Plant Water Relations-Soil Plant Atmospheric continuum

Dr. Birendra Kumar Padhan

Assistant Professor (Plant Physiology)
 Soil Plant Atmospheric Continuum (SPAC)

▪ Plant–water relations concern how

plants control the hydration of their
cells, including absorption of water by
roots, ascent of sap and loss of water by
transpiration

▪ SPAC-movement of water from soil to

atmosphere via plant system along its
concentration gradient (higher water
potential to lower potential)

▪ Movement takes place along the

interconnected film of liquid water (water
potential gradient)
SPAC: water movement along the gradient of water potential

Low water potential

Boundary layer conductance to water vapor flow

Stomatal conductance to water vapor flow

Root conductance to liquid water flow

High water potential

Water flow in the plant

A. Upward flow : water flow in the

plant is a passive process driven by
water potential differences and
regulated by hydraulic
conductivities between the
compartments of the system
(SPAC).
B. Axial water flow: is influenced by
the anatomy of the xylem pipes
(size, number, and presence of pits)
and the occurrence of cavitation
events (embolism of xylem
elements).
C. Radial water flow is influenced, in
the long term, by the radial anatomy
of the root, such as the number of
cell layers and the presence of
hydrophobic layers (endodermis and
exodermis). In the short term, the
radial flow is influenced by the
expression and localization of
aquaporins.
• Hydraulic conductivity- rate of water movement through pore space or fracture network
of soil/rocks)
✓ It is the easness of with which water can move through the pore space or fracture
network

• Embolism- blocking of a xylem vessel or tracheid by an air bubble or cavity

• Cavitation- gas or vapour filled cavities in liquid in motion in a region where the pressure
of the liquid falls below its vapour pressure
✓ When the tension of water within the xylem becomes so high that the dissolved air
within the water expands to fill either the vessels or trachieds

• Aquaporins- transmembrane water channels, help in water movement along the water
potential gradient
Water flow in the plant
Embolism

✓ Tracheids (right) and vessels (left) form a series of

parallel, interconnected pathways for water
movement
✓ Cavitation blocks water movement because of the
formation of gas-filled (embolized) conduits
 Factors affecting SPAC Significance SPAC

• Fraction of water available

• Root mining volume • Water uptake
• Hydraulic conductivity • Nutrient uptake
• Driving forces- differences in • Source-sink balance
1. water vapor concentration (∆Cwv) • Cooling effects on plants
2. hydrostatic pressure (∆ ψw)
3. water potential (∆ ψw)
 Soil water potential

SoilΨw = Ψm + ΨS + Ψg

Ψw = Soil water potential

Ψm = matric potential
Ψs = osmotic potential
Ψg = gravitational potential (force of gravity pulling on the water)

✓ The extend to which water potential is reduced due to the

adhesion of water molecules to non-dissolved structures
of the system, i.e. the matrix, for example soil particles

✓ m has the greatest effect on release of water from soil to

plants
 Soil water

• Soil is a porous medium. The geometry of the pore spaces between the soil particles and
the nature of the soil surfaces determines the capacity of soil to hold water. This property of
soil enables it to retain precipitation or irrigation water in the root zone to be used by plants
over time.
• The amount of water held depends upon the porosity and pore size distribution and the
capillary pressure of water in the soil.
• The force by which the water is held by soil (soil water suction/tension) is the force that the
plant roots have to overcome for extracting water retained by soil. It is expressed in the
units of pressure.
✓ Earlier, it was generally expressed in bars (or atmospheres) but is now expressed in
Pascals (mega pascals)

1 bar = 1020 cm of water column*

1 atm = 1030 cm of water column
1 bar = 105 Pa = 100 kPa = 0.1 MPa
*Pressure exerted by a column of water 1020 cm high
 Different types of soil water

1. Gravitational water-saturated soil

- penetrates into large pore space under the influence of gravity
(vertical flow)
- unavailable to plant
2. Capillary water -0. 03 MPa to -3.1 MPa
- water held by microcapillary pores after the gravitational flow is
stopped
- water is retained by surface tension
- available to plants
3. Hygroscopic water or imbibed water - > - 3.1 Mpa
- water held by soil colloidal particles due to adhesive
forces (article size less than 0.0001 mm size posses colloidal properties and are known as
soil colloids)
-small fraction of this is available to plants
4. Runaway water- water flows on the surface of water (horizontal flow)
- unavailable to plants
5. Chemically-bound/combined water- combined with soil minerals like Si, Fe, Al (FeSO4
XH2O)
- unavailable to plants
Hygroscopic Capillary Gravitational

✓ Total amount of water present in the soil – Holard

✓ The amount of water absorbed by the plants – Chesard
✓ The water in the soil can not absorbed by the plants - Echard
 Soil moisture constants

▪ Saturation: Soil is a porous medium and when all the pores of the soil are filled with water, it is
referred to as saturated soil
▪ Field capacity (FC): It is the term used to describe the amount of water that a soil will retain
after allowing free drainage. It does not generally correspond to a fixed soil water suction (or
potential), varying from -0.01 MPa for coarse textured soils to -0.03 MPa for fine textured soils
▪ Permanent Wilting Point (PWP): The soil water content at which plants remain wilted
overnight or in a humid chamber unless they are rewatered. Richards and Wadleigh (1952)
found that the soil water potential ranged from - 1.5 to - 2.0 MPa at permanent wilting for many
herbaceous plants, with most values near - 1.5 MPa
▪ Most crop plants have osmotic potentials in the range of - 1.5 to - 2.0 MPa so - 1.5 is near the
point at which wilting can be expected
▪ The water between saturation and field capacity is called gravitational water. It flows out
under the influence of gravity and is considered unavailable to plants
✓ The water held by the soil between field capacity and permanent wilting point is termed
as available water for plants
 Hygroscopic coefficient and Permanent wilting coefficient

▪ Hygroscopic coefficient-maximum amount of hygroscopic water

absorbed by 100g dry soil under standard conditions of humidity (50 %
RH) and temperature (15 0C)
▪ Permanent wilting coefficient or percentage- the percentage of soil
water left after the plant growing in that soil has permanently wilted
 Water Potential Ranges-Soil Moisture Constants

A B D E F

0 -0.1 - 0.33 - 15 - 30 - 60

Water Potential (Bars)

A Saturated Soil

B Field Capacity (FC)

C Available Soil Moisture (ASM)

D Permanent Wilting Point (PWP)

E Water Vapour

F Ultimate Wilting Point (UWP)

- 0.01 MPa to -1.5 MPa
 Wilting in plants

Temporary wilting Permanent wilting

I. Temporary drooping of young leaves and I. State of permanent loss of turgidity in leaves
shoots due to loss of turgidity especially during and other parts of plant
noon II. Ratio of transpiration is more than rate of
II. Occurs when rate of transpiration is more than absorption but difference is below critical level
water absorption III. Wilting is not recovered as cells do not regain
III. Wilting recovers as soon as water is their turgidity even in presence of plentiful
replenished in the soil around root hairs water due to irreversible cellular damage
IV. Plant regain its normal growth IV. Plant eventually dies
V. Commonly occurs during mid day only V. Occurs throughout day and night
 Wilting may occur for three reasons

1. If the rate of transpiration exceeds the rate of absorption of water from the soil

2. If the soil is not having adequate amount of water for the survival of plants

3. Waterlogged soils or Over – watering leads to oxygen deficiency

 Water movement in soil

Sandy Soil Clay Soil

I. At one extreme is sand, in which the soil I. At the other extreme is clay, in which particles
particles may be 1 mm or more in diameter. are smaller than 2 μm in diameter.
II. Sandy soils have a relatively low surface II. Clay soils have much greater surface areas
area per gram of soil and have large and smaller channels between particles.
spaces or channels between particles. III. With the aid of organic substances such as
III. In sandy soils, the spaces between humus (decomposing organic matter), clay
particles are so large that water tends to particles may aggregate into “crumbs,”
drain from them and remain allowing large channels to form that
only on the particle surfaces and in the help improve soil aeration and infiltration of
spaces where particles come into contact. water.
IV. Retain 15% water by volume IV. In clay soils, the spaces between particles are
so small that much water is retained against
the force of gravity in these spaces
V. Retain 40% of Water
 Driving Forces of water movement in soil

Bulk Flow Diffusion

Predominant mechanism Accounts for some water
Driven by pressure gradient movement

Bulk or mass flow is the concerted movement of molecules en masse, most often in response
to a pressure gradient.
Example: Water flowing down a river
 Bulk Flow

As plants absorb water from the soil, they deplete the soil of water near the surface of the
roots. This depletion reduces pressure near the root surface and establishes a pressure
gradient with respect to neighboring regions of soil that have higher soil water content.

Because water filled pore spaces are interconnected, therefore water moves to root surface by
bulk flow through channels down pressure gradient.

Rate of water flow in soils depends on two factors:

Size of the pressure gradient through the soil, and the hydraulic conductivity of the soil.
I. Greater the size of pressure gradient faster will be the movement.
II. Soil hydraulic conductivity is a measure of the ease with which water moves through the
soil, and it varies with the type of soil and its water content. Sandy soils, which have large
spaces between particles, have a large hydraulic conductivity when saturated, whereas
clay soils, with only minute spaces between their particles, have an appreciably smaller
hydraulic conductivity.
 Water absorption by root

Uptake of water by plant roots is called absorption of water.

Root hairs are responsible for absorption of water(direct contact with soil).

Root hairs increase surface area of root to maximize water absorption.

Root hairs are cylindrical extension of root epidermal cells.

Structure of root
 Pathways of water transport in root

From the epidermis to the endodermis there are three pathways:

1: Apoplast pathway: Water moves exclusively through cell walls and inter cellular
scpaces without crossing any membranes. The apoplast is a non living continuous
system of cell walls and intercellular air spaces in plant tissue
2: Symplast pathway: Water travels from one cell to the next via plasmodesmata. The
symplast is a living continuum that consist of the entire network of cell cytoplasm
interconnected by plasmodesmata
3: Transmembrane pathway: Water sequentially enters a cell on one side, exits the cell
on the other side, enters the next cell, and so on. It crosses at least two membranes
for each cell.
Pathways of water transport in root

1. Apoplast pathway- through cell

walls and intercellular air spaces
2. Transmembrane pathway-
crossing of tonoplast and cell
membrane
3. Symplast pathway-through
plasmodesmata

✓ Water transport at endodermis

through apoplast blocked due
to presence of water
impervious (suberin
deposition) casparian strip
✓ Water transport- aquaporins
Root Hairs

= Transmembrane
At the endodermis:

✓ Water movement through the apoplast pathway is stopped by the Casparian Strip.
✓ Band of radial cell walls containing suberin , a wax-like water resistant material
✓ The casparian strip breaks continuity of the apoplast and forces water and solutes
to cross the endodermis through the plasma membrane,so all water movement
across the endodermis occurs only through the symplast pathway
 Factors affecting water absorption

Soil
1. Factors of soil water
Availability

2. Presence of salts (Physiological dryness)

3. Soil aeration

4. Soil temperature

Plant Factors

1. Transpiration
2. Root system
3. Metabolism
 Mechanism of water absorption

1. Active absorption of water

✓ Root plays active role
✓ Metabolic energy released through respiration is consumed
(a) Active osmotic absorption
✓ According to osmotic gradient
✓ DPD (diffusion pressure deficit) or suction pressure in the root hair becomes higher
✓ Osmotic diffusion of water into root hair
✓ Entry of water in to xylem from pericycle due to high solute potential of xylem than
pericycle
(b) Active non-osmotic absorption
✓ Expenditure of metabolic energy through respiration
✓ Aquaporins also involved
✓ Neigible importance
2. Passive absorption of water
✓ Rate of metabolic transpiration is high
✓ Tension created in xylem in leaves
✓ Tension is transmitted to water in xylem of roots
✓ Soil water enter into the cortical cells of root from the soil
✓ Root remain passive during absorption
✓ Force is created in the leaf during transpiration
 Theories of water absorption

1. Vital theories-living cells are involved in water absorption

(a) Pulsation theory- J. C. Bose
(b) Relay pump/ Clambering pump theory- Godlewski

2. Root Pressure theory- Priestley, Stockin

✓ Root pressure: pressure developing in the tracheary elements of the xylem as a
result of metabolic activities of root

3. Physical Force Theories-dead cells are involved in water abroption

(a) Atmospheric pressure theory- Boehm
(b) Imbibition theory- Unger, Sachs
(c) Capillary theory- Boehm

✓ Ascent of sap: upward movement of water from the root system to the aerial parts
of the plant through xylem
4. Transpiration Pull Theory (Cohesion-tension theory)
✓ Ascent of sap is due to cohesion, adhesion and transpiration
✓ Dixon and Joly (1894)
✓ Most accepted theory
Cohesion
✓ Attraction between water molecules
✓ Water remain in the form of continuous water column in the xylem
✓ Magnitude of cohesive force is high (350 atm)
Adhesion
✓ Attraction between water molecules and the wall of xyle
✓ Ensure the continuity of water column in xylem
Transpiration pull
✓ Pulling force developed in the water column of xylem due to transpiration
✓ Tension created in the xylem elements of leaves
✓ Tension is transmitted downward to water in the xylem of root through the xylem of stem
✓ Water is pulled upward in the form of unbroken water column to reach the transpiring surface
 Transpiration pull: the upward pulling force developed due to loss of water in
transpiration trough stomata
Tension created in the xylem tissue due to water loss
 Water movement
Atmosphere

Intercellular Spaces of Leaf

Mesophyll cells

Tension in Xylem of Leaf

Tension transmitted to Xylem of stem & Root

Water is continually being pulled upward continuous

unbroken water column as water evaporates from the leaves

Upward pull = Transpirational pull

 A
Water molecules sticks to walls of xylem (---------)

B
and to each other (-----------) A = Adhesion
B = Cohesion

Water moves through xylem in ----------column

Air on leaf surfaces causes water to evaporate,

creating a ‘------’ on the water column

Process of evaporative water loss in plants is

called -------?-------- Transpiration
 Water loss from Plants

1. Transpiration (stomata, cuticle, lenticle)

2. Guttation (hydathodes)

Stomata Hydathode Guttation

Cuticle Lenticel Lenticel

 Transpiration: water loss through stomata

Transpiration: loss of water in the form of water vapour from the aerial parts of
the plants
1. Stomatal transpiration
✓ Occurs through stomata
✓ 80-90% of total water loss
2. Cuticular transpiration
✓ Occurs through water impervious cuticle
✓ 8-10 % of total transpiration
3. Lenticular transpiration
✓ Occurs through lenticles of woody stem
✓ 0.1 to 1 % of total transpiration
 Stomata: the epidermal structure

Dicot
stomata-
kidney
shaped guard
cells

monocot
stomata-
dumbel
shaped guard
cells

✓ Stomata predominantly present on the lower surface of the leaf

(abaxial surface), upper surface-adaxial surface
 Opening and closing of stomata

Photoactive stomata-stomata which opens during

the day
Scotoactive stomata-stomata which opens during
night
✓ Turgidity of guard cells determine opening and closing of stomata
✓ Water enter into guard cells-stomatal pore open
✓ Water come out of guard cells-stomatal pore get closed
 Mechanism of stomatal transpiration

Three steps in the Mechanism:

i. Osmosis of water from xylem to intercellular

space near the stomata through the mesophyll
cells

ii. Opening and closing of stomata (Stomatal

Movement)

iii. Diffusion of water vapour from intercellular

spaces to outer atmosphere
 Osmosis Osmosis
Leaf Xylem Mesophyll cells Intercellular spaces
Plasma Absorb heat of
membrane of the leaf and gets
mesophyll cells converted into
vapor (Diffusion)

Sub-stomatal cavity

Diffusion

Stomata

Diffusion

Atmosphere (In
form of vapour)
Mechanism of stomatal movement: opening and closing of stomata

1. Hydrolysis of starch into sugar in guard cells

2. Synthesis of sugar or organic acids in guard cells
3. ATP-driven proton (H+)-K+ exchange pump mechanism in guard cells (Levitt)-
most accepted theory
 Hydrolysis of starch or starch-sugar interconversion
Light & High pH Dark & Low pH

CO2 entering is not utilized

CO2 entering in leaf is utilized

CO2 + H2O
No H2CO3 Starch + Pi
(Insoluble)
H2CO3
Starch Phosphorylase
High pH (High pH)

Glucose -1-PO4 2H+ + CO32-

(Soluble)

Only soluble substances can change the Decreased pH

water potential and not the insoluble ones
 Synthesis of sugar or organic acids in guard cells

Guard cell contains chloroplast not other epidermal cell

Presence of light photosynthesis takes place in guard cell

Production of sugars in guard cell

Water potential decreases in guard cell

Water enters in to guard cell

Guard cell become Turgid Stomata Open

ATP-driven proton (H+)-K+ exchange pump mechanism in guard cells
ATP
Reaction in GC Reaction in GC
during Day H+ during Night
Photosynthesis No Photosynthesis
K+ No H+ No ATP
K+
Cl-
Malic Acid Cl-
C3H5O3COOH
Water potential ↑

C3H5O3COO- + H+ K+ & Cl- Act as Osmolytes

Water
comes out
Stomata Open
Water potential ↓ in GC
Flaccid

GC become Turgid Water enter into GC Stomata

Closed
 Significance of transpiration

• Water uptake
• Nutrient uptake
• Cooling effect
• Source-sink effect
• Photosynthesis
Q. What pressure difference is needed to lift water 100
meters to a treetop?

✓ The pressure gradient needed to move water through the xylem of very tall trees
are on the order of 0.01 MPa m-1
✓ If we multiply this pressure gradient by the height of the tree (0.01 MPa m-1 x 100
m), we find that the total pressure difference needed to overcome the frictional
resistance to water movement through the stem is equal to 1 MPa
▪ Transpiration pull- negative xylem pressure
▪ Root pressure-positive xylem pressure
▪ Positive pressure- increases water potential
▪ Negative pressure- decreases water potential
 Guttation: water loss through hydathodes

✓Guttation-exudation of water in the form of liquid from uninjured

margin of leaf
✓Occurs through hydathodes (water stomata)
✓Takes place early in the morning, due root pressure
✓Guttation water contains organic and inorganic substances

e.g., strawberry
garden nasturtium
Colocasia
tomato
 Guttation

✓ It occurs due to high water pressure and

low evaporation rate and helps them
balance the amount of water in their
system.
Conditions: High RH and Low transpiration
rate
✓ It occurs in plants with well developed
vascular system, such as grass, wheat,
strawberry, and some fungi.
✓ However, it generally does not occur in
large plants like trees because it depends
on pressure, and the pressure required to
force out the water is too large, which is
difficult in larger plants.
✓ As various ions from the soil are actively transported into the vascular tissues of the roots,
water follows (its potential gradient) and increases the pressure inside the xylem. This
positive pressure is called root pressure, and can be responsible for pushing up water to
small heights in the stem.
✓ Effects of root pressure is also observable at night and early morning when evaporation is
low, and excess water collects in the form of droplets around special openings of veins
near the tip of grass blades, and leaves of many herbaceous parts. Such water loss in its
liquid phase is known as guttation.

ROOT
SOIL Active transport of
Exert positive root
ions (Utilize energy
pressure and
Low from ATP) High water will come
Concentration of Concentration of out of hydathodes
ions in soil ions in roots as stomata are
Passive
transport of closed at night and
water early in the
High Water Low Water
morning (low
Potential (Less Potential (More
temp) and under
negative) in soil negative) in roots
high RH
 Stomata vs Hydathode

Stomata Hydathode
I. Stomata, along with vapors, also I. Hydathodes are only responsible for the
facilitate the exchange of gases like removal of excess water and do not have any
oxygen and carbon dioxide. role in gaseous exchange.
II. Stomata are present on the epidermis of II. Hydathodes are present on the margins of
leaves, small buds, and young stems. leaves where the vascular supply ends.
III. Stomata, the guard cell surrounding III. Hydathodes, the surrounding cells do not
them contains chloroplasts contain chloroplasts.
IV. Opening and closing of stomata is IV. Hydathodes always remain open
regulated by guard cells
 Is Guttation harmful?

✓ Guttation is a completely harmless and natural process. On the contrary, it might be harmful
to the plant if Guttation does not occur, as it may lead to the formation of layers of sugar and
salt on the leaf's surface. These remain as small white spots and may affect the beauty of the
ornamental side of the plant.
✓ Another after effect could be the formation of mold on the surface of leaves due to moisture.
The growth of mold is supported in humid conditions.
✓ Guttation has a positive effect on the growth of some plants like strawberries. This is
because it makes sure that the calcium reaches the top of the plant through the proper
internal flow of water.
✓ However, Guttation can turn out to be harmful if the plants are being over-fertilized. In that
case, the minerals from the fertilizers can burn the tip of the leaves.
 Transpiration vs Guttation

Guttation Transpiration

I. Occurs during night time and early morning I. Occurs during daylight
II. Water lost in guttation is rich in minerals II. Water lost in transpiration is pure
III. Water is lost as liquid III. Water is lost as vapour
IV. The process takes place through IV. The process takes place through stomata
hydathodes V. Transpiration is controlled and regulated
V. Guttation is uncontrolled phenomenon phenomenon
 Factors affecting Transpiration

External factors
1. Atmospheric Humidity: decreases transpiration
2. Temperature: increases transpiration
3. Wind: increases transpiration (heavy wind closes the stomata)
4. Light: blue light-stomatal opening
5. Available water: increases absorption and transpiration
6. Atmospheric pressure: low transpiration in high altitude region
7. Vital activities: increases transpiration
8. CO2 : closing of stomata
 Internal factors:

1. Stomatal frequency: increases transpiration

2. Water content: increases transpiration
3. Structural features: reduces transpiration (waxes, reduced surface area, sunken
stomata etc.)
4. Distribution of stomata: increases transpiration
 Antitranspirants
Antitranspirants: chemicals or substances which reduce the water loss by transpiration
mechanism
1. Stomta closing type: closing of stomata
✓ Phenyl Mercuric Acetate (PMA), Abscissic Acid (ABA), high carbon dioxide conc. (0.05
%), triazine, atrazine, simazine
2. Fil forming types: film coatin on the surface of leaf
✓ Waxes, plastic films, silicone oils
3. Reflective type: increases light reflection by leaves, decreasing leaf temperature
✓ Kaolinite (kaolin), S celite, Lime water (lime water)
4. Growth retardant:
✓ Cycocel (CCC)
✓ Reduces transpiration of high value fruits and vegetables
✓ Ornamental Horticulture
✓ Water curing of leaves
 Transpiration is a necessary evil ? (Curtis-1926)

Transpiration is necessary:
✓ Absorption and movement of water
✓ Absorption and translocation of minerals
✓ Regulation of temperature
✓ Removal of excess water
✓ Help in hardening process
✓ Source-sink balance
Transpiration is an evil:
✓ Unnecessary absorption of excess water by root and energy consumption
✓ High transpiration causes soil water defIcit
✓ Internal water deficit: affect metabolic process
✓ Structural modification and adaptation to check transpiration
Structural modification and adaptation to check transpiration

Position of stomata Sunken stomata Hairs on leaves

Leaf rolling Spines on leaves Thick cuticle

Changes in leaf
shape
 Canopy architechture and transpiration

Horizontal leaves Vertical leaves

Reduced light interception as surface

Maximum light interception
area exposed to sun decreases
 Excessive water loss leads to dehydration

TRANSPIRATION

Sap flow Stomatal Conductance

✓ Stomata are critical components of

transpiration and determine water loss

✓ Plants can control how much water is lost to

atmosphere by opening and closing stomata

Well watered plants: -0.2 MPa to -1 MPa

 Adaptive mechanisms and classification of plants under water scarcity

1. Drought tolerant:
✓ Can tolerate or endure extremely negative water potential
✓ e.g., Selaginella lepidophylla (resurrection plant)
2. Drought escapers:
✓ Complete life cycle before unset of water scarcity
✓ Seed remain dormant during dry season
✓ e.g., pulses, early grown variety
3. Water spenders:
✓ Deeper root system for water absorption (7-10 meter)
✓ e.g., Medicago sativa (alfalfa)
4. Water collectors:
✓ Storage of water in succulent tissues
✓ e.g., Cactus, Agave
5. Water savers:
✓ Adaptations to reduce water loss through transpiration
✓ Smaller leaf lamina, sunken stomata, thick hair covering on leaf surface,
shredding of leaves during dry period
6. Osmotic adjustment:
✓ Accumulation of compatible solutes (proline, glycine-betaine, polyols, soluble sugars) in
the cytoplasm
✓ Lowers water potential without damaging the cells
✓ e.g., xerophytic plants
✓ Compatible solutes: solutes that do not disturb the enzymatic system and cell function
due to their accumulation, harmless to cells
 Transpiration Ratio

✓ Amount of water transpired per unit of biomass produced

✓ C3 Plants-250 to 400
✓ C4 Plants- 150
✓ CAM Plants-50
✓ Transpiration ratio is highest for C3 Plants
✓ Water use efficiency is highest for CAM Plants-50
✓ Photosynthetic efficiency is highest for C4 followed by C3 and CAM
 Water use efficiency (WUE)

(Ca-Ci)
WUE = A/E = -----------------------
1.6 (Wi –Wa)
✓ WUE- biomass produced per unit of water transpired
✓ Diffusion of water 1.6 times faster than CO2 concentration through stomata
• A-rate of photosynthesis
• E-rate of transpiration
• Ca-air CO2 concentration
• Ci-intercellular CO2 concentration
• Wi-vapour density inside the stomatal cavity
• Wa-air vapour density
 Save
water………

Thank you
One who solves the problem of WATER is worth two NOBEL Prizes
one for SCIENCE and one for PEACE - John F. Kennedy