Central Nervous System (CNS)

• The central nervous system (CNS), consisting of the brain and spinal cord, receives input from
sensory neurons and directs the activity of motor neurons that innervate muscles and glands. The
association neurons within the brain and spinal cord associate appropriate motor responses with
sensory stimuli, and thus to maintain homeostasis.
• Other than the physiological functions, CNS performs various advanced functions including
perceptions, learning, memory, emotions etc.
• The CNS is composed of gray and white matter. The gray matter, consisting of neuron cell bodies
and dendrites, is found in the cortex (surface layer) of the brain and deeper within the brain in
aggregations known as nuclei. White matter consists of axon tracts (the myelin sheaths produce the
white color) that underlie the cortex and surround the nuclei.
• The adult brain contains an estimated 100 billion (1011) neurons, weighs approximately 1.5 kg (3 to
3.5 lb), and receives about 20% of the total blood flow to the body per minute. This high rate of
blood flow is a consequence of the high metabolic requirements of the brain.
• Ectoderm of the early embryonic tissue develops into neural tube (develops into CNS) and neural
crest (develops into Ganglia). By the middle of the fourth week after conception, three distinct
swellings are evident on the anterior end of the neural tube, which is going to form the brain: the
forebrain (prosencephalon), midbrain (mesencephalon), and hindbrain (rhombencephalon).
• During the fifth week, these areas become modified to form five regions. The forebrain divides into
the telencephalon (cerebrum) and diencephalon (Thalamus, Epithalamus, Hypothalamus and
Pituitary Gland); the midbrain remains unchanged; and the hindbrain divides into the
metencephalon (pons nd cerebellum) and myelencephalon (medulla oblongata). These regions
subsequently become greatly modified.
• The telencephalon forms the two enormous hemispheres of the cerebrum that cover the
diencephalon, the midbrain, and a portion of the hindbrain. The CNS begins as a hollow tube, and
indeed remains hollow as the brain regions are formed. The cavities of the brain are known as
ventricles and become filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The cavity of the spinal cord is called the
central canal, and is also filled with CSF.
Major Levels of Central Nervous System Function
The human nervous system has inherited special functional capabilities from each stage of human
evolutionary development. From this heritage, three major levels of the central nervous system have
specific functional characteristics:
(1) The spinal cord level,
(2) The lower brain or subcortical level, and
(3) The higher brain or cortical level.

1. Spinal Cord Level

We often think of the spinal cord as being only a conduit for signals from the periphery of the body to the
brain, or in the opposite direction from the brain back to the body. This is far from the truth. Even after the
spinal cord has been cut in the high neck region, many highly organized spinal cord functions still occur. For
instance, neuronal circuits in the cord can cause (1) walking movements, (2) reflexes that withdraw
portions of the body from painful objects, (3) reflexes that stiffen the legs to support the body against
gravity, and (4) reflexes that control local blood vessels, gastrointestinal movements, or urinary excretion.
In fact, the upper levels of the nervous system often operate not by sending signals directly to the
periphery of the body but by sending signals to the control centers of the cord, simply "commanding" the
cord centers to perform their functions.

2. Lower Brain or Subcortical Level

Many, if not most, of what we call subconscious activities of the body are controlled in the lower areas of
the brain-in the medulla, pons, mesencephalon, hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebellum, and basal ganglia.
For instance,
1. Subconscious control of arterial pressure and respiration is achieved mainly in the medulla and pons.
2. Control of equilibrium is a combined function of the older portions of the cerebellum and the reticular
substance of the medulla, pons, and mesencephalon.
3. Feeding reflexes, such as salivation and licking of the lips in response to the taste of food, are controlled
by areas in the medulla, pons, mesencephalon, amygdala, and hypothalamus. And
4. Many emotional patterns, such as anger, excitement, sexual response, reaction to pain, and reaction to
pleasure, can still occur after destruction of much of the cerebral cortex.

3. Higher Brain or Cortical Level

After the preceding account of the many nervous system functions that occur at the cord and lower brain
levels, one may ask, what is left for the cerebral cortex to do? The answer to this is complex, but it begins
with the fact that the cerebral cortex is an extremely large memory storehouse. The cortex never functions
alone but always in association with lower centers of the nervous system.
Without the cerebral cortex, the functions of the lower brain centers are often imprecise. The vast Store
house of cortical information usually converts these functions to determinative and precise operations.
Finally, the cerebral cortex is essential for most of our thought processes, but it cannot function by itself. In
fact, it is the lower brain centers, not the cortex, that initiate wakefulness in the cerebral cortex, thus
opening its bank of memories to the thinking machinery of the brain. Thus, each portion of the nervous
system performs specific functions. But it is the cortex that opens a world of stored information for use by
the mind.

Structural Organization of the Brain

A. Forebrain (Prosencephalon)
It consists of cerebrum (telencephalon), thalamus, epithalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland
(diencephalon).
i. Cerebrum (Telencephalon)
It is the largest portion of the brain (account for app 80% of its mass) and is the region primarily
responsible for higher mental functions. It consists of right and left hemispheres, connected internally
by a large fiber tract called the corpus callosum (composed of about 200 million fibers). The cerebrum
consists of an outer cerebral cortex, composed of 2-4 mm of gray matter and underlying white matter.
Cerebral Cortex The cerebral cortex is characterized by numerous folds and grooves called
convolutions. The elevated folds of the convolutions are called gyri, and the depressed grooves are the
sulci. Each cerebral hemisphere is subdivided by deep sulci, or fissures, into five lobes, four of which are
visible from the surface. These lobes are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital, which are visible
from the surface, and the deep insula, which is covered by portions of the frontal, parietal, and
temporal lobes. Respective functions of these lobes are described below.
i. Frontal Lobe: Voluntary motor control of skeletal muscles; personality; verbal communication; higher
intellectual processes (e.g., concentration, planning, and decision making).
ii.Parietal Lobe: Somatesthetic interpretation (e.g., cutaneous and muscular sensations); understanding
speech and formulating words to express thoughts and emotions; interpretation of textures and
shapes.
iii.Temporal Lobe: This lobe is involved in the interpretation and association of auditory and visual
information.
iv.Occipital Lobe: The occipital lobe is the primary area responsible for vision and for the coordination
of eye movements; correlation of visual images with previous visual experiences and other sensory
stimuli; conscious perception of vision.
v.Insula: The insula is implicated in memory encoding and in the integration of sensory information
(principally pain) with visceral responses. In particular, the insula seems to be involved in coordinating
the cardiovascular responses to stress.
Basal Nuclei The basal nuclei are masses of gray matter composed of neuron cell bodies located deep
within the white matter of the cerebrum. The most prominent of the basal nuclei is the corpus
striatum, which consists of several masses of nuclei (a nucleus is a collection of cell bodies in the CNS).
The upper mass, called the caudate nucleus, is separated from two lower masses, collectively called the
lentiform nucleus. The lentiform nucleus consists of a lateral portion, the putamen, and a medial
portion, the globus pallidus.
Function: The basal nuclei function in the control of voluntary movements.
ii. Diencephalon
It contains thalamus, epithalamus, hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
Thalamus
The thalamus acts primarily as a relay center through which all sensory information (except
smell) passes on the way to the cerebrum. The thalamus consists of paired masses of gray matter
(nuclei). The lateral geniculate nuclei relay visual information, and the medial geniculate nuclei relay
auditory information, from the thalamus to the occipital and temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex,
respectively. The intralaminar nuclei project to many areas of the cerebral cortex and promotes a state
of alertness and causes arousal from sleep in response to any sufficiently strong sensory stimulus.
Epithalamus
The epithalamus contain a choroid plexus, where CSF is formed, and the pineal gland
(epiphysis). The pineal gland secretes the hormone melatonin, which may play a role in the endocrine
control of reproduction.
Hypothalamus
• The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus. This small but extremely important brain
region contains neural centers for hunger and thirst and for the regulation of body temperature
and hormone secretion from the pituitary gland. In addition, centers in the hypothalamus
contribute to the regulation of sleep, wakefulness, sexual arousal and performance, and such
emotions as anger, fear, pain, and pleasure.
• Acting through its connections with the medulla oblongata, the hypothalamus helps to evoke
the visceral responses to various emotional states.
• It contain osmoreceptors that stimulate thirst and the release of ADH from the posterior
pituitary.
• The hypothalamus is also where the body’s “thermostat” is located. Experimental cooling of the
hypothalamus causes shivering (a somatic motor response) and nonshivering thermogenesis (a
sympathetic motor response). Experimental heating of this hypothalamic area results in
 hyperventilation (somatic motor response), vasodilation, salivation, and sweat-gland secretion
(sympathetic motor response).
• The hypothalamus contains a feeding center and a satiety center. Electrical stimulation of the
former causes overeating, and stimulation of the latter will stop feeding behavior in
experimental animals.
Pituitary Gland
• The pituitary gland is located immediately inferior to the hypothalamus. Pituitary remains
connected to the diencephalon by means of a stalk.
• Neurons within the hypothalamus produce two hormones—antidiuretic Hormone (ADH),
which is also known as vasopressin, and oxytocin. These two hormones are transported to the
neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary), where they are stored and released in response to
hypothalamic stimulation. Oxytocin stimulates contractions of the uterus during labor, and ADH
stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb water and thus to excrete a smaller volume of urine.
• Neurons in the hypothalamus also produce hormones known as releasing hormones and
inhibiting hormones that are transported by the blood to the adenohypophysis (anterior
pituitary). These hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones regulate the secretions of the
anterior pituitary and, by this means, regulate the secretions of other endocrine glands.
B. Midbrain (Mesencephalon)
Midbrain, is located between the diencephalon and the pons. It consists of;
1. The corpora quadrigemina are four rounded elevations on the dorsal surface of the midbrain.
The two upper elevationss, the superior colliculi, are involved in visual reflexes; the inferior
colliculi, immediately below, are relay centers for auditory information.
2. The cerebral peduncles are a pair of structures composed of ascending and descending fiber
tracts.
3. The red nucleus, an area of gray matter, maintains connections with the cerebrum and
cerebellum and is involved in motor coordination.
4. The midbrain has two systems of dopaminergic (dopamine-releasing) neurons that project to
other areas of the brain. The nigrostriatal system projects from the substantia nigra to the
corpus striatum of the basal nuclei; this system is required for motor coordination, and it is the
degeneration of these fibers that produces Parkinson’s disease. Other dopaminergic neurons
that are part of the mesolimbic system project from nuclei adjacent to the substantia nigra to
the limbic system of the forebrain. This system is involved in behavior and reward.
C. Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)
The hindbrain, is composed of two regions: the metencephalon and the myelencephalon.
Metencephalon The metencephalon is composed of the pons and the cerebellum.
Pons:
• The pons lies between the midbrain and the medulla oblongata.
• Surface fibers in the pons connect to the cerebellum, and deeper fibers are part of motor and
sensory tracts that pass from the medulla oblongata, through the pons, and on to the midbrain.
• Within the pons are several nuclei associated with specific cranial nerves—the trigeminal (V),
abducens (VI), facial (VII), and vestibulocochlear (VIII). Other nuclei of the pons cooperate with
nuclei in the medulla oblongata to regulate breathing. The two respiratory control centers in
the pons are known as the apneustic and the pneumotaxic centers.
Cerebellum:
 • The cerebellum, containing over a hundred billion neurons, is the second largest structure of
the brain.
• Like the cerebrum, it contains outer gray and inner white matter.
• The cerebellum receives input from proprioceptors (joint, tendon, and muscle receptors) and,
working together with the basal nuclei and motor areas of the cerebral cortex, participates in
the coordination of movement.
• The cerebellum is needed for motor learning and for coordinating the movement of different
joints during a movement. It is also required for the proper timing and force required for limb
movements. The cerebellum, for example, is needed in order to touch your nose with your
finger, bring a fork of food to your mouth, or find keys by touch in your pocket or purse.
ii. Myelencephalon
• The myelencephalon is composed of only one structure, the medulla oblongata. Medulla is
continuous with the pons superiorly and the spinal cord inferiorly.
• All of the descending and ascending fiber tracts that provide communication between the spinal
cord and the brain must pass through the medulla.
• Many important nuclei are contained within the medulla. Several nuclei are involved in motor
control, giving rise to axons within cranial nerves VIII, IX, X, XI, and XII. Other nuclei relay
sensory information to the thalamus and then to the cerebral cortex.
• The medulla contain groupings of neurons required for the regulation of breathing and of
cardiovascular responses; hence, they are known as the vital centers. The vasomotor center
controls the autonomic innervation of blood vessels; The cardiac control center, closely
associated with the vasomotor center, regulates the autonomic nerve control of the heart; and
the respiratory center of the medulla acts together with centers in the pons to control
breathing.
The limbic system
• The limbic system consists of a group of forebrain nuclei and fiber tracts that form a ring around the
brain stem (limbus = ring). Among the components of the limbic system are the cingulate gyrus
(part of the cerebral cortex), the amygdaloid nucleus (or amygdala), the hippocampus, and the
septal nuclei.
• There is a closed circuit of information flow between the limbic system and the thalamus and
hypothalamus called the Papez circuit. Studies suggest that the hypothalamus and limbic system
are involved in the following feelings and behaviors:
1. Aggression. Stimulation of certain areas of the amygdala produces rage and aggression, and
lesions of the amygdala can produce docility in experimental animals. Stimulation of particular
areas of the hypothalamus can produce similar effects.
2. Fear. Fear can be produced by electrical stimulation of the amygdala and hypothalamus, and
surgical removal of the limbic system can result in an absence of fear. Monkeys are normally
terrified of snakes, for example, but they will handle snakes without fear if their limbic system is
removed. Humans with damage to their amygdala have demonstrated an impaired ability to
recognize facial expressions of fear and anger.
3. Sex. The hypothalamus and limbic system are involved in the regulation of the sexual drive and
sexual behavior. The cerebral cortex, however, is also critically important for the sex drive in lower
animals, and the role of the cerebrum is even more important for the sex drive in humans.