 d) None of them

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Site Location River Findings

Fortified wall, R-37 cemetery, Copper Chariot with

Great Granary, A small fragment of cotton, Bronze

Mud-brick fortification, Evidence of earliest datable

A manufacturing site during the Harappan period,

Pre -Harappan and Harappan sites, Remain of streets

Trade point between Harappa and Babylon situated

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A coastal site, Dockyard built with brick, Pottery with

Flourishing urban centers, Fossils remain of horses,

Rakhigarhi Haryana -- Well planned city

Unique water management, Largest Harappan

www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 7

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Crafts and Industries

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 ART FROM IVC

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Beads and ornaments

Q4. Consider the following statements:

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 PAINTED GREY WARE

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