Network Reference Model

Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.

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 Contents
1 Network Reference Model..............................................................1
1.1 Foreword................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Objectives.............................................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Applications and Data............................................................................................................ 1
1.3.1 Origin of the Story – Applications........................................................................................ 1
1.3.2 Application Implementation – Data.....................................................................................2
1.4 Network Reference Model and Standard Protocols.................................................................2
1.4.1 OSI Reference Model........................................................................................................... 2
1.4.2 TCP/IP Reference Model...................................................................................................... 3
1.4.3 Common TCP/IP Protocols................................................................................................... 4
1.4.4 Common Protocol Standardization Organizations...............................................................5
1.4.5 Application Layer................................................................................................................ 5
1.4.6 Transport Layer................................................................................................................... 7
1.4.7 TCP and UDP....................................................................................................................... 7
1.4.8 TCP Connection Setup - Three-Way Handshake..................................................................9
1.4.9 TCP Sequence Number and Acknowledgment Number.....................................................10
1.4.10 TCP Window Sliding Mechanism......................................................................................10
1.4.11 TCP Shutdown - Four-Way Handshake.............................................................................11
1.4.12 Network Layer................................................................................................................ 12
1.4.13 Working Process of a Network Layer Protocol.................................................................13
1.4.14 Data Link Layer.............................................................................................................. 14
1.4.15 Ethernet and Source MAC Addresses..............................................................................14
1.4.16 ARP................................................................................................................................. 15
1.4.17 Physical Layer................................................................................................................. 19
1.4.18 Common Transmission Media......................................................................................... 19
1.5 Data Communication Process..............................................................................................21
1.5.1 Data Encapsulation on the Sender....................................................................................21
1.5.2 Data Transmission on the Intermediate Network..............................................................22
1.5.3 Data Decapsulation on the Receiver.................................................................................23
1.6 Summary............................................................................................................................. 24
1.7 Quiz..................................................................................................................................... 23
 Network Reference Model Page 1

1 Network Reference Model

1.1 Foreword
In the digital era, various information is presented as data in our life. What is
data? How is data transmitted?
In this course, we will use the network reference model to understand the "life"
of data.

1.2 Objectives
On completion of this course, you will be able to:
 Understand the data definition and transmission process.
 Understand the concepts and advantages of the network reference
model.
 Understand common standard protocols.
 Understand the data encapsulation and decapsulation processes.

1.3 Applications and Data

1.3.1 Origin of the Story – Applications
Applications are used to meet various requirements of people, such as web page
access, online gaming, and online video playback.
Information is generated along with applications. Texts, pictures, and videos are
all information presentation modes.
 Network Reference Model Page 2

2 Application and Information

2.1.1 Application Implementation – Data

Data generation: In the computer field, data is the carrier of all kinds of
information.
Data transmission: Data generated by most applications needs to be transmitted
between devices.

3 Data generation and transmission

A computer can identify only digital data consisting of 0s and 1s. It is incapable
of reading other types of information, so the information needs to be translated
into data by certain rules.
However, people do not have the capability of reading electronic data. Therefore,
data needs to be converted into information that can be understood by people.
A network engineer needs to pay more attention to the end-to-end data
transmission process.

3.1 Network Reference Model and Standard Protocols

3.1.1 OSI Reference Model
The Open Systems Interconnection Model (OSI) was included in the ISO 7489
standard and released in 1984. ISO stands for International Organization for
Standardization.
The OSI reference model is also called the seven-layer model. The seven layers
from bottom to top are as follows:
 Network Reference Model Page 3

 Physical layer: transmits bit flows between devices and defines physical
specifications such as electrical levels, speeds, and cable pins.
 Data link layer: encapsulates bits into octets and octets into frames, uses
MAC addresses to access media, and implements error checking.
 Network layer: defines logical addresses for routers to determine paths and
transmits data from source networks to destination networks.
 Transport layer: implements connection-oriented and non-connection-
oriented data transmission, as well as error checking before retransmission.
 Session layer: establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between
entities at the presentation layer. Communication at this layer is
implemented through service requests and responses transmitted between
applications on different devices.
 Presentation layer: provides data encoding and conversion so that data sent
by the application layer of one system can be identified by the application
layer of another system.
 Application layer: provides network services for applications and the OSI
layer closest to end users.
 Network Reference Model Page 4

4 OSI Reference Model

4.1.1 TCP/IP Reference Model

5 TCP/IP Reference Model

The TCP/IP model is similar to the OSI model in structure and adopts a
hierarchical architecture. Adjacent TCP/IP layers are closely related.
The standard TCP/IP model combines the data link layer and physical layer in the
OSI model into the network access layer. This division mode is contrary to the
actual protocol formulation. Therefore, the equivalent TCP/IP model that
integrates the TCP/IP standard model and the OSI model is proposed. Contents in
the following slides are based on the equivalent TCP/IP model.
The OSI protocol stack is complex, and the TCP and IP protocols are widely used
in the industry. Therefore, the TCP/IP reference model becomes the mainstream
reference model of the Internet.

5.1.1 Common TCP/IP Protocols

The TCP/IP protocol stack defines a series of standard protocols.
 Network Reference Model Page 5


6
Application Layer
Common TCP/IP Protocols

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): is used to access various pages on web

servers.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP): provides a method for transferring files. It allows data
to be transferred from one host to another.
Domain name service (DNS): translates from host domain names to IP addresses.
 Transport layer
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): provides reliable connection-oriented
communication services for applications. Currently, TCP is used by many popular
applications.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP): provides connectionless communication and does
not guarantee the reliability of packet transmission. The reliability can be
ensured by the application layer.
 Network layer
Internet Protocol (IP): encapsulates transport-layer data into data packets and
forwards packets from source sites to destination sites. IP provides a
connectionless and unreliable service.
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP): manages multicast group
memberships. Specifically, IGMP sets up and maintains memberships between IP
hosts and their directly connected multicast routers.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): sends control messages based on the
IP protocol and provides information about various problems that may exist in
the communication environment. Such information helps administrators diagnose
problems and take proper measures to resolve the problems.
 Data link layer
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP): is a data link layer protocol that works in point-to-
point mode. PPP is mainly used on wide area networks (WANs).
Ethernet: is a multi-access and broadcast protocol at the data link layer, which is
the most widely used local area network (LAN) technology.
 Network Reference Model Page 6

Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE): connects multiple hosts on a

network to a remote access concentrator through a simple bridge device (access
device). Common applications include home broadband dialup access.

6.1.1 Common Protocol Standardization Organizations

 Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
IETF is a voluntary organization responsible for developing and promoting
Internet protocols (especially protocols that constitute the TCP/IP protocol suite),
and releasing new or replacing old protocol standards through RFCs.
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
IEEE has formulated about 30% of standards in the electronics, electrical, and
computer science fields worldwide. Those standards include well-known
IEEE802.3 (Ethernet) and IEEE802.11 (Wi-Fi).
 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
ISO is an international organization that plays an important role in the
formulation of computer network standards, such as the OSI model defined in
ISO/IEC 7498-1.

6.1.2 Application Layer

The application layer provides interfaces for application software so that
applications can use network services. The application layer protocol designates
transport layer protocols and ports.
The TCP/IP suite enables data to be transmitted over a network. The layers use
packet data units (PDUs) to exchange data, implementing communication
between network devices.
PDUs transmitted at different layers contain different information. Therefore,
PDUs have different names at different layers.
PDUs transmitted at the application layer are called data.

1.
7 Application Layer

Common Application Layer Protocols – FTP

 Network Reference Model Page 7

The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) transfers files from one host to another to
implement file download and upload. This protocol adopts the client/server (C/S)
structure.

2.
8 FTP

Common Application Layer Protocols - Telnet

Telnet is a standard protocol that provides remote login services on a network. It
provides users with the ability to operate remote devices through local PCs.

3.
9 Telnet

Common Application Layer Protocols – HTTP

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): is one of the most widely used network
protocols on the Internet. HTTP was originally designed to provide a method for
publishing and receiving HTML pages.
 Network Reference Model Page 8

10 HTTP

10.1.1 Transport Layer

A transport layer protocol receives data from an application layer protocol,
encapsulates the data with the corresponding transport layer protocol header,
and helps establish an end-to-end (port-to-port) connection.
PDUs transmitted at the transport layer are called segments.

11 Transport Layer

11.1.1 TCP and UDP

1. Header Formats
 Network Reference Model Page 9

TCP header:
12 Header Formats

 Source Port: identifies the application that sends the segment. This field is 16
bits long.
 Destination Port: identifies the application that receives the segment. This
field is 16 bits long.
 Sequence Number: Every byte of data sent over a TCP connection has a
sequence number. The value of the Sequence Number field equals the
sequence number of the first byte in a sent segment. This field is 32 bits
long.
 Acknowledgment Number: indicates the sequence number of the next
segment's first byte that the receiver is expecting to receive. The value of
this field is 1 plus the sequence number of the last byte in the previous
segment that is successfully received. This field is valid only when the ACK
flag is set. This field is 32 bits long.
 Header Length: indicates the length of the TCP header. The unit is 32 bits (4
bytes). If there is no option content, the value of this field is 5, indicating that
the header contains 20 bytes.
 Reserved: This field is reserved and must be set to 0. This field is 6 bits long.
 Control Bits: control bits, includes FIN, ACK, and SYN flags, indicating TCP
data segments in different states.
 Window: used for TCP flow control. The value is the maximum number of
bytes that are allowed by the receiver. The maximum window size is 65535
bytes. This field is 16 bits long.
 Checksum: a mandatory field. It is calculated and stored by the sender and
verified by the receiver. During checksum computation, the TCP header and
TCP data are included, and a 12-byte pseudo header is added before the TCP
segment. This field is 16 bits long.
 Network Reference Model Page 10

 Urgent: indicates the urgent pointer. The urgent pointer is valid only when
the URG flag is set. The Urgent field indicates that the sender transmits data
in emergency mode. The urgent pointer indicates the number of urgent data
bytes in a segment (urgent data is placed at the beginning of the segment).
This field is 16 bits long.
 Options: This field is optional. This field is 0 to 40 bytes long.
UDP header:
 Source Port: identifies the application that sends the segment. This field is 16
bits long.
 Destination Port: identifies the application that receives the segment. This
field is 16 bits long.
 Length: specifies the total length of the UDP header and data. The possible
minimum length is 8 bytes because the UDP header already occupies 8
bytes. Due to the existence of this field, the total length of a UDP segment
does not exceed 65535 bytes (including an 8-byte header and 65527-byte
data).
 Checksum: checksum of the UDP header and UDP data. This field is 16 bits
long.
2. Port Numbers

13 Port Numbers

Generally, the source port used by a client is randomly allocated, and the
destination port is specified by the application of a server.
The system generally selects a source port number that is greater than 1023 and
is not being used.
The destination port number is the listening port of the application (service)
enabled on the server. For example, the default port number for HTTP is 80.
 Network Reference Model Page 11

13.1.1 TCP Connection Setup - Three-Way Handshake

Before sending data, a TCP-based application needs to establish a connection
through three-way handshake.

14 TCP Connection Setup - Three-Way Handshake

The TCP connection setup process is as follows:

 The TCP connection initiator (PC1 in the figure) sends the first TCP segment
with SYN being set. The initial sequence number a is a randomly generated
number. The acknowledgment number is 0 because no segment has ever
been received from PC2.
 After receiving a valid TCP segment with the SYN flag being set, the receiver
(PC2) replies with a TCP segment with SYN and ACK being set. The initial
sequence number b is a randomly generated number. Because the segment
is a response one to PC1, the acknowledgment number is a+1.
 After receiving the TCP segment in which SYN and ACK are set, PC1 replies
with a segment in which ACK is set, the sequence number is a+1, and the
acknowledgment number is b+1. After PC2 receives the segment, a TCP
connection is established.

14.1.1 TCP Sequence Number and Acknowledgment

Number
TCP uses the Sequence Number and Acknowledgment Number fields to
implement reliable and ordered data transmission.
 Network Reference Model Page 12

15 TCP Sequence Number and Acknowledgment Number

Assume that PC1 needs to send segments of data to PC2. The transmission
process is as follows:
 PC1 numbers each byte to be sent by TCP. Assume that the number of the
first byte is a+1. Then, the number of the second byte is a+2, the number of
the third byte is a+3, and so on.
 PC1 uses the number of the first byte of each segment of data as the
sequence number and sends out the TCP segment.
 After receiving the TCP segment from PC1, PC2 needs to acknowledge the
segment and request the next segment of data. How is the next segment of
data determined? Sequence number (a+1) + Payload length = Sequence
number of the first byte of the next segment (a+1+12)
 After receiving the TCP segment sent by PC2, PC1 finds that the
acknowledgment number is a+1+12, indicating that the segments from a+1
to a+12 have been received and the sequence number of the upcoming
segment to be sent should be a+1+12.
To improve the sending efficiency, multiple segments of data can be sent at a
time by the sender and then acknowledged at a time by the receiver.

15.1.1 TCP Window Sliding Mechanism

TCP uses the sliding window mechanism to control the data transmission rate.
 Network Reference Model Page 13

16 TCP Window Sliding Mechanism

1: During the TCP three-way handshake, both ends notify each other of the
maximum number of bytes (buffer size) that can be received by the local end
through the Window field.
2: After the TCP connection is set up, the sender sends data of the specified
number of bytes based on the window size declared by the receiver.
3: After receiving the data, the receiver stores the data in the buffer and waits for
the upper-layer application to obtain the buffered data. After the data is obtained
by the upper-layer application, the corresponding buffer space is released.
4: The receiver notifies the current acceptable data size (window) according to its
buffer size.
5: The sender sends a certain amount of data based on the current window size
of the receiver.

16.1.1 TCP Shutdown - Four-Way Handshake

After data transmission is complete, TCP needs to use the four-way handshake
mechanism to disconnect the TCP connection and release system resources.
 Network Reference Model Page 14

17 TCP Shutdown - Four-Way Handshake

TCP supports data transmission in full-duplex mode, which means that data can
be transmitted in both directions at the same time. Before data is transmitted,
TCP sets up a connection in both directions through three-way handshake.
Therefore, after data transmission is complete, the connection must be closed in
both directions. This is shown in the figure.
1: PC1 sends a TCP segment with FIN being set. The segment does not carry
data.
2: After receiving the TCP segment from PC1, PC2 replies with a TCP segment
with ACK being set.
3: PC2 checks whether data needs to be sent. If so, PC2 sends the data, and then
a TCP segment with FIN being set to close the connection. Otherwise, PC2
directly sends a TCP segment with FIN being set.
4: After receiving the TCP segment with FIN being set, PC1 replies with an ACK
segment. The TCP connection is then torn down in both directions.

17.1.1 Network Layer

The transport layer is responsible for establishing connections between
processes on hosts, and the network layer is responsible for transmitting data
from one host to another.
PDUs transmitted at the network layer are called packets.
 Network Reference Model Page 15

18 Network Layer

Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is the most widely used network layer protocol.

18.1.1 Working Process of a Network Layer Protocol

19 
Working Process of a Network Layer Protocol

When IP is used as the network layer protocol, both communication parties

are assigned a unique IP address to identify themselves. An IP address can
be written as a 32-bit binary integer. To facilitate reading and analysis, an IP
address is usually represented in dot-decimal notation, consisting of four
 Network Reference Model Page 16

decimal numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, such as,
192.168.1.1.
 Encapsulation and forwarding of IP data packets:
When receiving data from an upper layer (such as the transport layer), the
network layer encapsulates an IP packet header and adds the source and
destination IP addresses to the header.
Each intermediate network device (such as a router) maintains a routing table
that guides IP packet forwarding like a map. After receiving a packet, the
intermediate network device reads the destination address of the packet,
searches the local routing table for a matching entry, and forwards the IP packet
according to the instruction of the matching entry.
When the IP packet reaches the destination host, the destination host determines
whether to accept the packet based on the destination IP address and then
processes the packet accordingly.
 When the IP protocol is running, routing protocols such as OSPF, IS-IS, and
BGP are required to help routers build routing tables, and ICMP is required to
help control networks and diagnose network status.

19.1.1 Data Link Layer

The data link layer is located between the network layer and the physical layer
and provides services for protocols such as IP and IPv6 at the network layer.
PDUs transmitted at the data link layer are called frames.
Ethernet is the most common data link layer protocol.
 Network Reference Model Page 17

20 Data Link Layer

20.1.1 Ethernet and Source MAC Addresses

21 Ethernet Definition

Ethernet is a broadcast multiple access protocol that works at the data link layer
protocol.
The network interfaces of PCs comply with the Ethernet standard.
Generally, a broadcast domain corresponds to an IP network segment.

22 Ethernet Source MAC Addresses

A media access control (MAC) address uniquely identifies a NIC on a network.

Each NIC requires and has a unique MAC address.
MAC addresses are used to locate specific physical devices in an IP network
segment.
A device that works at the data link layer, such as an Ethernet switch, maintains
a MAC address table to guide data frame forwarding.
 Network Reference Model Page 18

A MAC address is recognizable as six groups of two hexadecimal digits,

separated by hyphens, colons, or without a separator. Example: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-
4F.

22.1.1 ARP
ARP: Address Resolution Protocol
Discovers the MAC address associated with a given IP address.

23 ARP

The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a TCP/IP protocol that discovers the data
link layer address associated with a given IP address.
ARP is an indispensable protocol in IPv4. It provides the following functions:
 Discovers the MAC address associated with a given IP address.
 Maintains and caches the mapping between IP addresses and MAC addresses
through ARP entries.
 Detects duplicate IP addresses on a network segment.
ARP Implementation Principles (1)
 Network Reference Model Page 19

24 ARP Implementation Principles (1)

Generally, a network device has an ARP cache. The ARP cache stores the
mapping between IP addresses and MAC addresses.
Before sending a datagram, a device searches its ARP table. If a matching ARP
entry is found, the device encapsulates the corresponding MAC address in the
frame and sends out the frame. If a matching ARP entry is not found, the device
sends an ARP request to discover the MAC address.
The learned mapping between the IP address and MAC address is stored in the
ARP table for a period. Within the validity period (180s by default), the device
can directly search this table for the destination MAC address for data
encapsulation, without performing ARP-based query. After the validity period
expires, the ARP entry is automatically deleted.
If the destination device is located on another network, the source device
searches the ARP table for the gateway MAC address of the destination address
and sends the datagram to the gateway. Then, the gateway forwards the
datagram to the destination device.
ARP Implementation Principles (2)

25 ARP Implementation Principles (2)

In this example, the ARP table of Host 1 does not contain the MAC address of
Host 2. Therefore, Host 1 sends an ARP request message to discover the
destination MAC address.
 Network Reference Model Page 20

The ARP request message is encapsulated in an Ethernet frame. The source MAC
address in the frame header is the MAC address of Host 1 at the transmit end.
Because Host 1 does not know the MAC address of Host 2, the destination MAC
address is the broadcast address FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF.
The ARP request message contains the source MAC address, source IP address,
destination MAC address, and destination IP address. The destination MAC
address is all 0s. The ARP request message is broadcast to all hosts on the
network, including gateways.
ARP Implementation Principles (3)

26 ARP Implementation Principles (3)

After receiving the ARP request message, each host checks whether it is the
destination of the message based on the carried destination IP address. If not,
the host does not respond to the ARP request message. If so, the host adds the
sender's MAC and IP addresses carried in the ARP request message to the ARP
table, and then replies with an ARP reply message.
ARP Implementation Principles (4)
 Network Reference Model Page 21

27 ARP Implementation Principles (4)

Host 2 sends an ARP reply message to Host 1.

In the ARP reply message, the sender's IP address is the IP address of Host 2 and
the receiver's IP address is the IP address of Host 1. The receiver's MAC address
is the MAC address of Host 1 and the sender's MAC address is the MAC address of
Host 2. The operation type is set to reply.
ARP reply messages are transmitted in unicast mode.
ARP Implementation Principles (5)
 Network Reference Model Page 22

28 ARP Implementation Principles (5)

After receiving the ARP reply message, Host 1 checks whether it is the
destination of the message based on the carried destination IP address. If so,
Host 1 records the carried sender's MAC and IP addresses in its ARP table.

28.1.1 Physical Layer

After data arrives at the physical layer, the physical layer converts a digital
signal into an optical signal, an electrical signal, or an electromagnetic wave
signal based on the physical media.
PDUs transmitted at the physical layer are called bitstreams.

29 Physical Layer

29.1.1 Common Transmission Media

Data transmission through twisted pairs:
 Network Reference Model Page 23

30 Data transmission through twisted pairs

Twisted pairs: most common transmission media used on Ethernet networks.

Twisted pairs can be classified into the following types based on their anti-
electromagnetic interference capabilities:
STP: shielded twisted pairs
UTP: unshielded twisted pairs
Data transmission through optical fibers:

31 Data transmission through optical fibers

Optical fiber transmission can be classified into the following types based on
functional components:
Fibers: optical transmission media, which are glass fibers, used to restrict optical
transmission channels.
Optical modules: convert electrical signals into optical signals to generate optical
signals.
Data transmission through serial cables:
 Network Reference Model Page 24

32 Data transmission through serial cables

Serial cables are widely used on wide area networks (WANs). The types of
interfaces connected to serial cables vary according to WAN line types. The
interfaces include synchronous/synchronous serial interfaces, ATM interfaces,
POS interfaces, and CE1/PRI interfaces.
Data transmission between terminal and wireless routers through wireless
signals:

33 Data transmission between terminal and wireless

routers through wireless signals

Wireless signals may be transmitted by using electromagnetic waves. For
example, a wireless router modulates data and sends the data by using
electromagnetic waves, and a wireless network interface card of a mobile
terminal demodulates the electromagnetic waves to obtain data. Data
transmission from the wireless router to the mobile terminal is then complete.
 Network Reference Model Page 25

33.1 Data Communication Process

33.1.1 Data Encapsulation on the Sender

34 Data Encapsulation on the Sender

Assume that you are using a web browser to access Huawei's official website.
After you enter the website address and press Enter, the following events occur
on your computer:
1. The browser (application program) invokes HTTP (application layer protocol)
to encapsulate the application layer data. (The DATA in the figure should also
include the HTTP header, which is not shown here.)
2. HTTP uses TCP to ensure reliable data transmission and transmits
encapsulated data to the TCP module.
3. The TCP module adds the corresponding TCP header information (such as the
source and destination port numbers) to the data transmitted from the
application layer. At the transport layer, the PDU is called a segment.
4. On an IPv4 network, the TCP module sends the encapsulated segment to the
IPv4 module at the network layer. (On an IPv6 network, the segment is sent
to the IPv6 module for processing.)
5. After receiving the segment from the TCP module, the IPv4 module
encapsulates the IPv4 header. At this layer, the PDU is called a packet.
6. Ethernet is used as the data link layer protocol. Therefore, after the IPv4
module completes encapsulation, it sends the packet to the Ethernet module
(such as the Ethernet NIC) at the data link layer for processing.
 Network Reference Model Page 26

7. After receiving the packet from the IPv4 module, the Ethernet module adds
the corresponding Ethernet header and FCS frame trailer to the packet. At
this layer, the PDU is called a frame.
8. After the Ethernet module completes encapsulation, it sends the data to the
physical layer.
9. Based on the physical media, the physical layer converts digital signals into
electrical signals, optical signals, or electromagnetic (wireless) signals.
10. The converted signals start to be transmitted on the network.

34.1.1 Data Transmission on the Intermediate Network

Encapsulated data is transmitted on the network.

35 In most cases:
Data Transmission on the Intermediate Network

 A Layer 2 device (such as an Ethernet switch) only decapsulates the Layer 2

header of the data and performs the corresponding switching operation
according to the information in the Layer 2 header.
 A Layer 3 device (such as a router) decapsulates the Layer 3 header and
performs routing operations based on the Layer 3 header information.
 Note: The details and principles of switching and routing will be described in
subsequent courses.
 Network Reference Model Page 27

35.1.1 Data Decapsulation on the Receiver

36 Data Decapsulation on the Receiver

After being transmitted over the intermediate network, the data finally reaches
the destination server. Based on the information in different protocol headers,
the data is decapsulated layer by layer, processed, transmitted, and finally sent
to the application on the web server for processing.

36.1 Quiz
1. (Single) Which of the following organizations is not a common protocol
standardization organization? ( )
A. IETF(Internet Engineering Task Force)
B. IEEE(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
C. ISO(International Organization for Standardization)
D. IEC(International Electrotechnical Commission)
2. (Single) Which of the following transport-layer protocols is HTTP based on? (
)
A. TCP 80
B. TCP 23
C. TCP 25
D. UDP 69
3. (Multiple) Which of the following protocols are transport-layer protocols? ( )
A. TCP
B. FTP
C. UDP
D. HTTP
 Network Reference Model Page 28

4. (True or false) IP and MAC addresses must be encapsulated for

communication on a network. ( )
A. True
B. False
5. (True or false) ARP Reply packets are broadcast. ( )
A. True
B. False
6. What are the benefits of the layered model?
7. What are the common protocols at the application layer, transport layer,
network layer, and data link layer?

36.2 Summary
Both the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP reference model adopt the layered
design concept.
 Clear division of functions and boundaries between layers facilitates the
development, design, and troubleshooting of each component.
 The functions of each layer can be defined to impel industry standardization.
 Interfaces can be provided to enable communication between hardware and
software on various networks, improving compatibility.
Data generation and transmission require collaboration between modules.
Meanwhile, each module must fulfill its own responsibilities.