Approaches and Methods in Second Language Teaching

An approach to language teaching is something that reflects a certain model or research paradigm; a theory if you like.
Theoretical positions and beliefs about the nature of language, the nature of language learning, and the applicability of
both to pedagogical settings.
Early Approaches
In the years 1950s and 1960s language learning and teaching was influenced by the tenets of behaviourism. FLL was
seen as a process of imitation, practice, feedback on success, and habit formation.
Properties of L1 are thought to influence on the course of L2 learning in terms of sounds, structure and usage from one
language to the other.
Task-3 Why do you think that the proponents of Audio-lingualism method advocate for no usage of native language but
the native language?

Similarities between the native language and the target language would lead to positive transfer whereas differences
between the two would lead to negative transfer also termed interference.
The core aim of behaviourism was to form the new habit, the structural pattern of the target language through intensive
practice and eliminating interference.
Contrastive Analysis
Contrastive analysis is the systematic comparison of L1 and L2 in order to predict areas of greater learning difficulty.
Studies show that only 3% of mistakes learners make can be associated with their L1 whereas 85% are similar to the
errors made in the process of L1 acquisition and 12% are unclear. Crystal. D (2010: 392)
Later Approaches
In the late 1960s a reaction to the shortcomings of the behaviourism approach leads to the emergency of cognitive
approach to language learning. Learners use their cognitive abilities in constructing rules, try them out and alter them if
they prove to be inadequate.
Later approaches may be divided into:
 Psychological (behaviourism/ cognitivism/ humanistic)
 Linguistic
 Social

Task-1 What has been the contribution of disciplines such as linguistics, psychology (behaviourist, cognitive and
humanistic psychologists) and sociology to the development of language teaching methods?

The psychological tradition

The psychological approach to language teaching is based on the psychological theories of learning which were not
initially designed specifically for the field of language teaching but for the field of teaching in general. Audio-lingualism
and Cognitive Code Learning are methods that grew out of the psychological learning theories.
“Skinner accounted for learning in terms of the reinforcement of responses to a stimulus given.Reinforcers are far
stronger aspects for learning than mere associations.” Nunan. D 2000: 229

Linguistic Approach
This is an approach that is based on findings drawn directly on research and theories of first and second language
acquisition.
Differences between learning and acquiring
The use /role of UG
Direct access -L2 acquisition is just like L1 acquisition. Language acquisition device (LAD) is involved. Which would
mean that the UG is available Just as it was in the L1 acquisition process.
No access - L2 learners use their general learning capacity. The UG ceases to operate for it is only active during the
critical age period.
Indirect access - Only that part of UG which has been used in L1 acquisition is used in L2 acquisition. The parameter
setting for the L1 could be the obligatory starting point for L2
learning process.
Natural Aproach (Krashen)
Comprehensible input is the most important element in language acquisition.
TPR (Asher)
Children get a vast amount of comprehensible input before beginning to speak.
Children comprehend language which is far beyond their ability to produce.
Comprehension should be emphasised and presented before learners are asked to produce language.
Cognitive Approach
In the cognitive perspective language is seen as a skill to be learnt just as any other skill. Learners do not begin with an
abstract set of rules to analyze language input they would rather begin by:
Perceiving individual instances of in use;
Noticing regular features;
Formulating rules.

Sensory-Motor Period- (birth to 2 years) Children are born with "action schemas" to "assimilate" information about the
world such as sucking or grasping. During the sensory-motor period, children's language is "egocentric" and they talk
either for themselves or for the pleasure of associating anyone who happens to be there with the activity of the moment

Pre-Operational Period- (2 years to 7) Children's language makes rapid progress and the development of there "mental
schema" lets them quickly "accommodate" new words and situations. Children's language becomes "symbolic" allowing
them to talk beyond the "here and now" and to talk about things such as the past, future and feelings.

Egocentrism- Involves "animism" which refers to young children's tendency to consider everything, including inanimate
objects, as being alive. Language is considered egocentric because they see things purely from their own perspective.

Operational Period- (7 to 11 years) and (11 years to adulthood) Piaget divides this period into two parts: the period of
concrete operations and the period of formal operations. Language at this stage reveals the movement of their thinking
from immature to mature and from illogical to logical. They are also able to "de-center" or view things from a perspective
other than their own. It is at this point that children's language becomes "socialized" and includes things such as
questions, answers, commands and criticisms
Social Approach
In the social approach perspective, FLL is seen as social, not individual, a collaborative process. Social approaches to
FLL often adopt a broader socio-cultural perspective. More advanced language users provide support to enable those
less expert than themselves to use language which would otherwise be beyond them.
The Humanistic Tradition (Stevick)
In FLL affective and emotional factors are crucial elements in the learning process. Proponents of humanistic tradition
are interested in applying principles of humanistic psychology to language learning and teaching as a reaction to the
behaviourist psychologists.
Proponents of these methods believe that if learners can be encouraged to adopt the right attitude, interests and
motivation in the target language and culture, as well as in the learning environment in which they find themselves, then
successful learning will occur, and that if these affective factors are not right, then no set of technique is likely to
succeed regardless of how carefully they have been devised and implemented.
Community Language Learning/ Counselling Learning (Curran)
The aim of this method is to create a genuinely warm and supportive community among the learners.
Silent Way (Gattegno)
Teacher provides the minimum number of target language models, and the learners, from the very beginning, are
required to work things out for themselves.
Suggestopedia (Lozanov)
Relaxations fosters mental productivity, therefore learning should take place under a tension free environment.
Background music, relaxation exercises, yoga, deep breathing activities should be brought in class to make students
relaxed.

“Protagonists of the humanistic tradition believe that success or failure in language learning depends not so much on
whether one adopts inductive or deductive techniques for teaching grammar, nor whether one engages in meaningful
practice rather than in pattern drills, but in the extent to which one caters to the learners’ affective domain.” Nunan. D
(2000: 234)
“In fact the most extreme proponents of this tradition argue that it is not possible to teach anybody anything; all teachers
ought to do is establish the optimal conditions for learning to take place.” Ibid 235

Method is a way of teaching; a set of procedures. A system that spells out rather precisely how to teach a second or
foreign language, it is more specific than an approach. Methods are typically compatible with one or sometimes two
approaches.
Each method is based on a particular view of language learning (approach) and usually recommends the use of a
specific set of techniques and materials.
A generalized set of classroom specifications for accomplishing linguistic objectives. Methods tend to be primarily
concerned with teacher and student roles and behaviors and secondarily with such features as linguistic and subject-
matter objectives, sequencing, and materials. They are almost ways thought of as being broadly applicable to a variety
of audiences in a variety of contexts.
Teaching methods may be classified in different categories; those that emphasize on language structure (form) and
those that emphasize on language use.
Under the methods that emphasize on language structure we may find methods that focus on the teaching of formal
rules, accurate writing and literature.
Under the methods that emphasize on language use we may find methods that focus on active participation in natural
and realistic spoken language setting and communicative success rather than accuracy.
Prior to the twentieth century, language teaching methodology vacillated between two types of approaches:
Getting learners to use a language (speak and understand it) USE
Getting learners to analyze a language (learn its grammatical rules) FORM

Technique is a classroom device or activity; some techniques are widely used in many different methods. E.g. dictation,
imitation, repetition, the use of body language.

“It is felt that somewhere or other there is a method which will work for all learners in all contexts, and that once such a
method is found the language teaching program will be solved once and for all.” Nunan. D (2000: 228)

Different contexts (facilities/ class size/)

Learners differences (types of learning style/ learners’ characteristics/)
Teachers differences (experience/ personality)
Learning Outcomes (oral vs written communication/ academic)
Due to these differences it was conclude
“More recently, it has been realized that there never was and probably never will be a method for all.” Ibid 228

The focus in recent years

The focus in recent years has been to develop classroom activities which are in consonant with (1) what we know about
the process of second language acquisition and (2) which are in keeping with the dynamic of the classroom itself.
Recent teachers ought to be acquainted with knowledge on the processes of second language acquisition and the
characteristics of their class with a view to coming up with sound decisions with regards to the approaches to take in
their teaching.
There is a great deal written about how people come to learn a second language, some theories end up contradicting
each other. The mistake most of these theories make is to assume that there is a single set of principles which will
determine whether or not learning will take place.
While it is believed that improvement in language learning will come about as a result of improvement in the quality of
teaching method, there is little known on what really makes learning take place for people learn differently, the learning
contexts differ in relation to time and space and teacher’s personality are different.

According to Crystal. D (2010: 391) Teacher training needs to continue at in-service as well as initial levels. Teachers
ought to be technical competent.

Task-3 What does being technical competent mean for a teacher English in Mozambique?
Task-4 How can we empower ourselves to be technically competent as teachers of English?

L2 Learning/Acquisition
In the past second language was introduced at a relatively late stage of development (10 years old) but recently due to
the findings from the bilingual studies and the critical period principles there is shift in second language introduction
approach to the early start.

Task-1 Which finding from bilingual studies foster the early start approach?
Task-2 Discuss the critical period principle

The History of Language Teaching

Historically language teaching was the field of only scholars, generally within the church, and was seen as a way of
exercising the intellect. It generally involved the translating or copying of religious texts from Greek, Latin, Hebrew and
Sanskrist.
Historically it was believed that linguistic and psychological theories would uncover the secrets of second language
learning and then the problem of how to teach a second language would be solved once and for all. However, today
because of the:
 Complex circumstances of teaching and learning language
 Different kinds of learners (visual, auditory, tactile and kinesthetic. Introverted/extroverted)
 Different learning objectives
 Different material available
 Different age groups of learners (homogeneous/heterogeneous)
One can no longer think that a single method could achieve success in all these differences. Methodologists have
concluded that no single approach or method is appropriate for all different situations. A good lesson will therefore be
the one that the teacher uses techniques from different approaches and methods. By so doing the teachers give
students of all styles the chance to shine some of the time.
This paper will discuss different teaching approaches that have influenced language teaching practice over the past
years, among them:
  Grammar Translation
 Audio-lingualism (Oral-Situational)
 Natural Approach
 Total Physical Response
 Community Language Learning
 Communicative Language Teaching
 Eclectic Approach
 Silent Way
 Direct Method
 Humanistic Approach
 Behaviourism Approach
 Cognitivism Approach
 Task Based Learning Approach
 Deductive Method
 Inductive Method
 Suggestopedia
Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language Learning

In unit 1 we discussed four different theories explaining first language acquisition:

Behaviourist theory (Say what I say) learning is habit formation a result of imitation, practice, feedback and
reinforcement.
Innatism (It is all in your mind) children are born with special ability to acquire language. LAD/UG
Interactionism (A little help from my friend) the role of the environment in children language acquisition
Cognitivism (I can’t make it now) children master language gradually according to their cognitive development phase.

Task-4 Consider the question on page 37 and try to identify factors influencing second language learning in each
question.

Successful Language Learning

No single theory can account for the diversity in second language learners’ performance so as to explain why some
second language learners succeed in their tasks whereas others fail. However, there are some factors influencing
second language learning worth mentioning.
 Aptitude to FLL (linguistic intelligence/ personality)
 Motivation (intrinsic/ extrinsic)
 Support (parental/ community/ teacher/ peers)
 Opportunity (facilities/ programs/ environment)
 Level and quality of exposure
 Attitude towards language learning (optimistic/ pessimistic)
 Curriculum (justification/planning/ implementation and evaluation)
 Teaching methods used
(should input precede production or the other way round)
(language structure or language use)
(the role of correction)

Factors Affecting Second Language

1. L1
Contrastive Analysis is the systematic comparison of L1 and L2 in order to predict areas of greatest linguistic
difficulty as well as areas of linguistic similarities.
Negative transfer/ interference
Positive transfer

2. Cognitive Maturity
Adults have achieved a level of cognitive maturity that enables them to perceive abstract concepts that children
would rather find difficult. (metalinguistic awareness)
3. Nervousness
Suggestopedia
TPR
Silence Way
4. Input
Should comprehensible input precede production or should production precede comprehensible input.
TPR
Silence Way
Natural Approach
The use of modified input (child directed speech/foreign talk/teacher talk)
5. Approach to Error Correction
In L1 acquisition correction is limited to meaning, in L2 informal acquisition correction is limited to aspects that
interfere with the meaning of the utterance.
6. UG and LASS (Language Acquisition Support System)
Causes of errors in L2
Interference
Over generalization
Poor input
Lack of attention or nervousness
Research shows that only 3% on mistakes L2 learners make come from negative transfer, 85% are similar to
mistakes made at an early stage of language acquisition and 12% are unclear.
 Behaviourism in L2
Behaviourism accounts learning in terms of imitation, practice, feedback, reinforcement and habit formation. It is
then assumed that L2 learners employ L1 habits in the process of L2 learning. The old habits interfere with the new
needed habits for L2. It is for this reason that in the process of new habit formation students are never exposed any
other languages.
The aim of Behaviourism in L2 teaching is to form new linguistic habits, correct bad habits through intensive
practice, eliminate interference in the linguistic habit formation.
Behaviourism was often linked to the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis CAH, a systematic comparison of L1 and L2
in order to predict areas of linguistic similarities and differences. The CAH predicts that where there are similarities
between the first language and the target language, the learner will acquire L2 structure with easy but where there
are differences the learners will have problems.
Audio-lingualism grew out of Behaviourist and Linguistic tradition.

Innatism
Innate knowledge of the principles of Universal Grammar permits all children to acquire the language of their
environment during the critical period.
A very influential view among linguists is that children are born with prior knowledge of the type of categories,
operations, and principles that are found in the grammar of any human language. The set of inborn categories,
operations, and principles common to all human languages makes up Universal Grammar (UG). In other words, UG
is a set of principles which are common to all human languages.
Linguists are divided with regards to how much the UG affects second language acquisition
1. Direct access -L2 acquisition is just like L1 acquisition. Language acquisition device (LAD) is involved.
2. No access - L2 learners use their general learning capacity. The UG is no longer available in L2 learning
particularly for people who have gone beyond the critical period for language learning.
3. Indirect access - Only that part of UG which has been used in L1 acquisition is used in L2 acquisition.

Krashen’s Monitor Model

1. The acquisition-learning Hypothesis
Krashen argues that there are two ways adults come to know a language:
Acquisition expose to comprehensive input in a subconscious process will lead to language acquisition
Learning conscious process through which people come to develop their linguistic competence and performance.
For Krashen acquisition is far more important than learning and only acquired language is readily available for fluent
communication and learning can never turn into acquisition.
2. Monitor Hypothesis
Krashen argues that acquired systems acts to initiate the speakers’ utterances and leads to fluency whereas learnt
systems monitor the acquired system. Since knowing the rules (learnt systems) only helps the speaker supplement what
has been acquired, the focus of language teaching should be on creating conditions for acquisition rather than learning.
3. The natural order Hypothesis
The natural order through which people acquire linguistic features of the target language is independent of the order in
which rules have been learned in language classes. The rules which are easier to state are not necessarily the first to
be acquired.
4. The input Hypothesis
Input is the source of acquisition. It is only the exposure to comprehensible input which is roughly-tuned that will
guarantee learning.
5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis
The affective filter is an imaginary barrier which prevents learners from acquiring language from the available input.
Among them motives, needs, attitudes and emotional states.

Recent Psychological Theories

1. Information Processing
For the cognitive psychologists working on information processing, second language acquisition is the build up of
knowledge systems that can be called on automatically for communication.
1. Initially learners pay attention to the language they receive and use.
2. At this stage they only pay attention to the main features of language, they may not notice the inflected morphemes.
3. Gradually as a result of experience and practice they begin to pay less attention, they utter their speech rather
subconsciously and in a rather natural flow.
The proponents of this theory contrary to Krashen suggest that internal learning leads to performance.
Richard Schmidt emphasizes on the role of noticing in second language acquisition, he argues that everything we come
to know about language was first noticed consciously and there is no difference between learning and acquiring a
language.
Stages in Learning
 Ignorance (before the lesson)
 Exposure (lead-in)
 Noticing (presentation)/ simulation
 Understanding (presentation)
 Practicing (practice)
 Active use (production)
In the process of language acquisition, learners will come to the stage of automaticity as a result of practice. Meanwhile
due to restructuring changes occur in people’s skills and knowledge.
2. Connectionism
Connectionists attribute greater importance to the role of environment rather than the role of any innate knowledge in
the learner.
They argue that learners gradually build up their knowledge of the language through exposure to the linguistic features.
Whereas innatists see language input in the environment mainly as a trigger to activate innate knowledge,
connectionists see input as the main source of linguistic knowledge.
After being exposed to a given linguistic feature in a specific linguistic context repeatedly, learners develop stronger
and stronger mental or neurological connections between these elements. Once these contexts re-occur the given
linguistic feature is activated. The more these linguistic features occur the stronger the connections and not because the
learners have learnt it. In other words exposure is more important than rule governance.