EE 217

Electromagnetic Fields
 Maxwell's Equations for
Electrostatics
– The first set of equations are the microscopic/point
form of maxwell's equations
– Second set of equations are the
macroscopic/integral form of maxwell's equations
 
∇⋅ D = ∫closed surface D⋅dS =Qenclosed
 
∇⋅B=0 ∫closed surface B⋅dS =0
 ×E
∇  =0 ∮ E ⋅dL=0

 H  = ∮ H⋅  dL=I

∇× J enclosed
 Maxwell's Equations for
Electrostatics
● Where
– E is the electric field
– H is the magnetic field
– D is the electric flux density
– B is the magnetic flux density
– Ienclosed is the current enclosed by the path
– Qenclosed is the total charge enclosed by the surface
 Maxwell's Equations for
Electrostatics
● First Equation (Gauss' Law)
 
∇⋅D = ∫closed surface D⋅dS =Qenclosed
– Integral form states that the total electric flux that
passes through a closed surface is equal to the
total charge enclosed by that surface
– If we let the volume enclosed by the surface
approach zero, we get the point form of Gauss' Law
● Charge enclosed by this infinitesimal surface
(approximately a point) is equal to the charge density at
that point
 Maxwell's Equations for
Electrostatics
Gaussian Surface
(Closed Surface)

Flux Lines

Charge
 Maxwell's Equations for
Electrostatics
● The closed surface is called a Gaussian
Surface
– Gaussian surface can be of any shape and size, so
long as it is closed
– Gaussian surface is usually chosen such that
solution of maxwell's equation is simplified
● eg. for point charges, spherical surface is prefered,etc.
● Letting the gaussian surface approach a point
gives us the point form of gauss' law
 Maxwell's Equations for
Electrostatics
● Second Equation
 B
∇⋅ =0 ∫closed surface B⋅dS =0
– The magnetic flux density (B) can be expressed as
the curl of another vectro A (vector magnetic
potential)
– The divergence of the curl of a vector is always
zero
– There are no magnetic field sources that
correspond to the electric charge (there are no
magnetic monopoles)
– Illustrates that the magnetic field/flux always forms
closed loops
 Maxwell's Equations for
Electrostatics
● Third Equation
 E
∇×  =0 ∮ E ⋅dL=0


– Integral of the Electric field over a closed path is

equal to zero
● Initial and final points of the integral are the same, hence
both points have the same potential
● Potential difference between the two points is zero
 Maxwell's Equations for
Electrostatics
● Fourth Equation (Ampere's Law)
 H
∇×  =
J  dL=I
∮ H⋅  enclosed

– Integral of the magnetic field over a closed path is

equal to the current enclosed by the path
– If we let the surface area enclosed by the path
approach zero, we arrive at the point form of this
equation
– Illustrates the circulation of the magnetic field
Maxwell's Equations for
Electrostatics
 Time Varying Fields
● Previous discussion is valid only for static fields
– Equations for time varying case is almost the same,
except for the inclusion of additional terms
– Added terms correspond to dynamic effects brought
about by the time varying fields
● For time varying fields, electric and magnetic
fields become dependent on each other:
– Time varying electric field generates a time varying
mangentic field and vice versa
 Faraday's Law
● Voltage is induced inside a conducting circuit
when it is linked by a time varying magnetic
field
– Voltage is proportional to the time rate of change of
the magnetic flux linking the circuit
d m
V =n
dt

● Where
– n is the number of turns of the circuit
– Ψm is the mangetic flux linking the circuit
 Faraday's Law
● Time variation of the linked magnetic field may
be brought about by:
– A time varying magnetic field applied to a physically
immobile circuit
– A steady/stationary magnetic field applied to a
moving circuit
– A time varying magnetic field applied to a moving
circuit
 Faraday's Law
● For static fields, Voltage or potential difference
is the negative integral of the electric field
between two points along a certain path
● This line integral is dependent only on the initial and final
points of integration and is independent of the path taken
V =−∫ E  ⋅dL

● For dynamic fields, Faraday's law contributes to
this term
● Potential difference is no longer independent of the path
taken
● When there is a contribution from a changing magnetic
flux, the voltage about a closed path is called the
electromotive force (emf)
 Faraday's Law
● For electrostatics:
V =−∮  
E⋅dL=0
● For time varying fields, due to Faraday's law:
 ⋅dL=emf
V closed path =−∮ E 

– For a stationary circuit

−∂ m −∂
∮ E ⋅dL=

∂t
= ∫
∂t S

B ⋅ 
dS
 Faraday's Law
● For this case, the flux is found by evaluating
normal component the magnetic flux density (B)
over a surface that is bounded by the closed
path
– Surface may be of any form, so long as it is
bounded by the path
∂
Direction of positive ∂t

Direction of positive
right hand convention Direction of positive

∮ E ⋅dL

 Faraday's Law
● This is now one of Maxwell's equation modified
for the time varying case
  −∂ B⋅ dS

∮ E⋅dL= ∫
∂t S
● Using Stoke's theorem
 ∫ ∇
∮ F ⋅dL=  ⋅dS
 ×F 
S

the equation becomes


∂B
∫S  ∇×
 E ⋅dS=−
 ∫S ∂t

⋅dS
 Faraday's Law
● For this equation to be valid for any surface,
both integrands must be equal. Therefore:
−∂ 
B
 =
∇× E
∂t
● This is now the point form of one of maxwell's
equations for the time varying case
– Take note that this equation reduces to the
electrostatic case when the magnetic field is not
time varying
 Displacement Current
● Consider a volume enclosed by a surface
containing a finite number of charges
– If current flows out of the volume, we would expect
the number of charges inside the volume to
decrease, and vice versa
−∂Q
∫closed surface J ⋅dS = ∂ t
 
– If we let the volume approach zero, this becomes
the divergence of the current density
  −∂
∇⋅J =
∂t
 Displacement Current
● If we look at Maxwell's curl equation for the
magnetic field and get its divergence:
 ∇
∇⋅  ×H  
 = ∇⋅J

● But we know that the divergence of the curl of a

vector is zero
– Last equation must be equal to zero
– Maxwell's magnetic field curl equation is incomplete
and is not valid for time varying fields
 Displacement Current

∂D
● Maxwell added the term to the right hand
∂t
side of the curl equation such that continuity
could be satisfied
– The magnetic field curl equation for time varying
fields now become
∂ 
D
 H
∇×  =J
∂t
– If we now get the divergence of this equation
∂ 
D
  
 = ∇⋅
∇⋅ ∇ × H 
J  ∇⋅
∂t
  −∂   −∂
∇⋅J =  ∇⋅D=
∂t ∂t
 Displacement Current
● The displacement current allows us to explain
certain things that would be inconsistent if only
conduction current is included in the magnetic
field laws
 Maxwell's Equations for Time
Varying Fields
● We can now rewrite maxwell's equations in their
time varying forms

 
∇⋅ D =
 
∫closed surface D⋅dS=Q
 enclosed
∇⋅ B=0  dS=0

 ×E −∂ B ∫closed surface B⋅
∇ =
∂t ∮ E ⋅dL=−emf


D  dL=I


∇× H =
J
∂ ∮ H⋅ enclosed I displacement
∂t
 Maxwell's Equations for Time
Varying Fields
● Of particular interest is the case when
electromagnetic fields have sinusoidal time
variations
– Other time variations can be expressed as a sum of
sinusoids with different frequencies
● Instead of using sinusoidal terms for the time
variations, it is more convenient to use complex
exponentials ejωt.
– Allows easier computation of derivatives and
integrals over time
 Maxwell's Equations for Time
Varying Fields
● Since all time variations of the fields can be
expressed in terms of ejωt, we may replace the
partial derivatives with jωt
 
∇⋅ D =
   D
∇⋅  =
∇⋅ B=0
−∂ B  
∇⋅B=0
 ×E
∇ =
∂t  E
∇×  =− j  
B
 ∂ 
D  H
∇×  = 
J  j t D
∇× H =
J
∂t
 EM Fields in Different Media
● Recall that for free space, the relationships
between the fields and their corresponding flux
densities is given by:

B=0 H
D=0 E

where: −7
0=4  x 10 H / m
−12
0=8.854 x 10 F /m
 EM Fields in Different Media
● In general, the fields may not always be located
in free space
– Different guiding structures, such as transmission
lines and wave guides, may have their EM fields in
media other than free space
● Teflon, FR4, etc
● For cases where the fields are located in media
other than free space, relationships between
fields and flux densities are very similar to that
of free space
 EM Fields in Different Media
● Consider a dielectric (insulator) with no electric
field applied to it
– Atoms are oriented randomly
– Total displacement flux inside the dielectric is zero
● Random orientation of atoms cancel fields generated by
the atoms
● If an external electric field is applied to such a
dielectric
– Atoms align themselves relative to the external
electric field
● Creates dipole moments inside the material
– This results in an increase in flux inside the
dielectric
EM Fields in Different Media
 EM Fields in Different Media
● The increase in the flux density inside the
material is taken into account by the
polarization vector Pe
– The electric flux density inside the dielectric is:
D=0 EP e
● If the material is linear, the polarization vector is
linearly related to the applied electric field
P e=0 e E
– Where e is the electric susceptibility of the
dielectric
 EM Fields in Different Media
● Combining these two equations, we have:
D=0 EP e
=0 E0 e E
=0 1e  E
=0 r E
= E
– Where r is the relative permittivity / dielectric
constant of the medium
 EM Fields in Different Media
● Similarly, for a magnetic material, the
relationship between the permeability and the
magnetic field is
B=0 1m  H
=0 r H
= H
 Boundary Conditions
● Maxwell's equations require known boundary
values for complete and unique solution
● Varies for interfaces of different materials
● Integral form of Maxwell's equations can be
used to find boundary conditions
– Involves the normal and tangential fields at the
interface
 Boundary Conditions
● For the evaluation of the normal components at
the interface we use a closed surface:
Dn2

ΔS

Medium 2
S

Medium 1

∮s D⋅d s=∫V  dv
Dn1
 Boundary Conditions
● Letting the height of the cylinder approach zero;
– Tangential components of the electric flux density at
the side walls approach zero
– Integral is reduced to:

 S D 2n− S D1n = S S
D 2n −D1n = S
– This can be rewritten as:

n⋅ D 2 −D1= S
 Boundary Conditions
● Similarly, we can use the previous figure and
assumptions for the magnetic field boundary
● Using another of Maxwell's equations:

∮S B⋅d S=0
– The normal components of the magnetic flux
density are:
Bn1 =Bn2
n⋅B2=n⋅B1
 Boundary Conditions
● For the evaluation of the tangential components
we select a closed path:
ΔL

Et2
Medium 2
h S

Medium 1 Et1

∮C E⋅d L=− j ∫S B⋅d s

 Boundary Conditions
● Letting the height of the path approach zero
– B term vanishes
 L Et1− L E t2 =0
E t1 =E t2
– Which can be rewritten as

 E 2−E 1 ×n=0
 Boundary Conditions
● Similar steps for the integral form of the second
curl equation:
n× H 2−H 1=J S
● In summary, for any interface between 2
materials, the EM fields must satisfy the
following boundary conditions:
n⋅ D 2−D1 =S
n⋅B2=n⋅B1
 E 2−E 1 ×n=0
n× H 2−H 1=J S
 Boundary Conditions: Dielectric
Interface
● For a boundary between 2 lossless dielectric
materials, no charge or surface current
densities exist at the interface
n⋅D1=n⋅D 2
n⋅B1=n⋅B2
n×E 1=n× E 2
n× H 1=n× H 2
– Normal components of D and B are continuous
across the interface
– Tangential components of E and H are continuous
across the interface
 Boundary Conditions: Perfect
Conductor and Dielectric Interface
● The fields inside a perfect conductor is zero
● Current charge flows on the surface of the
conductor
n⋅D= S
n⋅B=0
n×E =0
n× H =J S
● Known as an electric wall
– Tangential components of the electric field are
zeroed out at the interface