BMRITC202- Module 1 & 2

(Samhita Bhattacharya, Brainware University, e-mail- [email protected])

Circuits of X-ray Machine

 X-ray machine circuits comprise three main components:
 A circuit for heating the filament.
 A circuit for applying a large potential difference (high voltage) between cathode and
anode to accelerate electrons.
 A timing device to control the length of exposure.
The filament circuit
 The tungsten filament at the cathode is the source of electrons used to produce x-rays.
 The number of electrons produced at the tungsten filament is dependent upon the
temperature of the filament.
 A tungsten filament needs to be heated to at least 2200°C to emit useful numbers of
electrons.
 Electrons are produced by thermionic emission.
 When a metal is heated its atoms absorb energy which allows some electrons to move a
small distance from the surface of the metal.
 The filament circuit consists of:
 A step down transformer to reduce the voltage from 220 V to 10 V.
 A variable resistor to control filament current and therefore filament temperature.
 An ammeter to give an indication of filament current which is directly related to mA.
 The tube current is directly proportional to the filament current so the ammeter is usually
placed on the secondary circuit of the high voltage circuit as transformers are not 100%
efficient.
High voltage circuit
 This circuit produces a large potential difference between cathode and anode to
accelerate electrons produced at the filament to high velocities.
 High tension transformers convert high Amp and low kV to mA and high kV.
 It consists of 2 circuits (an autotransformer and step-up transformer) .
 The autotransformer:
 Pre-reading voltmeter and line voltage compensation.
 Measures incoming voltage and allows adjustments on the autotransformer so that
the incoming line voltage remains constant.
 This compensates for fluctuations in national grid.
 Usually automatic on modern x-ray machines.
 kV selector provides pre-determined voltage to primary turnings of the transformer.
 Step-up transformer:
 These alter the incoming voltage to kV.
 The kV meter is placed across the primary circuit and measures incoming voltage but
calibrated to read across the x-ray tube voltage (kV).
Transformer
 Mains electricity is 240 V and has to be modified to produce a high voltage across the x-
ray tube head and low voltage to heat the filament.
 Transformers comprise two coils of wire wound around an iron core.
 When current flows through one coil (primary) a magnetic field is generated which
induces a current to flow in the secondary wire coil.
 The ratio of the incoming voltage to outgoing kilovolts is proportional to the number of
turns on both the primary and secondary side (Vp/Vs = Np/Ns).
 If the number of turns in the secondary coil is > than the number in the primary the
voltage is increased.
 Step-up transformer has many more turns on the secondary coil than the primary coil.

Rectification
 The production of x-rays is dependent on the current flowing in one direction across the
x-ray tube.
 The step-up transformer on the high voltage circuit requires alternating current (AC) to
function.
 The current to the tube changes from AC to direct current (DC) by the process of
rectification.
 Ideally voltage across the tube head is kept constant so that x-ray production is
consistent.
 Half wave rectification:
 These circuits contain two rectifiers and prevent the retrograde flow of electricity from
anode to cathode.
 For 50% of the cycle there is no voltage across the tube head and x-rays cannot be
generated.
 Full wave rectification:
 If a circuit includes four rectifiers it can be constructed so that current flows from
cathode to anode unimpeded and retrograde current is reversed to ensure current
flows continuously.
 The voltage across the tube head varies with time.
 This may be important if a large number of exposures are made rapidly, e.g. angiography.
 A constant voltage may be achieved by placing condensers across the output from the
rectifier circuit.
 The condenser supplies voltage when the rectifier output is less than maximal.
 Capacitor discharge unit:
 A capacitor is charged from the mains to a preset kV.
 During exposure kV decreases with time.
 High frequency machines use a high frequency alternating current copper coil - this
reduces the ripple effect and allows a higher kV compared with traditional machines.
 Three phase rectification:
 This circuit consists of 3 separate transformers linked to the mains supply with each
out of phase by 120°.
 A special mains supply is required.
 As the voltage from one transformer starts to drop the current is boosted by the other
two.
 This results in an almost constant voltage across the tube head.
 The kV selector provides a variable but pre-determined voltage to the primary turnings of
the step-up transformer.

Timer
 X-ray machines have electronic timers which are accurate down to less than 0.01 seconds
- which is important for measuring the length of exposure.
 Electronic timers are based on a thyrotron tube (a gas filled triode).
 Older machines may use mechanical timers based on spring loaded timers or
synchronous timers which use an electric motor to turn a cam.
 These are less accurate than electronic timers and have to be reset between exposures so
that rapid serial exposures cannot be taken.
 Phototimers limit the exposure after a predetermined amount of radiation has reached
the film, or a set mA has passed through the tube.

X-ray Machine
Figure 1 shows a block diagram of basic X-ray machine sub-systems. Basically, there are two parts of
the circuit. One of them is for producing high voltage, which is applied to the tube’s anode and
cathode and comprises a high voltage step-up transformer followed by rectification. The current
through the tube follows the HT pathway and is measured by an mA metre. A kV selector switch
facilitates change in voltage between exposures. The voltage is measured with the help of a kV
metre. The exposure switch controls the timer and thus the duration of the application of kV. To
compensate for mains supply voltage (230 V) variations, a voltage compensator is included in the
circuit.

The second part of the circuit concerns the control of heating X-ray tube filament. The filament is
heated with 6–12 V of AC supply at a current of 3–5 amperes. The filament temperature determines
the tube current or mA, and, therefore, the filament temperature control has an attached mA
selector. The filament current is controlled by using, in the primary side of the filament transformer,
avariable choke or a rheostat. The rheostat provides a stepwise control of mA and is most commonly
used in modern machines.

A preferred method of providing high voltage DC to the anode of the X-ray tube is by use a bridge
rectifier using four valve tubes or solid state rectifiers. This results in a much more efficient system
than the half wave of self-rectification methods.
 Figure 1

High Voltage Generation

Voltages in the range of 30–200 kV are required for the production of X-rays for diagnostic purposes,
and they are generated by a high voltage transformer. A high ratio step up transformer is used so that
the voltages applied to primary winding are small in comparison to those taken from the secondary
winding. Typically, the ratio would be in the range of 1:500 so that an input of 250 V would produce
an output of 125 kV. Usually the high tension transformer assembly is immersed in special oil which
provides a high level of insulation.

Self-rectified Circuit (One Pulse): The high voltage is produced by using a step-up transformer whose
primary is connected to an auto-transformer. The secondary of the HT transformer can be directly
connected to the anode of the X-ray tube, which will conduct only during the half cycles when the
cathode is negative with respect to the anode or the target (Fig.2). This arrangement of self-
rectification is used in mobile and dental X-ray units. These machines have maximum tube currents
of about 20 mA and a voltage of about 100 kV. When self-rectification is used, it is necessary to apply
a parallel combination of a diode and a resistance, in series with the primary of the HT transformer
for suppressing the higher inverse voltage that is likely to appear during the nonconducting half-cycle
of the X-ray tube. This helps to reduce the cost and complexity of the X-ray machines.
 Figure2

Full Wave Rectification X-ray Circuit (Two Pulse): In the self-rectified units, X-rays are produced in a
burst and a considerable amount of exposure time is lost during the half-cycle when the X-ray tube is
not conducting. By using a full wave bridge rectifier circuit, the exposure time for the same radiation
output is reduced by half in comparison to the one pulse system. This circuit produces X-rays during
each half-cycle of the applied sinusoidal 50 Hz mains supply voltage as the anode would be positive
with respect to the cathode over both the half-cycles (Fig. 3). Full wave rectified circuits are used in
medium and high capacity X-ray units which are most commonly employed for diagnostic X-ray
examination.

Figure3

Three Phase Power for X-ray Generation: The X-ray circuits based on a single phase supply provide a
pulsating voltage to the anode. This type of voltage waveform, when used to accelerate electrons in
the X-ray tube, results in the following disadvantages:

• The intensity of radiation produced is lower because no radiation is generated during a large
portion of the exposure time.
• When the tube voltage is appreciably lower than the peak voltage, the X-rays produced are
of low energy and get mostly transformed into heat at the anode.
• A considerable part of the radiation produced is absorbed by the filter or the tube housing
and patient resulting in a comparatively poor-quality image.

The above-mentioned deficiencies of the single-phase systems can be overcome by using threephase
power in X-ray machines (Fig. 4). Three phase supply can result in steady power to the X-ray tube
instead of pulsating power. The three phase equipment is more efficient than the single phase
equipment of the same-rated capacity. As with single phase X-ray systems, wherein we have one
pulse or two pulses of applied voltage per cycle, a similar situation can be implemented with a three
phase system. Using different types of three phase transformers and rectifier configurations, 6 pulses
or 12 pulses of applied anode voltage can be obtained.
 Figure 4

Six-rectifier Circuit (Six Pulse): Figure 5 shows a simple six rectifier, six-pulse circuit using three phase
power supply. The primary supply is delta-connected whereas the secondary is y-connected. The
secondary is connected to a six-rectifier arrangement for full wave rectification of the three phase
transformer output voltage. The rectification process produces the six-pulse voltage waveform with a
voltage ripple of 13% of the maximum value as compared to 100% of the single phase full wave
rectified voltage system.
 Figure 5

Twelve Rectifiers Circuit (Twelve Pulse): A further refinement of the three phase generator is to use
a combination of both star and delta windings on the secondary side. They are connected as shown
in Fig.6.

This arrangement results in reduction of the voltage ripple and an increase in the effective value of
the output voltage, thereby increasing the X-ray producing efficiency of the X-ray tube.

Figure 6

High frequency Generators

Modern X-ray machines make use of high frequency generators for producing high voltage. The
single most important feature that differentiates high frequency, three-phase and single phase power
is the ripple in the output. A lower ripple provides a more efficient radiation output and a shorter
relative exposure for equivalent contrast radiographs. Figure 7 illustrates comparative wave shapes
for single phase with 100% ripple, RMS three-phase with typical 6–12% ripple and RMS high
frequency with typical 1–2% ripple. The high frequency used in these generators varies from 500 Hz–
20 kHz. High frequency is generated by first converting the 50 Hz power line frequency into high
frequency oscillations in the converter circuit. The frequency conversion permits the use of much
smaller transformers than those required with conventional equipment. A schematic diagram of a
typical high frequency generator is shown in Fig. 8.

Figure 7
 Figure 8

Basically, the circuit uses same switching arrangement for thyristors through a series resonant circuit,
comprising L and C1, where L is the inductance of the primary of the high tension transformer. If the
circuit is switched by the thyristors at its resonant frequency, the effective current flowing through L
is maximized. This primary current is transformed and rectified in the high tension circuit. The net
voltage appearing across the X-ray tube is determined by the voltage present on C2. This voltage, in
turn, is supplied by the charging current and drained by the current flowing through the X-ray tube.

High Tension Cable

In view of the very high voltages applied to the X-ray tube, it is necessary to use special highly
insulated cables for its connections to the generator. Since a typical X-ray machine may employ
voltages in excess of 100 kV, the design and subsequent effect of the cable capacitance on the
voltage applied to the X-ray tube must be considered.

A cross-sectional view of a high voltage cable is shown in Fig. 9. The centre of the cable comprises
three conductors individually insulated for the low filament voltages and surrounded by semi-
conducting rubber. This, in turn, is surrounded by non-conducting rubber which provides the
insulation against the high voltage also carried by the centre conductors. The cable is shielded with a
woven copper braiding, which is earthed, and finally covered with a protective layer, usually vinyl or
some other plastic.

The metal braid is connected to the centre tap of the high voltage transformer, which is grounded. By
using a centre-tapped secondary in the high voltage transformer, the voltage on each cable is
reduced to half of the X-ray tube voltage relative to ground, consequently reducing the amount of
dielectric required in the high voltage cables, thereby making them smaller in diameter. The
grounded metal braid also serves as a safety path to ground for the high voltage, should there be a
breakdown in the dielectric material for any reason.

A typical cable capacitance of high voltage cables is 130–230 pF/m. The effect of the cable
capacitance is that the energy is stored during the conduction period of the rectifiers and the energy
is delivered to the tube during the non-conducting period. This would change the average value of
the current and voltage across the X-ray tube, which increases the power delivered to the tube.

The kV meter is connected across the primary of the HT transformer. It actually measures volts,
whereas it is calibrated in kV, by using an appropriate multiplication factor of the turns-ratio of the
transformer. In the older types of diagnostic X-ray generators, the kV meters indicated only noload
voltage. In order to obtain the load voltage, which varies with the tube current, a suitable kV metre
compensation is provided in the circuit. The kV meter compensator is ganged to the mA selector
mechanically. Therefore, the mA is selected first and the kV setting is made afterwards during the
operation of the machine. Moving coil meters are used for making current (mA) measurements,
while for shorter exposures, an mAs meter, which measures the product of mA and time in seconds
is used. Moving coil meters have now been generally replaced by digital mA and mAs meters.

Figure 9

Collimators & Grids

In order to increase the image contrast and to reduce the dose to the patient, the X-ray beam must
be limited to the area of interest. Two types of devices are used for this purpose, viz. collimators and
grids. The collimator is placed between the X-ray tube and the patient (Fig. 19.14). It consists of a
sheet of lead with a circular or rectangular hole of suitable size. Alternatively, it may consist of four
adjustable lead strips which can be moved relative to each other. In practice, it is advisable to use the
smallest possible field size. This results in a low dose to the patient and simultaneously increases the
image contrast, because less scattered radiation reaches the image plane. The scattered radiation
produces diffuse illumination and fogging of the image without increasing its information content,
and therefore, by choosing the smallest possible field size and using a collimator, the loss of contrast
due to scattered radiation is reduced. Collimators are usually provided with an optical device, by
which the X-ray field can be exactly simulated by a light field. This can be projected on the patient to
ensure proper positioning of the apparatus.

Grids are inserted between the patient and the film cassette (Fig. 19.15) in order to reduce the loss
of contrast due to scattered radiation. A grid consists of thin lead strips separated by spacers of a low
attenuation material. The lead strips are so designed that the primary radiation from the X-ray focus,
which carries the information, can pass between them while the scattered radiation from the object
is largely attenuated.
Because of the shadow cast by the lead strips, the final image is striped. These grid lines do not
usually interfere with the interpretation of the image. However, final details in the image may be
concealed. In order to avoid this, the grid can be displaced during the exposure so that the lead strips
are not reproduced in the image. Such moving grids are known as ‘Bucky Grids’.

Exposure Timing Systems

A timer is used in X-ray machines to initiate and terminate the X-ray exposure. The timer controls the
X-ray contactor which in turn, controls the voltage to the primary of the high voltage transformer.
Timers vary widely in their methods of operation, starting with simple mechanical timers to
microcontroller based electronic timers. The timers in older equipment were of the springdriven
hand-operated type which have now mostly been replaced by electronic timers based on the use of
SCR or thyristors. However, with the variety and age of X-ray equipment presently in use, almost all
of the various types of exposure timers are still in use.

With the development of high power X-ray generators, exposure times have become too short to be
controlled accurately with mechanical timers. In order to meet the demand of accurate shortterm
timing, various types of electronic timers have been developed. The common types of electronic
timers are discussed below:

RC Timing Circuits: In these timers, the length of the X-ray exposure is determined by the time
constant of a simple RC circuit which is typically shown in Fig. 19.16 (a). Normally the switch ‘S’ is
closed between the exposures. To initiate the exposure, switch ‘S’ is opened and the relay in the
primary of the high voltage transformer circuit is closed, which begins the exposure. The capacitor
starts charging and the voltage ‘V’t on the capacitor is given by

Vt (t) = Vs (1 – et/RC)

In this arrangement, ‘C’ is constant and ‘R’ is a variable resistor. The RC time constant can therefore
be changed to get variable exposure time requirements. Fig. 19.16 (b) illustrates the capacitor
voltage as a function of time for two different time settings with the help of variable resistance ‘R’.

The voltage on the capacitor can also be used to fire a thyratron or SCR to accomplish the same
function of terminating the exposure.

Digital Timers: All modern X-ray machines make use of digital timers. The latter may make use of
dedicated timer ICs or conventional circuits using a reference oscillator, a counter and associated
logic. The generation of a time period ‘T’ is based on counting out ‘N’ cycles of a precise frequency ‘F’
with the relation

N=TXF

Referring to Fig. 19.17, the reference oscillator generates the frequency of ‘F’ counts per second
given to an AND circuit. The value of ‘N’ is programmed into the counter logic. The start of the time
period is controlled by a flip-flop which is set to 1 by a ‘start’ signal. When ‘N’ counts have been
made corresponding to the time interval ‘T’, a pulse is issued that resets the flip-flop and disconnects
the oscillator from the counter. The pulse output of the counter is used to trigger an SCR and to
terminate the X-ray exposure.
Automatic Exposure Control
Radiographic practice is based on the selection of appropriate X-ray exposure factors such as patient
size, shape and physical condition, examination and projection to be performed. This can be done
properly by a technologist using his or her own judgement with a manually controlled generator.
However, this process has become less a matter of technologist preference and more a part of a
standard protocol. Therefore, it has led to the introduction of Anatomically Programmed
Radiography (APR) by combining all the primary controls of the generator and the Automatic
Exposure Control. The use of machine stored parameters results in better quality of radiographs.

There are two principle methods of exposure control, one employing a photocell and the other, an
ionization chamber.

In the photocell-based method, a fluorescent detector is placed on the exit side of the patient and
behind the radiographic cassette (Fig. 19.18) which monitors the X-ray intensity transmitted through
the film screen system. The circuit controls the X-ray exposure switch and turns the x-radiation off
when a radiation flux sufficient to properly expose the film has been detected.
Alternatively, an ionization chamber (Fig. 19.19) is placed between the patient and the cassette. The
signal from the chamber is amplified and used to control a high speed relay which terminates the
exposure, when a pre-set density level has been reached.

The basic design of X-ray generators has not changed for the last 50 years. However, there have been
considerable developments in the control elements as the demand has grown for increased accuracy,
better information display and greater flexibility of selection of factors. The task to be performed by
the control circuits of an X-ray generator can well be performed by a microcomputer.

BASIC MANNER OF OPERATION OF X – RAY MACHINES

THE BASIC CONTROL PANEL OF AN X-RAY MACHINE: Inspite of some variation in the present day
automatic control panels of different x – ray machines, there is a basic design which can be
recognized in all types. The essential elements of a control panel are:

1) Main Switch
2) Line Voltage Meter
3) Line Voltage Compensator
4) Autotransformer
5) K.V. Meter
6) Timer circuit
7) Exposure switch
8) mAs selector Meter

The main switch connects the x-ray circuits with the power supply mains. The line voltage meter
indicates the proper line voltage. The line voltage compensator adjusts the line voltage if necessary.
The Autotransformer (A.T.F.) control selects the proper kilo-voltage to be applied for a particular
examination.

The voltmeter on the primary side of the step-up transformer is calibrated to indicate the KV being
obtained on the secondary side of the transformer in the x-ray tube circuit. The timer circuit cuts off
automatically the exposure at the present time. The exposure selector switch permits selection of
Fluoroscopy or Radiography or spot-film / Bucky radiography.
The mAs selector indicates the desired mA that is selected. This is wired in with an ammeter on the
primary side of the filament circuit so that adjustments can be made if needed, by means of the
filament control.

It is possible to trace the action of the operator and the circuit in the following manner:

1) When operator turns the switch on, the current passes in to the filament circuit and
heats the filament, giving rise to flow of electrons around the filament.
2) Assuming that the A.T.F. is set the timer is set, the exposure switch selected for hand
switch radiography, if turned on
3) Current passes through the A.T..F. and through the primary step up transformer and then
the induced (oppositely directed) current passes through the A.T.F. and through the
primary step up transformer and then the induced (oppositely directed ) current passes
through the secondary side of the step-up transformer , through the rectifier circuit and
then to the x-ray tube.
4) The high P.D. is applied in this way between the tube filament and the target, forcing the
electrons from the heated filament to strike the target, thus producing x-rays.

CONSTANT POTENTIAL CIRCUIT

A true constant potential circuit is provided for the x-ray tube by using certain devices in the
secondary circuit of H.T such as a) capacitors b) electronic valves.

A. THE CAPACITORS: are placed in the circuit across the output of H.T.T. and rectifying
system. These capacitors (inside the control panel) function to change the pulsating
wave form into rippling waveform.
B. ELECTRONIC VALVES OR VACCUM TRIODE VALVES: which are placed between the x-ray
tube and the H.T. output (in the control panel) after the capacitors, function to remove
the ripple and supply the x-ray tube a constant ripple – free voltage which is selected
and stabilized. These electronic valves are Triode valve type or Triode solid-state-type.
They act as 1) a switch 2) act to absorb the different amount of voltage 3) the required
effects can be brought about in the valve by altering the grid voltage to the valve
instantaneously 4) they are used to control the voltage.

FUSES:
The purpose of a fuse is to safeguard the electrical equipment form the harmful effects of
an abnormally high current or voltage. Fuse is a metal resistor which melts due to heat
produced while conducting the abnormal current and so breaks the continuity of the
circuit, and makes it an open circuit by blowing itself off. Fuses are rated according to the
current that is permissible to be conducted through them, without burning themselves.
Fuses can be in the form of a) simple wires of different thinness or thickness (5 amps, 15
amps and 30 amps) used for mains fuses b) in the form of fuse units which are of different
size and shape.

Basically a fuse unit consist of fuse element, fuse link and fuse contacts. Fuse element is
made of ti, tin-lead alloy, aluminum element in its container or carrier. Fuse links may be of
many varieties but may be of a) simple glass cartridge with metal ends sealed to the
internal wire, on the glass of which is printed the rating of the fuse b)ceramic cartridges
carry a colour for identification and they do not enclose the fuse element inside but the
fuse element is outside. It has to be rewired when it blows off. Fuse contacts are either
attached to or the are integral parts of a fuse link. The fuse contacts engage themselves
with the fixed contacts carrier in the equipment, such as metal clips or porcelain, fuse
bases.

Switches And Circuit Breakers:

A switch is a convenient appliance which is used to close a circuit or open the circuit by
putting it in ‘ON’ position and OFF position respectively. A circuit breaker also does the
same job. The examples of switches in a x-ray unit are the main supply switch, the on / off
switch for HT generator, the selector switches on the control panel and also the exposure
switch.

These switches are classified as 1) large manually operated ones for mains supply 2)
magnetic relays used to operate one or more sets of contacts automatically to make or
break electrical circuit 3) circuit breakers which use relays in protecting the electrical
circuits from overload 4)the HT switch 5) micro –switches for different finer operations of
the units. Every switch carries a moving limn or contact which get engaged or is engaged
with the fixed contact in the fixed part of the switch when the circuit is closed or opened
respectively.
CIRCUIT BREAKERS: are of following types thermal relay Magnetic circuit also breakers.
A) THERMAL RELAYS: These are devices which protect the electrical equipment from
overload, which use the heating effect of electric current to perform their function
overload. This system is useful when the x-ray tube and H.T.G are enclosed together in a
single oil-filled chamber as in portable and mobile units. The thermal conductor relay often
depends upon the metal strip used in them which expands when heated. The free end of
bimetal strip bends when hot. The one end of the bimetal strip is fixed and the other end is
free to bend and move. The strip is also capable of carrying the significant current. When
the free end of the bimetal strip bends it opens up the circuit. This open thermal relay has
to be manually reset to close the circuit by a triggering latch after the bimetal cools down.

B) MAGNETIC CIRCUIT BREAKERS: These are designed contractors of electromagnetic kind

to prevent damage to equipment from electrical over load action and are susceptible for
remote control like a thermal relay. Once tripped, magnetic circuit breakers are to
bimanually reset for closing the circuit but can be reset immediately. The main ON/OFF
switch of x-ray generators (control) often includes the magnetic circuit breaker for overload
control.

INTERLOCKING CIRCUITS: (I.L.C.):

This term means the devices and circuits which are intended to save the x-ray tube by
preventing an exposure being made which will result in over heating of the target and lead
to its permanent injury. The following are examples.

1. I.L.C. in tube stator circuit

2. Delay circuit of tube stator
3. Overload interlocks
4. Mechanical interlocks

INTERLOCK IN THE TUBE STATOR CIRCUIT

A radiographic exposure made while the anode is stationary which should have been
rotating on the other hand, will severely damage the x-ray tube. A simple interlocking
circuit will not allow such accidents to occur (if the anode is not rotating due to any
fault in its stator circuit)

The exposure contactor coil must be energized to obtain the radiographic exposure. ‘P’
and ‘E’ are 2 customary positions. Preparations and exposure stations, in the exposure
switch. When the switch is in a station ‘P’ it initiates the rotation of anode. When the
switch is in ‘E’ station, then the exposure is allowed to occur. When ‘P’ is operated, it
allows circuits of contact coil to be completed at E, as the radiographer continues his
pressure on the exposure switch.

However, if there was a defect in stator winding, which results in an open circuit
condition, the appropriate relay coil is not energized. Thus, the radiographer cannot get
radiographic exposure if the anode rotation is not functioning.
 DELAY CIRCUIT WITH TUBE STATIOR:

The standard rate of rotation of anode of an x-ray tube is about 3500 RPM, and an
interval of 0.8 sec is needed for it to reach this speed. Radiographer must be aware of
the need to allow time for the rotating anode to reach its correct running speed. So,
they must hold the switch in “prepare” position long enough to permit this speed of
rotating anode to be attained. In situations like radiography of a restless uncooperative
patient, he under pressure, might easily use the exposure switch prematurely and harm
the tube.

To avoid this harm from occurring, a DELAY CIRCUIT is introduced between the ‘prepare
and’ expose positions so that even if the operator goes through straight from one to
another, the exposures begin only after a delay of 0.8 Sec. when the rotating anode
reaches its proper speed. This delay circuit consists of a capacitor resistance connected
in parallel with relay coil.

OVERLOAD INTERLOCKS:

X-Ray tubes may be over loaded if selected exposure factors are too length. So x-ray
generators normally include interlocking circuits which prevent radiographic exposure
at wrong exposure factor setting. There are several ways in which such an overload
interlock may operate. Presently electronic methods are in use. Some times mechanical
interlock systems may also be found to be in use, in old machines.

a) ELECTRONIC INTERLOCK (ANALOGUE) CIRCUIT: Is one which performs electronic

addition sum. In effect, this circuit adds together the voltage which are the
representatives of each one of the factors comprising the tube load (KV mA and
Exp. Time in seconds.
This form of a overload interlock allows the radiographer a free choice of KV, mA
and S independently but at the same time does not exposure when too high KV
and too high MAS are together wrongly selected by him because the aggregate
analogue voltage will be too high to result in ‘open switch’ position of the
transistor. Similar is the case when he selects too low KV and mAs below a certain
level when again the transistor remains open due to lack of voltage across it.
b) MECHANICAL INTERLOCK: The method of overload control, is present in mobile x-
ray equipment. A purely mechanical and simple device operates on the principle of
physical obstruction of controls in certain positions. The arrangements of
interlocking depends on a chain. A lever and a cam. A cam is a wheel of eccentric
design which revolves to produce an alternating rectilinear movements. When cam
is turned in a clockwise direction to a certain position, it results in a linear excursion
of a pivoted bar.
The mA selector and KV selector are connected together by a chain which passes
also round a pulley at the free and of a pivoted bar level which is pring loaded in
order to hold the chain taut.

EXPOSURE SWITCHES AND EXPOSURE TIMERS:

In case of exposure there are 3 elements to be considered
1) Exposure must be started
2) It must be timed
3) It must be stopped