SURNAME AND INITIALS: THARAGA M

STUDENTNO:201737487

MODULE CODE:SPHB032

YEAR :2023

TITTLE: Characteristics of point contact and

junction type diode

ABSTRACT:
In the experiment we find out the different characteristics of point contact diode and
junction diode. The junction diodes have reverse and forward current and voltage
while the point charge diode operates by the pressure of contact between a point
and a semiconductor crystal. Two diode silicon and germanium we compared using
the reverse and forward characteristics to see which type of diode would possibly be
best as a detector in a radio receiver operating up to a few MHz, which type of diode
would possibly be best as a power unit rectifier

Introduction:
A third category of atoms (materials) called semiconductors exists between
conductors and insulators. A semiconductor's conductivity often falls between that of
a metal and that of an insulator. The semiconductor also behaves as a perfect
insulator at absolute zero temperatures, though. The two semiconductor elements
that are most widely used are silicon and germanium. Other often used
semiconductors include gallium arsenide, copper oxide, and cadmium-sulfide. These
materials are typically categorized as elements of type IVB. There are four valence
electrons in such atoms. Stability is achievable if they can give up four valence
electrons. Another way to do it is by taking four electrons [1]. The outermost orbit of
germanium has four electrons. Atoms are only represented with their outside
electrons when they are in bonds. In a covalent link, the germanium atoms will share
valence electrons. The ensuing figure illustrates this. The covalent bonds are those
that are connected to germanium. The crystal lattices are the name given to
germanium's crystalline structure. The electrons are in a fairly stable condition in
such a configuration, making it less appropriate to couple them with conductors.
Germanium is referred to as an inherent semiconductor and is an insulating
substance in its pure form [2]. Like germanium, it possesses four electrons in its
outermost shell. It is useless as a semiconductor device in its pure state. Impurities
can be combined to get the required conductivity. Impurity addition needs to be done
cautiously and in a controlled setting. There will either be an excess or a deficit of
electrons depending on the kind of impurity supplied. A diode conducts current (IF) in
the forward direction when it is forward biased. The quantity of forward voltage has a
direct impact on the value of IF. The ampere-volt, or IV, characteristic of a diode
refers to the relationship between forward voltage and forward current [3]. The first
microwave semiconductor devices are POINT-CONTACT DIODES, often known as
CRYSTALS. They are still widely used as receiver mixers and detectors today
because they were created during World War II for use in microwave receivers.The
point-contact diode operates by the pressure of contact between a point and a
semiconductor crystal, unlike the pn-junction diode. Views (A) and (B) of a point-
contact diode are shown in Figure 2-51. A tiny rectangular n-type silicon.
crystal makes up one portion of the diode. The other component of the diode is
created by pressing a tiny wire made of beryllium-copper, bronze-phosphor, or
tungsten against the crystal. This wire is known as the CATWHISKER. A sizable
current is transferred from the cat whisker to the silicon crystal during the creation of
the point contact diode [4].

THEORY:
Forward bias characteristics. When the p -section of the diode is connected to
positive terminal of a battery and n-section is connected to negative terminal of the
battery then junction is said to be forward biased. With increase in bias voltage, the
forward current increases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly. At about 0.7V for
Si diode (0.2V for Ge), the current increases suddenly. The value of forward bias
voltage, at which the forward current increases rapidly, is called cut in voltage or
threshold voltage. Reverse bias characteristics. When the p -section of the diode is
connected to negative terminal of high voltage battery and n-section of the diode is
connected to positive terminal of the same battery, then junction is said to be reverse
biased. When reverse bias voltage increases, initially there is a very small reverse
current flow, which remains almost constant with bias. But when reverse bias voltage
increases to sufficiently high value, the reverse current suddenly increases to a large
value. This voltage at which breakdown of junction diode occurs (suddenly large
current flow) is called zener breakdown voltage or inverse voltage. The breakdown
voltage may start from one volt to several hundred volts, depending upon dopant
density and the depletion layer.

APARATUS:
 Germanium diode
 Two multi-meters
 Silicon diode
 Power supply
 Conducting cables

METHOD
 we set up the circuit like the one below.

 We increased the applied voltage in steps of 0,1V up to 1V or until the current

reaches about 10-15Ma.
 Then we built the circuit shown below .and we measured the reversed current
for each diode on a microammeter for reverse voltage up to 10V.
 And we recorded the voltage and current values for each diode type.

RESULTS:
Forward black diode
voltage current
0.00 0.00
0.42 0.01
0.45 0.02
0.47 0.03
0.48 0.05
0.50 0.09
0.51 0.10
0.52 0.13
0.53 0.19
0.54 0.21
0.55 0.21
0.56 0.32
0.58 0.61
0.59 0.64
0.60 0.79
0.61 1.00
0.62 1.24
0.63 1.52
0.64 1.87
0.65 2.41
0.67 4.14
0.69 5.51
0.70 6.86
0.71 8.76
0.72 11.13
0.73 13.14
0.74 15.01
 FORWARD BLACK DIODE
16

14

12

10

0
0 42 45 47 48 .5 51 52 53 54 55 56 58 59 .6 61 62 63 64 65 67 69 .7 71 72 73 74
0. 0. 0. 0. 0 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0 0. 0. 0. 0.

Reversed black diode

Voltage Current
0.07 0.00
0.11 0.01
0.12 0.01
0.13 0.01
0.14 0.01
1.7 0.01
1.8 0.02
2.1 0.1
2.5 0.2
3.8 0.3
3.9 0.3
4.0 0.3
4.1 0.4
4.3 0.4
4.5 0.4
4.6 0.4
4.7 0.4
4.9 0.4
5.0 0.4
5.1 0.5
5.2 0.5
5.4 0.5
5.8 0.5
6.0 0.5
6.1 0.6
6.2 0.6
6.4 0.6
6.6 0.6
6.7 0.6
6.9 0.6
7.0 0.6
7.1 0.7
7.2 0.7
7.4 0.7
7.5 0.7
7.7 0.7
7.9 0.7
8.0 0.7
8.1 0.8
8.3 0.8
8.5 0.8
8.8 0.8
9.0 0.9
9.1 0.9
10.0 0.9
10.1 0.9

reverse black diode

1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0.07 0.1 1.8 3.8 4.1 5.1 6 6.7 7.1 7.4 8.1 8.3 8.8 9 9.1 10 10.1

Forward Red diode

voltage current
0.14 0.00
0.61 0.01
0.66 0.02
0.67 0.75
0.69 0.76
 0.70 0.76
0.71 0.77
0.72 0.77
0.73 0.78
0.74 0.78
0.75 0.79
0.76 0.79
0.77 0.79
0.78 0.80
0.79 0.80
0.80 0.80
0.81 0.80
16

14

12

10

0
0.14 0.61 0.66 0.67 0.69 0.7 0.71 0.73 0.74 0.75 0.76 0.77 0.78 0.79 0.8 0.81

.
Reversed red diode
voltage current
0.04 0.00
0.32 0.01
0.34 0.01
0.35 0.01
0.37 0.02
0.40 0.02
0.41 0.02
0.42 0.07
0.43 0.07
0.49 00.9
 0.45 01.0
0.46 01.3
0.47 01.7
0.50 02.9
0.53 05.4
0.55 08.5
0.57 11.6
0.58 12.5

voltage versus current

14

12

10

0
0.04 0.32 0.34 0.35 0.37 0.4 0.41 0.42 0.43 0.44 0.45 0.46 0.47 0.5 0.53 0.55 0.57 0.58

voltage versus current

| A−B|
×
% difference=100 ( A−B )
2
From the graph black diode is silicon diode theoretical value
Experimental value:0.61 V
Theoretical value:0.61V
|0.61−0.61|
100 ×
% difference= ( 0.61+ 0.61 ) = 0%
2
From the graph germanium is the red diode
Theoretical value:0.3V
Experimental value:0.73V
 |0.73−0.3|
× =¿
% difference=100 ( 0.73+0.3 )
2
DISCUSSION:
The percentage difference of silicon is 0% which indicate that there is no error in the
experiment which we performed. While the percentage error of Germanium is 83%
which indicate that in our experiment we made some mistakes.at black diode at 0V
we see that the graph is zero ,That mean that the diode does not conduct at all in its
initial stages. At forward black diode from 0.05 volts and up the diode starts
conducting the current through the diode
increases linearly with increase in the voltage of the battery. This threshold voltage
corresponds with
the theoretical frequency of a forward silicon diode. At forward red diode,it started
conducting the current at exactly 0.8V from there it decreases to zero again and at
reverse black diode the Current is zero from 0.61V to 0.78V. That means that the
diode does not conduct at all in its
initial stages. From 0.78 volts and up the diode starts conducting the current through
the diode
increases linearly with increase in the voltage of the battery
At red reversed diode the current is zero at 0.7 V and from there the diode started to
conduct the current ,the voltage increased rapidly. In the reverse bias, the potential
barrier at the junction is large and the current due to
majority carriers in each region is zero. But minority charge carriers are able to cross
the
junction and constitute a very small current in the reverse direction. “This reverse
current
quickly reaches its maximum or saturation value and remains fairly constant with
increase in
the reverse - bias voltage. It is called the reverse saturation current Is, which is
typically a
few Nano amperes for a silicon diode and a few microamperes for a germanium
diode. Too
high a negative voltage results in a sharp change in the reverse - bias characteristics
[5]”.

Conclusion
By operating a point charge diode by the pressure of contact between a point and a
semiconductor crystal, the experiment achieved its goal of reverse and forward
current and voltage. We compared two diodes made of silicon and germanium using
reverse and forward characteristics to see which type could potentially be used as a
detector in a radio receiver operating up to a few MHz. Based on the characteristics
of germanium point contact diodes and silicon junction diodes in which the black
diode is silicon and the red diode is germanium, which type of diode could possibly
be used as a power unit rectifier.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:
I would like to say a special thanks to all SPHA 032 lab assistance and my group
members by helping me to construct the experiment on , and also the website and
books that I used as reference to accomplish my Lab report.

References:
1. M. Cutler, Forward characteristics of germanium point contact rectifiers, J. Appl.
Phys. 26, 949-954 (1955).
2. J. S. Schaffner and R. F. Shea, Variation of the forward characteristics of junction
diodes with temperature, Proc. IRE 43, 101 (1955).
3. K. Lehovec, A. Marcus, and K. Schoeni, Current-voltage characteristics and hole
injection factor of point contact rectifiers in the forward direction, Trans. IRE, vol. ED-
3, no. 1, pp. 1-6 (1956).
4. B.E Warren, elements of Modern physics of electronics, 2nd E.D pp 39-45, 1993.
5. W. Shockley, Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors (D. Van Nostrand Company,
Inc., New York, 1950), p. 90. 6. JONSCHER, A. K. ( 2007). Measurement of Voltage-
Current Characteristics of Junction Diodes at High Forward Bias. Journal of
Electronics and Control, 226-244