SURNAME AND INITIALS: THARAGA M

STUDENTNO:201737487

MODULE CODE:SPHB032

YEAR :2022

EXPERIMENT 2: DIODES AND DIODES CIRCUITS

ABSTRACT : the aim of the experiment was to determine the current – voltage
characteristics of ordinary diode, Zener(Z) diode and LEDs, Rectify AC voltages with
diodes, To limit voltages with a Z diode and Test the polarity with LEDs.
Introduction:
A third category of atoms (materials) called semiconductors exists between
conductors and insulators. A semiconductor's conductivity often falls between that of
a metal and that of an insulator. The semiconductor also behaves as a perfect
insulator at absolute zero temperatures, though. The two semiconductor elements
that are most widely used are silicon and germanium. Other often used
semiconductors include gallium arsenide, copper oxide, and cadmium-sulfide. These
materials are typically categorized as elements of type IVB. There are four valence
electrons in such atoms. Stability is achievable if they can give up four valence
electrons. Another way to do it is by taking four electrons [1]. The outermost orbit of
germanium has four electrons. Atoms are only represented with their outside
electrons when they are in bonds. In a covalent link, the germanium atoms will share
valence electrons. The ensuing figure illustrates this. The covalent bonds are those
that are connected to germanium. The crystal lattices are the name given to
germanium's crystalline structure. The electrons are in a fairly stable condition in
such a configuration, making it less appropriate to couple them with conductors.
Germanium is referred to as an inherent semiconductor and is an insulating
substance in its pure form [2]. Like germanium, it possesses four electrons in its
outermost shell. It is useless as a semiconductor device in its pure state. Impurities
can be combined to get the required conductivity. Impurity addition needs to be done
cautiously and in a controlled setting. There will either be an excess or a deficit of
electrons depending on the kind of impurity supplied. A diode conducts current (IF) in
the forward direction when it is forward biased. The quantity of forward voltage has a
direct impact on the value of IF. The ampere-volt, or IV, characteristic of a diode
refers to the relationship between forward voltage and forward current [3]. The first
microwave semiconductor devices are POINT-CONTACT DIODES, often known as
CRYSTALS. They are still widely used as receiver mixers and detectors today
because they were created during World War II for use in microwave receivers. The
point-contact diode operates by the pressure of contact between a point and a
semiconductor crystal, unlike the pn-junction diode. Views (A) and (B) of a point-
contact diode are shown in Figure 2-51. A tiny rectangular n-type silicon.
crystal makes up one portion of the diode. The other component of the diode is
created by pressing a tiny wire made of beryllium-copper, bronze-phosphor, or
tungsten against the crystal. This wire is known as the CATWHISKER. A sizable
current is transferred from the cat whisker to the silicon crystal during the creation of
the point contact diode [4].

THEORY :

Semiconductor Diode Definition: A semiconductor diode is the result of the fusion between a
small N-type crystal and a P-type crystal, Figure 1. At the junction of the two crystals, the
carriers (electrons and holes) tend to diffuse. Some electrons move across the barrier to join
holes. Some holes move across the barrier to join electrons. Remember that unlike charges
attract each other.

Semiconductor Diode Symbol

The symbol for a semiconductor diode is shown in Figure 2. The arrow side of the
symbol denotes the anode portion of the diode. The anode contains the P-type
material. The bar side of the symbol denotes the cathode portion of the diode. The
cathode contains the N-type material

Forward and Reverse Biasing

A voltage (potential) is connected across a diode in Figure 3. The positive terminal

of the source is connected to the P crystal. The negative source is connected to the
N crystal.

Forward Bias

The negative electrons in the N crystal move toward the barrier. The positive holes in
the P crystal move toward the barrier. The source voltage opposes the potential
barrier and reduces its barrier effect. This allows the electrons and holes to join at
the barrier. Therefore, current flows in the circuit. It flows in the P crystal by holes. It
flows in the N crystal by electrons. The diode is biased in a forward direction, or
forward biased.
There is a minimum forward biased voltage needed to overcome the potential barrier
for current to flow in the circuit. This minimum voltage depends on the type of
semiconductor material used.

It requires approximately 0.6 volts of potential to forward bias a silicon diode and 0.2
volts for a germanium diode. Once this barrier voltage is exceeded, current flows
through the circuit.

Reverse Bias

Figure 4 the positive source is connected to the N crystal and the negative source is
connected to the P crystal. This shows the same junction diode biased in a reverse
direction, or reverse biased.
APPARATUS:
Bread board
STE Ge-diode AA 118
STE Si - diode 1 N 4007
STE z diode ZPD 9.1
STE z diode ZPD 6.2
STE Light Emitting Diode LD 57 C, Green
STE Light Emitting Diode yellow, LED 3, top
STE Light Emitting Diode red, LED 2, top
STE Light Emitting Diode LD 271 h, infrared
Two multimeters
Oscilloscope
Several connecting leads (different colours, i.e. red, black, green, etc)
METHOD:
Part A:
 The circuit was set up
 The variable resistors was set to about 100ꭥ
 Voltage applied was increased in steps of 0.1V and ensured that the current
does not exceed 15Ma.
 Values for voltage and current for each diode type was recorded.

Part B
 the circuit was set up
 the reverse current on a microammeter scale (50Μa) was measured
 the corresponding voltage up to 10V for each diode type was recorded
  again the voltage and current values for each diode type was recorded

Part C
The diode in part B was replaced by Leds ,one by one and obtained the
threshold voltage V.
RESULTS :
RED DIODE
voltage current
0.04 0.00
0.19 0.00
0.37 0.00
0.55 0.00
0.84 0.00
0.93 0.00
1.04 0.00
1.28 0.00
1.41 0.00
1.55 0.00
1.64 0.00
1.65 0.00
1.88 0.00
2.00 0.00
2.13 0.00
2.22 0.00
2.30 0.00
2.58 0.00
2.75 0.00
2.96 0.00
3.75 0.01
4.33 0.02
4.81 0.03
6.88 0.04
13.39 0.05
14.79 0.07
14.89 0.29
14.41 0.33
14.96 0.42
 voltage versus current red diode
16

14

12

10

0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.29 0.33 0.42

Series 1

green diode
Voltage Current
0.02 0.00
0.04 0.00
0.06 0.00
0.10 0.00
0.15 0.00
0.20 0.00
0.25 0.00
0.32 0.00
0.44 0.00
0.57 0.00
0.62 0.00
0.75 0.00
0.80 0.00
0.82 0.00
0.96 0.00
1.06 0.00
1.20 0.00
1.31 0.00
1.38 0.00
1.42 0.00
1.56 0.00
1.61 0.00
1.68 0.00
1.70 0.01
1.71 0.01
1.72 0.02
1.73 0.03
1.74 0.04
1.75 0.05
1.76 0.06
1.77 0.08
1.79 0.11
1.80 0.15
1.81 0.23
1.82 0.29
1.83 0.35
1.84 0.48
1.85 0.66
1.86 0.75
1.87 1.03
1.86 1.68
1.89 3.14
1.93 3.52
1.94 4.05
1.95 4.63
1.96 5.20
1.91 6.63
2.00 7.57
2.02 5.32
2.04 5.93
2.06 10.09
2.07 11.11
2.10 13.30
2.11 14.40

voltage vs current for green diode

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
01 02 04 06 11 23 35 66 03 14 05 5.
2 57 93
0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 1. 3. 4. 7. 5.
Yellow diode
Voltage Current
0.00 0.00
0.13 0.00
0.20 0.00
0.25 0.00
0.31 0.00
0.38 0.00
0.48 0.00
0.52 0.00
0.66 0.00
0.73 0.00
0.89 0.00
1.05 0.00
1.12 0.00
1.22 0.00
1.37 0.00
1.41 0.00
1.55 0.00
1.59 0.00
1.63 0.04
1.68 0.15
1.71 0.30
1.73 0.50
1.75 0.66
1.77 0.70
1.78 0.82
1.79 0.90
1.80 0.93
1.83 1.88
1.84 2.08
1.85 2.83
1.87 3.98
1.88 4.42
1.89 5.22
1.90 5.90
1.91 5.91
1.92 6.47
1.93 7.34
1.95 8.82
1.96 8.47
1.97 9.17
1.98 10.00
1.99 11.67
2.00 12.38
2.01 13.30
2.02 14.99
 current vs voltage for yellow diode

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
31 59 04 15 .3 .5 66 .7 82 .9 93 88 08 83 98 42 22 .9 91 47 34 82 47 17 10 .67 .38 3.3 .99
1. 1. 0. 0. 0 0 0. 0 0. 0 0. 1. 2. 2. 3. 4. 5. 5 5. 6. 7. 8. 8. 9. 11 12 1 14

current

Threshold voltage

Green LED : 1.61V

Red LED : 3.75 V

Yellow LED : 1.63 V

1. Green Led Wavelength

−34 8
hc 6.63× 10 ×8 × 10
λ= = −19
=206 nm
eV 1.6 ×10 ×1.61 V
2. Red led wavelength
−34 8
6.63× 10 ×3 ×10
λ= −19
=884 nm
1.6 × 10 × 3.75 V
3. Yellow led wavelength
−34 8
6.63× 10 ×3 ×10
λ= −19
=203 nm
1.6 ×10 ×1 .63V
 | A−B|
×
% difference =100 A+ B
2
Theoretical value for green diode=550nm
Theoretical value for red diode=650nm
Theoretical value for yellow diode=580nm

|550−206|
× =91%
% difference for green diode = 100 550+ 206
2

|650−884|
× =30.51 %
% difference for red diode=100 650 +884
2

|580+203|
× =96.20 %
% difference for yellow diode=100 580+203
2

DISCUSSION:

The main purpose of the experiment was to determine the current-voltage

characteristics of ordinary diodes, Zener (Z) diodes, and LEDs. The current
and the voltage values for each LED were recorded. The threshold voltages
for each LED were obtained. The experimental threshold voltage for yellow,
red and green LED were obtained as 1.59V ,1.67V and 1.66V , The
theoretical wavelength for yellow, red and green LED were obtained as
203nm,884 nm and 206 nm and % difference for green, red, and yellow diode
are 91%,30.51% and 96.20%. this indicate that there is much difference
between the theoretical wavelength and calculated wavelength.

CONCLUSION:

By determining the LED's current-voltage characteristics, the experiment's main

objective was met hence the experiment is successful.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT:

I would like to say a special thanks to all SPHB 032 lab assistance and my group
members by helping me to construct the experiment on , and also the website and
books that I used as reference to accomplish my Lab report.

REFERENCES:

1. M. Cutler, Forward characteristics of germanium point contact rectifiers, J. Appl.

Phys. 26, 949-954 (1955).
2. J. S. Schaffner and R. F. Shea, Variation of the forward characteristics of junction
diodes with temperature, Proc. IRE 43, 101 (1955).
3. K. Lehovec, A. Marcus, and K. Schoeni, Current-voltage characteristics and hole
injection factor of point contact rectifiers in the forward direction, Trans. IRE, vol. ED-
3, no. 1, pp. 1-6 (1956).
4. B.E Warren, elements of Modern physics of electronics, 2nd E.D pp 39-45, 1993.
5. W. Shockley, Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors (D. Van Nostrand Company,
Inc., New York, 1950), p. 90. 6. JONSCHER, A. K. ( 2007). Measurement of Voltage-
Current Characteristics of Junction Diodes at High Forward Bias. Journal of
Electronics and Control, 226-244