MAGNETISM

Important terms relating to Magnetic Circuits

Magnetic flux(Ø); is a group of magnetic field lines emitted outward from the north
pole of a magnet. Total magnetic lines of force passing through a magnetic circuit is
called magnetic flux It is the product of the average magnetic field times the
perpendicular area that it penetrates. It is used in faraday laws and in object like
transformer, solenoid, electric motor etc.

Magnetic flux(Ø) = βA

Where β = Magnetic flux density in Tesla(T)

A = Area perpendicular to magnetic field β in

square metre

The S.I unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb)

Magnetic flux density(β); is the amount of magnetic flux per unit area of a section ,
perpendicular to the direction of flux .

Ø
Where β =
A

The S.I unit is weber per square metre ( wb/m2 ) which is equal to one tesla(T).
Therefore another unit is Tesla(T).

Magnetic field strength(H); magnetic field strength at any point within a magnetic
field is numerically equal to the force experienced by a N-pole of one weber placed
at that point.

Suppose , it is required to find the field strength at point A distance (r) in metres
from a pole of m metres. Imagine a similar pole of one weber placed at point A. The
NI
force experienced by this pole is H= .
L

mX1
F=
4πµor2

m
F= N/wb or AT/m
4πµor2

Reluctancy(S); it is the magnetic resistance of a magnetic circuit to the presence of

magnetic flux. The opposition offered to magnetic line of force or flux by a magnetic
circuit is called its reluctance. Reluctance depends upon the length of magnetic
1
circuit, area of cross section and permeability of the material that makes up the
magnetic circuit The unit is A/wb.

MMF NI HL
S= = =
Ø Ø βA

L
S=
β
( )A
H

L L
S= =
µA µoµrA

Where µ= absolute permeability

µr=relative permeability

µo= permeability of free space or the magnetic space constant.

Permeability of free space constant(µo); is the degree of magnetization of a

material that responds linearly to applied magnetic field. Magnetic permeability is
typically represented by N. The SI unit is henry per metre(H/m) or Newton per metre
squared(N/m2). The contant value µo is known as the magnetic constants or the
permeability of free space and has the exact value of 4πx 10-7.

Relative permeability(µr); it is the ratio of the permeability of a specific medium to

the permeability of free space given by the magnetic constant.

µ
µr= where µo=4πx10-7
µo

β(material)
µr=
βo(vacuum)

MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

Magnetic circuit is the route or path which is followed by magnetic flux. The laws of
magnetic circuit are quite similar but not the same as those of the electric circuit.
Examples of magnetic circuit are horse shoe magnet, electric motor etc. a magnetic
circuit is made up of one or more closed paths containing a magnetic flux. It
generally contains magnetic elements such as permanent magnets, ferromagnetic
materials and electromagnets, but may also contain air gaps and other materials.
Some examples of magnetic circuits are

(i)horse shoe magnet with iron keeper(low reluctance circuit)

2
(ii)horseshoe magnet with no keeper(high reluctance circuit)

(iii)electric motor(variable reluctance circuit)

DEFINITION CONCERNING MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

Magnetomotive force(MMF);is the property of certain substance or phenomenon

that give rise to magnetic field. It is also any physical force that produces magnetic
flux. It tends or drives flux through a magnetic circuit. Magnetomotive force is
analogous to electromotive force or voltage in electricity. The magnetic pressure
which sets up or tends to set up magnetic field in a magnetic circuit is called
magneto motive force. The SI unit is Ampere Turn(AT). The MMF is equal to the
workdone in joules in carrying a unit magnetic pole once through the entire magnetic
circuit. The MMF in an inductor is given by

MMF = N I = ØR

Where N = the number of turn of a coil

I=The current in the circuit

Ø=magnetic flux

R= Reluctance of the magnetic circuit

Permeance; It is the measure of the ease with which flux can be set up through a
material. It is reciprocal of reluctance and is measured in wb/AT or henry. It is the
reciprocal of reluctance and implies the case or readiness with which magnetic flux
is developed . it is analogous to conductance in electric circuit. It is measured in
wb/AT or henry.

Reluctivity : It is specific reluctance and corresponds to resistivity ( or specific

resistance ) in electric circuits

COMPOSITE SERIES MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

3
A magnetic circuit consists of numbers of magnetic paths connected in series is
referred as series magnetic circuit. In series magnetic circuit, the total reluctance of
the circuit is the arithmetic sum of individual reluctance of each magnetic path
connected in series. Total ampere turns required to establish a particular flux in the
circuit is the arithmetic sum of ampere turns required for individual parts of the
magnetic circuit for establishing same flux. Suppose magnetic circuit consists of
different magnetic material of mean lengths L 1 , L 2 , L 3 …… L n and cross-
sectional areas of A 1 , A 2 , A 3 ,…… A n respectively. The relative permeabilities are
μ 1 , μ 2 , μ 3 …… μ n , respectively.

The composite series magnetic circuit shown above consists of three different
magnetic material of different permeability and lengths and one air gap(µr=1). Each
part have its own reluctance. The total resistance is the sum of individual
reluctances as they are joined in series.

L L1 L2 L3
Total reluctance=∑ = + +
µoµrA µoµr1A1 µoµr2A2 µoµr3A3
L4
+ ……………………………
µoµr4A4

PARALLEL MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

4
A magnetic circuit which has numbers of parallel magnetic path to carry flux is
known as parallel magnetic circuit. The ampere turns required to create flux in one
path is exactly equal to the ampere turns required to create flux in other paths. The
basic diagram of parallel magnetic circuit is shown above.

Fig. above shows a parallel magnetic circuit consisting of Two parallel magnetic
paths ACB and ADB acted upon by the same magnetomotive force mmf. Each
magnetic path has an average length 2(L1+L2). The flux produced by the coil wound
on the central core is divided equally at point A between the two outer parallel paths.
The reluctance offered by the two parallel path is equal to half the reluctance of
each path. The second diagram shows the equivalent electrical circuit where
resistance offered by voltage source is =R1//R2=R/2

SERIES –PARALLEL MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

The diagram above shows two parallel magnetic circuits ACB and ACD connected
across the common magnetic path AB which contains an air gap of length lg. the
flux Ø is in the common core is divided equally at point A between the two parallel
paths which have equal reluctance . the reluctance of the path AB consist of

(i)air gap reluctance

(ii)the reluctance of the central core which is comparatively negligible.

The reluctance of the central core AB equal only the air gap reluctance across which
are connected two equal parallel reluctances. Hence, the mmf for this circuit would
be the sum of (i)that required for the air gap + (ii)that required for either of the two
paths(not both). The equivalent electrical circuit is shown also where total
resistance offered to the voltage source is =R1+R//R=R1+R/2

5
 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

ANALOGY BETWEEN MAGNETIC CIRCUIT AND ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

MAGNETIC CIRCUIT ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

mmf EMF
(1) Flux= Current =
reluctance Resistance
1 1
(2) permeance = Conductance=
reluctance resistance
(3) Mmf(Ampere Turn) Emf(Volts)
(4) Flux Ø (Weber) Current(I) (Ampere)
(5) Flux density β (Wb/m2) Current density (A/m2)
(6) Hopkinson’s law Ohms law
(7) Magnetic field β Current density
1 1
(8) permeability = Conductivity=
relucivity resistivity
(9) relucivity resistivity
(10) Total MMF=ØS1+ ØS2+ Total EMF=IR1+IR2+IR3+………
6
 ØS3+…….
1 1 1
(11) Reluctance s= = Resistance R=Ƿ
µA µoµr A

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MAGNETIC CIRCUIT AND ELECTRICAL

CIRCUIT

MAGNETIC CIRCUIT ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

1 Flux does not actually flow Electric current flows in electric circuit
2 Reluctance of magnetic circuit does At constant temperature the resistance of
depend on flux and hence flux an electric circuit is constant and is
density established. independent of the current strength or
current density
3 In magnetic circuit, energy is needed Flow of current in an electric circuit
only for creating the flux initially but involves continuous expenditure of energy
not for maintaining it
4 There is no loss of energy due to Electric current through the resistance
reluctance in magnetic circuit causes
energy loss in form of heat
5 There is hardly any material which There are many materials which are fairly
can be bad conductor of electricity
considered as insulator of magnetic
flux
6 Permeability of any magnetic Conductivity of different materials are
material does not largely vary from different that means it greatly varies from
material to material material to material
7 For a particular temperature the But in case of conductivity, it is fixed and
permeability depends upon the flux independent of current density at a
density or total amount of flux particular temperature

MAGNETIC MATERIALS

HARD MAGNETIC MATERIAL SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIAL

1 They are good permanent magnet They are not a good magnetic material
2 They have high coercivity (coercivity
They have low coercivity (coercivity is
is higher than 1000A/m) lower than 1000A/m)
3 They are materials that are able to They are materials that are not able to
keep their magnetism permanently keep their magnetism after switching off
the magnetic field
4 They have high residual induction They have low residual induction
5 Examples are ferrite, Almco, Bonded Examples are pure iron, soft ferrite,
ferrite, NdFeB, Smco5,Sm2co17 permendur, mumetal,
supermalloy,permalloy78,Fe-Si
7
 SOLVED PROBLEMS

1. A coil of 300 turns is wound uniformly on a ring of non magnetic material. The
ring has a mean circumference of 40cm and a uniform cross sectional area of
2
4cm . If the current in the coil is 5A. calculate (A)The magnetic field strength
(B) The flux density (C)The total magnetic flux in the ring (take µo=4πx10-7).

SOLUTION

GIVEN

I=5A

N=300 Turns

A=4 cm2=4x10-4 m2

L=40cm=40x10-2 m

µo=4πx10-7

NI
(a)magnetic field strength, H=
L

300x5
= = 3750A/m
40x10-2

(b)for a magnetic material µr=1, hence the flux density, β=µoH

β=µoH=4πx10-7x3750

=4.712Mt

(c)flux, Ø = βA = 4.712x10-3x4x10-4

=1.885µwb

2. A closed magnetic circuit of cast steel contains a 6cm long path of cross
sectional area 1 cm2 and a 2cm path of cross sectional area 0.5 cm2. A coil of
200 turns is wound uniformly around the 6cm length of the circuit and a

8
 current of 0.4A flows. Determine the flux density in the 2cm path, if the relative
permeability of the cast steel is 750 . (take µo=4πx10-7).

SOLUTION

GIVEN; L1=6cm=6x10-2 m
-2
L2=2cm=2x10 m

A1=1 cm2=1x10-4 m2

A2=0.5 cm2=0.5x10-4 m2

µr for steel=750

β=?

Ø=?

µo=4πx10-7

L1
S1 = =
µoµrA1
6x10-2
(4πx10-7)x(750)x(1x10-4 )

=6.366x105A/wb

L2
S2 = =
µoµrA2
2x10-2
(4πx10-7)x(750)x(0.5x10-4 )

=4.244x105A/wb

Total reluctance , ST= S1 +S2 = (6.366+4.244)x105

=10.61x105A/wb

mmf mmf NI
ST= , Ø= =
Ø S S

200X0.4 -5
Ø= =7.54x10 wb
10.61x105

Ø 7.54x10-5
Flux density, β = =
A 0.5x10-4
9
 =1.51T

3. A ring has a mean diameter of 21cm and a cross sectional area of 10 cm2. The
ring is made up of semicircular sections of cast iron and cast steel, with each
joint having a reluctance equal to an air gap of 0.2mm. Find the ampere turns
required to produce a flux of 8x10-4wb. The relative permeabilities of cast
-7
steel and cast iron are 800 and 166 respectively. (take µo=4πx10 ).

SOLUTION

GIVEN; Ø =8x10-4wb

A=10 cm2

Ø 8x10-4
Β= =
A 10

=0.8wb/m2

Air gap

β=µoµrH

H= ( ) (
β
µoµr
=
0.8
4πx10-7 )
=6.366x105AT/m

Total air gap length = 2x0.2 =0.4mm =4x10-4m

AT required = HxL = 6.366x10-5 x4x10-4

=255

CAST steel path

H= ( µoµr
β
) = ( (4πx10-7)x800
0.8
)
10
 =796AT/m

πD 21π
Path = = = 33cm = 0.33m
2 2

AT required = HxL = 796x0.33

=263

CAST iron path

H= ( µoµr
β
) = ( (4πx10-7
0.8
)x166 )

=3835AT/m

πD 21π
Path = = = 33cm = 0.33m
2 2

AT required = HxL = 3835x0.33

= 1265

TOTAL AT required = 255+263+1265 = 1783

4. An iron ring has a x-section of 3 cm2 and a mean diameter of 0.079cm. An air
gap of 0.4mm has been cut across the section of the ring. The ring is wound
with a coil of 200 turns through which a current of 2A is passed. If the total
magnetic flux is 0.24mwb. Find the relative permeability of iron, assuming no
magnetic leakage. (take µo=4πx10-7).

SOLUTION

GIVEN; Ø=0.24mwb

A=3 cm2=3x10-4m2

Ø
β=
A

0.24x10-3 2
β= =0.8wb/m
3x10-4

AT for iron ring = HL = ( µoµr

β
)xl
11
 = ( 0.8
(4πx10-7)xµr)x0.25

=1.59x10-5/µr

AT for air gap = HL = ( µoβ )xl

= ( (4πx10-7
0.8
))
x0.4x10 -3

=255

Total AT required = 1.59x10-5/µr+255

Total AT provided= 200x2 =400

1.59x10-5/µr+255 = 400

µr=1096x10-10

5. A mild steel ring has a radius of 50mm and a cross sectional area of 400 mm2.
A current of 0.5A flows in a coil wound uniformly around the ring and the flux
produced is 0.1mwb. if the relative permeability at this value of current is 200.
Find (a)the reluctance of the mild steel and (b)the number of turns on the coil.
(take µo=4πx10-7).

SOLUTION

GIVEN

R=50mm=50x10-3m

A=400x10-6m2

I=0.5A

Ø=0.1x10-3wb

µr=200

L
(a)Reluctance, S=
µoµrA
12
 L= 2πr= 2πx50x10-3m

2πx50x10-3
S=
(4πx10-7)x(200)x(400x10-6)

=3.125x10-6A/wb

mmf
(b) S=
Ø

mmf = SØ = NI

SØ (3.125x10-6)x(0.1x10-3)
N= =
I 0.5

=625 turns

6. An iron ring of mean diameter 10cm is uniformly wound with 2000 turns of
wire. When a current of 0.25A is passed through the coil a flux density of
0.4T is set up in the iron. Find (a)the magnetizing force (b)the relative
permeability of the iron under these conditions. (take µo=4πx10-7).

SOLUTION

GIVEN

Diameter,d= 10cm=10x10-2m

N=2000

I=0.25A

Β=0.4T

NI -2
(a) H= , L= πd= πx10x10
L

2000x0.25
H=
πx10x10-2

=1592A/m

(b) β=µoµrH
13
 β
µr=
µoH

0.4
=
(4πx10-7)x(1592)

=200

7. A section through a magnetic circuit of a uniform cross sectional area of 2

cm2 is shown in fig below the cast steel core has a mean length of 25cm. the
air gap is 1mm wide and the coil has 5000 turns. From the B-H curve for cast
steel , when B=0.80T, H=750A/m. determine the current in the coil to produce
a flux density of 0.80T in the air gap, assuming that all the flux passes through
both parts of the magnetic circuits.

SOLUTION

GIVEN; l1= 25cm=25x10-2m

A=2 cm2=2x10-4 m2

N=5000 turns

B=0.80T

H=750A/m

L2=1mm=1x10-3 m

L1
Reluctance of the core, S1 =
µoµrA1

β
Since β=µoµrH, then , µr=
µoH

L1 L1H
S1 = =
β βA1
µo( )A1
µoH
14
 (25x10-2)(750)
=
(0.8)(2x10-4)

=1172000A/wb

L2
Reluctance for the air gap, S2=
µoµrA2

L2
= (sinse µr=1 for air)
µoA2

1x10-3
=
(µo=4πx10-7)(2x10-4 )

=3979000A/wb

Further problems on composite series magnetic circuits

1. A magnetic circuit of cross-sectional area 0.4 cm2 consists of one part 3 cm long, of material
having relative permeability 1200, and a second part 2 cm long of material having relative
permeability 750.With a 100 turn coil carrying 2A, find the value of flux existing in the circuit.
[0.195 mWb]

2. (a) A cast steel ring has a cross-sectional area of 600mm2 and a radius of 25 mm. Determine
the m.m.f. necessary to establish a flux of 0.8mWb in the ring. Use the B–H curve for cast steel
shown below (b) If a radial air gap 1.5mm wide is cut in the ring of part (a) find the m.m.f. now
necessary to maintain the same flux in the ring. [(a) 270A (b)1860A]

Magnetization Curve
The graph plotted between flux density (B) and magnetization force of material is called
magnetisation curve of that material. It is also known as B-H curve .

For non-magnetic materials

For all non-magnetic materials like air, rubber, wood etc. the relation
between B and H is given by B = µoH
where µo = 4π × 10 -7 is a constant
therefore B α H
Hence , B-H curve for non-magnetic material is straight line passing through
the origin. The following points are worth noting in this case :-
1. The curve is straight line , hence it is never saturated no matter how great the flux
density may be.
2. To produce a given flux a large value of field intensity (H) is required.
For Magnetic Materials
For magnetic materials like iron, steel etc. The relation between B and H is given by B = µoµ r H
Since the value of relative permeability (µ r ) varies with the flux density, the B-H curve of a
magnetic material does not remain linear. B-H curve for mild steel, cast steel and cast iron are
shown in fig. below.

15
3. A closed magnetic circuit made of silicon iron consists of a 40mm long path of cross sectional
area 90mm2 and a 15mm long path of cross-sectional area 70mm2. A coil of 50 turns is wound
around the 40mm length of the circuit and a current of 0.39A flows. Find the flux density in the
15mm length path if the relative permeability of the silicon iron at this value of magnetising force
is 3000. [1.59 T]

4. For the magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 7.7 find the current I in the coil needed to produce a
flux of 0.45mWb in the air-gap. The silicon iron magnetic circuit has a uniform cross sectional

area of 3 cm2 and its magnetization curve is as shown in question 2 above [0.83A]

5. A ring forming a magnetic circuit is made from two materials; one part is mild steel
of mean length 25 cm and cross-sectional area 4 cm2, and the remainder is cast iron of
mean length 20 cm and cross-sectional area 7.5 cm2. Use a tabular approach to determine
the total m.m.f. required to cause a flux of 0.30mWb in the magnetic circuit. Find also
the total reluctance of the circuit. Use the magnetisation curves shown on question 2 above.
[550A, 1.83×106/H]

6. Figure 7.8 shows the magnetic circuit of a relay. When each of the air gaps are 1.5mm
wide find the m.m.f. required to produce a flux density of 0.75T in the air gaps. Use the
B–H curves shown on question 2 above. [2970A]

16
 Further problems on magnetic circuits
1. What is the flux density in a magnetic field of cross-sectional area 20 cm2 having a flux of
3 mWb? [1.5 T]

2. Determine the total flux emerging from a magnetic pole face having dimensions 5 cm by
6 cm, if the flux density is 0.9T [2.7 mWb]

3. The maximum working flux density of a lifting electromagnet is 1.9T and the effective area
of a pole face is circular in cross-section. If the total magnetic flux produced is 611mWb
determine the radius of the pole face. [32 cm]

4. A current of 5A is passed through a 1000-turn coil wound on a circular magnetic circuit of

radius 120 mm. Calculate (a) the magnetomotive force, and (b) the magnetic field strength.
[(a) 5000A (b) 6631A/m]

5. An electromagnet of square cross-section produces a flux density of 0.45T. If the magnetic

flux is 720 μWb find the dimensions of the electromagnet cross-section. [4 cm by 4 cm]

6. Find the magnetic field strength applied to a magnetic circuit of mean length 50 cm when
a coil of 400 turns is applied to it carrying a current of 1.2A [960A/m]

7.A solenoid 20 cm long is wound with 500 turns of wire. Find the current required to establish a
magnetising force of 2500A/m inside the solenoid. [1A]

8. A magnetic field strength of 5000A/m is applied to a circular magnetic circuit of mean

diameter 250 mm. If the coil has 500 turns find the current in the coil. [7.85A]

Further problems on magnetic circuits

(Where appropriate, assume μ0 =4π×10−7 H/m)
1. Find the magnetic field strength and the magnetomotive force needed to produce a flux
density of 0.33Tin an air-gap of length 15 mm. [(a) 262 600A/m (b) 3939A]

2. An air-gap between two pole pieces is 20mm in length and the area of the flux path across the
gap is 5 cm2. If the flux required in the air-gap is 0.75mWb find the m.m.f. necessary.[23 870A]

3. (a) Determine the flux density produced in an air-cored solenoid due to a uniform magnetic
field strength of 8000A/m (b) Iron having a relative permeability of 150 at 8000A/m is
17
inserted into the solenoid of part (a). Find the flux density now in the solenoid. [(a) 10.05mT (b)
1.508 T]

4. Find the relative permeability of a material if the absolute permeability is 4.084× 10−4 H/m. [325]

5. Find the relative permeability of a piece of silicon iron if a flux density of 1.3T is produced
by a magnetic field strength of 700A/m. [1478]

6. A steel ring of mean diameter 120mm is uniformly wound with 1500 turns of wire. When
a current of 0.30A is passed through the coil a flux density of 1.5T is set up in the steel.
Find the relative permeability of the steel under these conditions. [1000]

7. A uniform ring of cast steel has a cross sectional area of 5 cm2 and a mean circumference
of 15 cm. Find the current required in a coil of 1200 turns wound on the ring to produce
a flux of 0.8mWb. (Use the magnetization curve for cast steel shown in question 2 above [0.60A]

8. (a) A uniform mild steel ring has a diameter of 50mm and a cross-sectional area of 1 cm2.
Determine the m.m.f. necessary to produce a flux of 50 μWb in the ring. (Use the B–H curve
for mild steel shown in question 2 above (b) If a coil of 440 turns is wound uniformly around the
ring in Part (a) what current would be required to produce the flux? [(a) 110A (b) 0.25A]

9. From the magnetisation curve for mild steel shown on page 74, derive the curve of relative
permeability against magnetic field strength. From your graph determine (a) the value of μr
when the magnetic field strength is 1200A/m, and (b) the value of the magnetic field strength
when μr is 500. [(a) 590–600 (b) 2000]

Further problems on magnetic circuits

(Where appropriate, assume µo=4π×10-7 H/m)
1. Part of a magnetic circuit is made from steel of length 120mm, cross sectional area 15cm 2
And relative permeability 800.Calculate(a)the reluctance and(b)the absolute permeability of
the steel. [(a) 79580/H (b) 1mH/m]

2. A mild steel closed magnetic circuit has a mean length of 75mm and a cross-sectional area of
320.2mm2 .A current of 0.40A flows in a coil wound uniformly around the circuit and the
flux produced is 200 µ Wb. If the relative permeability of the steel at this value of current is
400 find (a) the reluctance of the material and (b) the number of turns of the coil. [(a) 466000/H (b)
233]

Short answer questions on magnetic circuits

1. State six practical applications of magnets
2. What is a permanent magnet?
3. Sketch the pattern of the magnetic field associated with a bar magnet. Mark the direction
of the field.
4. Define magnetic flux
5. The symbol for magnetic flux is ... and the unit of flux is the ...
6. Define magnetic flux density
7. The symbol for magnetic flux density is ...and the unit of flux density is ...
8. The symbol for m.m.f. is ... and the unit of m.m.f. is the ...
9. Another name for the magnetising force is...... ; its symbol is ... and its unit is ...
10. Complete the statement: flux density /magnetic field strength= ...
11. What is absolute permeability?

18
12. The value of the permeability of free space is ...
13. What is a magnetisation curve?
14. The symbol for reluctance is ... and the unit of reluctance is ...
15. Make a comparison between magnetic and electrical quantities

Multi-choice questions on magnetic circuits

1. The unit of magnetic flux density is the:
(a) weber (b) weber per metre (c) amperepermetre (d) tesla
2. The total flux in the core of an electrical machine is 20mWb and its flux density is 1T. The cross-
sectional area of the core is:
(a) 0.05m 2 (b) 0.02m 2 (c) 20m 2 (d) 50m
3. If the total flux in a magnetic circuit is 2mWb and the cross-sectional area of the circuit is
10cm 2 , the flux density is:
(a) 0.2T (b) 2T (c) 2 (d) 20mT

Questions 4 to 8 refer to the following data:

A coil of 100 turns is wound uniformly on a wooden ring. The ring has a mean circumference of
1m and a uniform cross-sectional area of 10cm 2 . The current in the coil is 1A.
4. The magnetomotive force is:
(a) 1A (b) 10A (c) 100A (d) 1000A
5. The magnetic field strength is:
(a) 1A/m (b) 10A/m (c) 100A/m (d) 1000A/m
6 The magnetic flux density is:
(a) 800T (b) 8.85 × 10 −10 T (c) 4π×10 −7 T (d) 40π µ T
7. The magnetic flux is:
(a) 0.04π µ Wb (b) 0.01Wb (c) 8.85 µ Wb (d) 4π µ Wb
8. The reluctance is:
(a)10 84π H −1 (b) 1000H −1 (c) 2.5 π×10 9 H −1 (d)10 88.85H −1
9. Which of the following statements is false?
(a) For non-magnetic materials reluctance is high
(b) Energy loss due to hysteresis is greater for harder magnetic materials than for softer magnetic
materials
(c) The remanence of a ferrous material is measured in ampere/metre
(d) Absolute permeability is measured in henrys per metre
10. The current flowing in a 500 turn coil wound on an iron ring is 4A. The reluctance of the
circuit is 2 × 10 6 H. The flux produced is:
(a) 1Wb (b) 1000Wb (c) 1mWb (d) 62.5 µ Wb
11. A comparison can be made between magnetic and electrical quantities. From the following list,
match the magnetic quantities with their equivalent electrical quantities.
(a) current (b) reluctance (c) e.m.f. (d) flux (e) m.m.f. (f) resistance
12. The effect of an air gap in a magnetic circuit is to:
(a) increase the reluctance (b) reduce the flux density (c) divide the flux (d) reduce the
magnetomotive force
13. Two bar magnets are placed parallel to each other and about 2cm apart, such that the
south pole of one magnet is adjacent to the north pole of the other. With this arrangement, the
magnets will: (a) attract each other (b) have no effect on each other (c) repel each other (d) lose
their magnetism

ELECTROMAGNETISM
19
 Magnetic field due to an electric current

Magnetic fields can be set up not only by permanent magnet, but also by electric
currents.
Let a piece of wire be arranged to pass vertically through a horizontal sheet of
cardboard on which is placed some iron filings, as shown in Fig. above. If a current
is now passed through the wire, then the iron filings will form a definite circular field
pattern with the wire at The centre, when the cardboard is gently tapped. By placing
a compass in different positions the lines of flux are seen to have a definite
direction as shown in Fig. (b). If the current direction is reversed, the direction of the
lines of flux is also reversed. The effect on both the iron filings and the compass
needle disappears when the current is switched off. The magnetic field is thus
produced by the electric current. The magnetic flux produced has the same
properties as the flux produced by a permanent magnet. If the current is increased
the strength of the field increases and, as for the permanent magnet, the field
strength decreases as we move away from the current-carrying conductor. In Fig.a
above, the effect of only a small part of the magnetic field is shown. If the whole
length of the conductor is similarly investigated it is found that the magnetic field
round a straight conductor is in the form of concentric cylinder as shown in Fig.8.2,
the field direction depending on the direction of the current flow.

20
When dealing with magnetic fields formed by electric current it is usual to portray
the effect as shown in Fig. 8.3 The convention adopted is:
(i) Current flow in away from the viewer, i.e. into the paper, is indicated by ⊕. This
may be thought of as the feathered end of the shaft of an arrow. See Fig. 8.3(a).
(ii) Current flowing towards the viewer, i.e. out of the paper, is indicated by . This
may be thought of as the point of an arrow. See Fig. 8.3(b).
The direction of the magnetic lines of flux is best remembered by the screw rule
which states that:
If a normal right-hand thread screw is screwed along the conductor in the direction
of the current, the direction of rotation of the screw is in the direction of the
magnetic field.

For example, with current flowing away from the viewer (Fig. 8.3(a)) a right-hand
thread screw driven into the paper has to be rotated clockwise. Hence the direction
of the magnetic field is clockwise.
MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND STRAIGHT CONDUCTORS AND
ADJACENT
21
 PARALLEL CONDUCTORS

Force between two parallel conductors

(i)Current in the same direction; fig. a above shows two parallel conductors P&Q
carrying current I1 and I2 Amperes in the same direction i.e upwards. The
magnetic strength in the space between the two conductors is decreased due to
the two fields there being in opposition to each other. Hence, the resultant field is
as shown in the fig.a. obviously, the two conductors are attracted towards each
other.
(ii)Current in opposite direction; fig. b shows two parallel conductors carrying
currents in opposite directions. The field strength is increased in the space
between the two conductors due to the two fields being in the same direction
there. Because of the lateral repulsion of the lines of force, the two conductors
experienced a mutual force of repulsion as shown in fig.b.
LAWS OF PARALLEL CURRENT
(i)Two parallel conductors attract each other if current through them flow in the
same direction and repel each other if current through them flow in opposite
direction.
(ii)The force between two such parallel conductors is proportional to the product
of the current strengths and the length of the conductor considered and varies
inversely as distance between them.
µoI1I2L
F=
2πd

Magnetic field strength on a long solenoid

A magnetic field set up by a long coil, or solenoid, is shown in Fig. 8.4(a) and is seen
to be similar to that of a bar magnet. If the solenoid is wound on an iron bar, as
shown in Fig. 8.4(b), an even stronger magnetic field is produced, the iron becoming
magnetised and behaving like a permanent magnet. The direction of the magnetic
field produced by the current I in the solenoid may be found by either of two
methods, i.e. the screw rule or
the grip rule.
 The screw rule states that if a normal right-hand thread screw is placed along
the axis of the solenoid and is screwed in the direction of the current .it moves
in the direction of the magnetic field inside the solenoid. The direction of the
magnetic field inside the solenoid is from south to north. Thus in Figs. 4(a)

22
 and (b) the north pole is to the right.
 The grip rule states that if the coil is gripped with the right hand, with the
fingers pointing in the direction of the current, then the thumb, out stretched
parallel to the axis of the solenoid, points in the direction of the magnetic field
inside the solenoid.

Force on a Current-carrying Conductor Lying in a Magnetic Field

It is found that whenever a current-carrying conductor is placed in magnetic field, it

experiences a force which acts in a direction perpendicular both to the direction of
the current and the field. In Fig. shown above a conductor XY lying at right angles
to the uniform horizontal field of flux density B Wb/m2 produced by two solenoids A
and B. If l is the length of the conductor lying within this field and I ampere the
current carried by it, then the magnitude of the force experienced by it is

If a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field produced by permanent

magnets, then the fields due to the current-carrying conductor and the permanent
magnets interact and cause a force to be exerted on the conductor. The force on the

23
current-carrying conductor
In a magnetic field depends upon:
(a) the flux density of the field, B teslas
(b) the strength of the current, I amperes,
(c) the length of the conductor perpendicular to the magnetic field, l metres, and
(d) the directions of the field and the current.
When the magnetic field, the current and the conductor are mutually at right angles
then:
Force F = BIl newtons

When the conductor and the field are at an angleƟ to each other then:
Force F = BIl sinƟ newtons

Direction of Force
The direction of the force may be easily be found by Flemings left hand rule which
states if the left hand is held with the first 3 finger mutually at right angles to each
other , with the fore finger in the direction of field B and the middle finger in the
direction of the conventional current I, then the motion or force on the conductor is
in the direction of the thumb as shown in figure above.

NOTE;
1. A force acts on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field when it is at
right angle to the field direction
2. The direction of the force is perpendicular both to the conductor and to the
field.
3. The force increases when the current increases and when the magnetic field
strength increases.
4. The force decreases when the angle between the conductor and the field is
less than 900 and become zero when the conductor is parallel to the field.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Electromagnetic induction is a process whereby an e.m.f and current is induced in
a conductor which cut across or cut by a magnetic flux. It is well known that
whenever an electric current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is
immediately brought into existence in the space surrounding the conductor. It can
be said that when electrons are in motion, they produce a magnetic field. The
converse of this is also true i.e. when a magnetic field embracing a conductor
moves relative to the conductor, it produces a flow of electrons in the conductor.
This phenomenon whereby an e.m.f. and hence current (i.e. flow of electrons) is
induced in any conductor which is cut across or is cut by a magnetic flux is known
as electromagnetic induction. The historical background of this phenomenon is this :
After the discovery (by Oersted) that electric current produces a magnetic field,
scientists began to search for the converse phenomenon from about 1821 onwards.
The problem they put to themselves was how to ‘convert’ magnetism into electricity.
24
It is recorded that Michael Faraday was in the habit of walking about with magnets
in his pockets so as to constantly remind him of the problem. After nine years of
continuous research and experimentation, he succeeded in producing electricity by
‘converting magnetism’. In 1831, he formulated basic laws underlying the
phenomenon of electromagnetic induction (known after his name), upon which is
based the operation of most of the commercial apparatus like motors, generators
and transformers etc

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday summed up the above facts into two laws known as Faraday’s Laws of
Electromagnetic Induction.

First Law.
It states whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an e.m.f. is
always induced in it. or
Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is induced in that conductor.
Second Law.
It states that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of
flux-linkages.

Explanation. Suppose a coil has N turns and flux through it changes from an initial
value of Φ1
webers to the final value of Φ 2 webers in time t seconds. Then, remembering that by
flux-linkages mean the product of number of turns and the flux linked with the coil,
we have
Initial flux linkages = NΦ1 , add
Final flux linkages = NΦ2
NΦ2-NΦ1
∴ induced e.m.f. e= Wb/s or volt
t
Putting the above expression in its differential form, we get
d
e = (N Φ)volt
dt
dΦ
e =N volt
dt

dΦ
e =-N volt
dt
Usually, a minus sign is given to the right-hand side expression to signify the fact
that the induced e.m.f. sets up current in such a direction that magnetic effect
produced by it opposes the very cause producing it.

Example 1.
The field coils of a 6-pole d.c. generator each having 500 turns, are connected
25
inseries. When the field is excited, there is a magnetic flux of 0.02 Wb/pole. If the
field circuit is opened in 0.02 second and residual magnetism is 0.002 Wb/pole,
calculate the average voltage which is induced across the field terminals. In which
direction is this voltage directed relative to the
direction of the current.
Solution.
Total number of turns, N = 6 × 500 = 3000
Total initial flux Φ2= 6 × 0.02 = 0.12 Wb
Total residual flux Φ1 = 6 × 0.002 = 0.012 Wb
Change in flux, dΦ = 0.12 − 0.012 = 0.108 Wb
Time of opening the circuit, dt = 0.02 second
NΦ2-NΦ1
∴ Induced e.m.f. = e =
t
N(Φ2-Φ1)
=
t
3000(0.12-0.012)
=
t
= 16,200 V
The direction of this induced e.m.f. is the same as the initial direction of the exciting
current.
Example 2.
A coil of resistance 100 Ω is placed in a magnetic field of 1 mWb. The coil has 100
turns and a galvanometer of 400 Ω resistance is connected in series with it. Find the
average e.m.f. and the current if the coil is moved in 1/10th second from the given
field to a field of 0.2 mWb.
Solution.
N(Φ2-Φ1)
Induced e.m.f. =
t
100(0.001-0.0002)
=
0.1
= 0.8 V
Total circuit resistance = 100 + 400 = 500 Ω
V= IR
V 0.8 -3
∴ Current induced = = = 1.6 × 10 A = 1.6 mA
R 500

Production of Induced E.M.F. and Current

In above shown an insulated coil whose terminals are connected to a sensitive

galvanometer
26
G. It is placed close to a stationary bar magnet initially at position AB (shown
dotted). As seen, some flux from the N-pole of the magnet is linked with or threads
through the coil but, as yet, there is no deflection of the galvanometer. Now,
suppose that the magnet is suddenly brought closer to the coil in position CD (see
figure). Then, it is found that there is a jerk or a sudden but a momentary deflection
Fig. a. Fig. b.in the galvanometer and that this lasts so long as the magnet is in
motion relative to the coil, not otherwise. The deflection is reduced to zero when the
magnet becomes again stationary at its new position CD. It should be noted that
due to the approach of the magnet, flux linked with the coil is increased. Next, the
magnet is suddenly withdrawn away from the coil as in Fig. b. It is found that again
there is a momentary deflection in the galvanometer and it persists so long as the
magnet is in motion, not when it becomes stationary. It is important to note that this
deflection is in a direction opposite to that of Fig.b. Obviously, due to the withdrawal
of the magnet, flux linked with the coil is decreased. The deflection of the
galvanometer indicates the production of e.m.f. in the coil. The only cause of the
production can be the sudden approach or withdrawal of the magnet from the coil. It
is found that the actual cause of this e.m.f. is the change of flux linking with the coil.
This e.m.f. exists so longas the change in flux exists. Stationary flux, however strong,
will never induce any e.m.f. in a stationary conductor. In fact, the same results can
be obtained by keeping the bar magnet stationary and moving the coil suddenly
away or towards the magnet.

Lenz’s Law
The direction of the induced current may also be found by this law which was
formulated by
Lenz in 1835. This law states, in effect, that electromagnetically induced current
always flows in such direction that the action of the magnetic field set up by it
tends to oppose the very cause which produces it.
This statement will be clarified with reference to Fig.a and b.above It is found that
when N-pole of the bar magnet approaches the coil, the induced current set up by
induced e.m.f. flows in the anticlockwise direction in the coil as seen from the
magnet side. The result is that face of the coil becomes a N-pole and so tends to
oppose the onward approach of the N-Pole of the magnet (like poles repel each
other). The mechanical energy spent in overcoming this repulsive force is converted
into electrical energy which appears in the coil. When the magnet is withdrawn as in
Fig.b, the induced current flows in the clockwise direction thus making the face of
the coil (facing the magnet) a S-pole. Therefore, the N-pole of the magnet has to
withdrawn against this attractive force of the S-pole of coil. Again, the mechanical
energy
required to overcome this force of attraction is converted into electric energy. It can
be shown that Lenz’s law is a direct consequence of Law of Conservation of Energy.
Imagine for a moment that when N-pole of the magnet (Fig.a) approaches the coil,
induced current flows in such a direction as to make the coil face a S-pole. Then,
due to inherent attraction between
27
unlike poles, the magnet would be automatically pulled towards the coil without the
expenditure of any mechanical energy. It means that we would be able to create
electric energy out of nothing, which is denied by the inviolable Law of Conservation
of Energy. In fact, to maintain the sanctity of this law, it is imperative for the induced
current to flow in such a direction that the magnetic effect produced by it tends to
oppose the very cause which produces it. In the present case, it is relative motion of
the magnet with magnet with respect to the coil which is the cause of the
production of the induced current. Hence, the induced current always flows in such a
direction to oppose this relative motion i.e., the approach or withdrawal of the
magnet.

APPLICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

I. they are used in electric generators
II. they are used in the design of electric motors
III. they are used in the design of transformer

Self-inductance

This is property of the coil due to which it opposes any increase or decrease or
current of flux through it. It is quantitatively measured in terms of coefficient of self
induction L. This property is analogous to inertia in a material body.
Imagine a coil of wire similar to the one shown in Fig. above connected to a battery
through a
rheostat. It is found that whenever an effort is made to increase current (and hence
flux) through it, it is always opposed by the instantaneous production of counter
e.m.f of self-induction. Energy required to overcome this opposition is supplied by
the battery. As will be fully explained later on, this energy is stored in the additional
flux produced. If, now an effort is made to decrease the current (and hence the flux),
then again it is delayed due to the production of self-induced e.m.f., this time in the
opposite direction. We know by experience that initially it is difficult to set a heavy
body into motion, but once in motion, it is equally difficult to stop it. Similarly, in a
coil having large self-induction, it is initially difficult to establish a current through it,
but once established, it is equally difficult to withdraw it. Hence, self-induction is
sometimes analogously called electrical inertia or electromagnetic inertia.

Coefficient of Self-induction (L)

The coefficient of self-induction of a coil is defined as the weber-turns per ampere in
the coil
By ‘weber-turns’ is meant the product of flux in webers and the number of turns with
which the flux is linked. In other words, it is the flux-linkages of the coil.
28
Consider a solenoid having N turns and carrying a current of I amperes. If the flux
produced is
Φ webers, the weber-turns are NΦ. Hence, weber-turns per ampere are N Φ/I.
NØ
By definition L=
I
The unit of self-induction is henry
Hence a coil is said to have a self-inductance of one henry if a current of 1 ampere
when
flowing through it produced flux-linkages of 1 Wb-turn in it.

Example 1.
The field winding of a d.c. electromagnet is wound with 960 turns and has
resistance of 50 Ω when the exciting voltages is 230 V, the magnetic flux linking the
coil is 0.005 Wb. Calculate the self-inductance of the coil and the energy stored in
the magnetic field.

Example 2.
An iron ring 30 cm mean diameter is made of square of iron of 2cm × 2cm cross
section and is uniformly wound with 400 turns of wire of 2mm 2 cross section.
Calculate the value of the self-inductance of the coil. Assume μ r = 800.

Mutual Inductance
Mutual inductance may, be defined as the ability of one coil (or circuit) to produce
an e.m.f. in a nearby coil by induction when the current in the first coil changes. As
we have seen that any change of current in coil A is always accompanied by the
production of mutually-induced e.m.f. in coil B. This action being reciprocal, the
second coil can also induce an e.m.f. in the first when current in the second coil
changes. This ability of reciprocal induction is measured in terms of the coefficient
of mutual induction M.
Coefficient of Mutual Inductance (M)
In a 2 magnetically coupled coils having N1 and N2 turns ,the coefficient of mutual
inductance between the two coils is defined as the weber-turns in one coil due to
one ampere current in the other.
Let a current I 1ampere when flowing in the first coil produce a flux Φ 1webers in it.
It is supposed that whole of this flux links with the turns of the second coil. Then,
flux-linkages i.e.,
webers-turns in the second coil for unit current in the first coil are N2Φ1 /I1 . Hence,

by definition

29
If weber-turns in second coil due to one ampere current in the first coil i.e. N2Φ1 /I1 =
1 then, as seen from above, M = 1H.
Hence, two coils are said to have a mutual inductance of 1 henry is one ampere
current when
flowing in one coil produces flux-linkages of one Wb-turn in the other.
Example3.
Two identical coils X and Y of 1,000 turns each lie in parallel planes such that 80% of
flux produced by one coil links with the other. If a current of 5 A flowing in X
produces a flux of 0.5 mWb in it, find the mutual inductance between X and Y.

Example 4.
A flux of 0.5 mWb is produced by a coil of 900 turns wound on a ring with a current
of 3 A in it. Calculate (i) the inductance of the coil (ii) the e.m.f. induced in the coil
when a current of 5 A is switched off, assuming the current to fall to zero in 1 milli
second and (iii) the mutual inductance between the coils, if a second coil of 600
turns is uniformly wound over the first coil.

Energy stored in an inductor

An inductor possesses an ability to store energy. The energy stored, W, in the
magnetic field of an inductor. In an inductor as current grows uniformly from zero
I
value to its maximum steady value I,then average current is . If L is the inductance
2
LI
of the circuit , then self induced emf e= , where t is the time for current change
t
from zero to I.
Average power absorbed= induced emf x average current
LI I
e= x .
t 2
LI2
=
2t
Total energy absorbed = power x time
LI2
= xt
2t
1 2
= LI
2

30
 1 2
Energy stored= LI joules
2

Inductances in Series

If two coils are joined in series in such a way that their fluxes (or m.m.fs) are
additive i.e., in the same direction ,their equivalent inductance is given by L=
L1+L2+2M
Wher Let M = coefficient of mutual inductance
L1 = coefficient of self-inductance of 1st coil
L2 = coefficient of self-inductance of 2nd coil.

If two coils are joined in series in such a way that their fluxes (or m.m.fs) are
substrative i.e., in the opposite direction ,their equivalent inductance is given by L=
L1+L2-2M

Inductance in Parallel

If Two inductances of values L1 and L2 henry are connected in parallel and the
coefficient of mutual inductance between the two is M. Then the equivalent
inductance is given by

31
Example 5.
Two coils of inductances 4 and 6 henry are connected in parallel. If their mutual
inductance is 3 henry, calculate the equivalent inductance of the combination if (i)
mutual inductance assists the self-inductance (ii) mutual inductance opposes the
self-inductance.

Example 6.
Two coils with a coefficient of coupling of 0.5 between them, are connected in
series so as to magnetise (a) in the same direction (b) in the opposite direction. The
corresponding values of total inductances are for (a) 1.9 H and for (b) 0.7 H. Find
the self-inductances of the two coils and the mutual inductance between them.

Short answer questions on electromagnetism

1. The direction of the magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor may be remembered
using the ...... rule.
2. Sketch the magnetic field pattern associated with a solenoid connected to a battery and wound
on an iron bar. Show the direction of the field.
3. Name three applications of electromagnetism.
4. State what happens when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field between
two magnets.
5. The force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field depends on four factors. Name
them.
6. The direction of the force on a conductor in a magnetic field may be predetermined using
Fleming’s ...... rule.
7. State three applications of the force on a current-carrying conductor.
8. Figure 8.19 shows a simplified diagram of a section through the coil of a moving-coil instrument.
For the direction of current flow shown in the coil determine the direction that the pointer will
move.
32
9. State Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction. Distinguish between statically induced emf
and dynamically induced emf with examples.
10. State : (i) Flemming's right hand rule, and (ii) Fleming's left hand rule. Mention their
applications.
11. Define : (i) Self inductance, and (ii) Mutual inductance.
Mention their units and formula to calculate each of them. Derive an expression for the energy
stored in an inductor of self inductance ‘L’ henry carrying the current of ‘I’ amperes.
12. State and explain Faraday's laws of electro magnetic induction, Lenz's Law. Fleming's right
hand rule and Fleming's left hand rule.
13. A coil of 300 turns wound on a core of non magnetic material has an inductance of 10mH.
Calculate (i) the flux produced by a current of 5A (ii) the average value of the emf induced when a
current of 5Amps is reversed in 8 mills seconds.

Multi-choice questions on electromagnetism

1. A conductor carries a current of 10A at right-angles to a magnetic field having a flux density of
500mT. If the length of the conductor in the field is 20cm, the force on the conductor is:
(a) 100kN (b) 1kN (c) 100N (d) 1N
2. If a conductor is horizontal, the current flowing from left to right and the direction of the
surrounding magnetic field is from above to below, the force exerted on the conductor is:
(a) from left to right (b) from below to above (c) away from the viewer (d) towards the viewer
3. For the current-carrying conductor lying in the magnetic field shown in Fig. 8.20(a), the direction
of the force on the conductor is: (a) to the left (b) upwards (c) to the right (d) downwards.

4. For the current-carrying conductor lying in the magnetic field shown in Fig. 8.20(b), the direction
of the current in the conductoris: (a) towards the viewer (b) away from the viewer
5. Figure 8.21 shows a rectangular coil of wire placed in a magnetic field and free to rotate about
axis AB. If the current flows into the coil at C, the coil will:
(a) commence to rotateanti-clockwise (b) commencetorotate clockwise
(c) remain in the vertical position (d) experience a force towards the north pole

6. The force on an electron travelling at 10 m/s in a magnetic field of density 10µT is 1.6×10-17 N.

33
The electron has a charge of:
(a) 1.6×10-28 C (b) 1.6×10 -19C (c) 1.6×10-25 C (d) 1.6×10-15 C
7. An electric bell depends for its action on:
(a) a permanent magnet (b) reversal of current (c) a hammer and a gong (d) an electromagnet
8. A relay can be used to:
(a) decrease the current in a circuit (b) control a circuit more readily
(c) increase the current in a circuit (d) control a circuit from a distance
9. There is a force of attraction between two current-carrying conductors when the current in them
is:
(a) in opposite directions (b) in the same direction (c) of different magnitude (d) of the same
magnitude
10. The magnetic field due to a current-carrying conductor takes the form of:
(a) rectangles (b) concentric circles (c) wavy lines (d) straight lines radiating outwards
1. According to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, an e.m.f. is induced in a conductor
whenever it
(a) lies in a magnetic field (b) cuts magnetic flux (c) moves parallel to the direction of the
magnetic field (d) lies perpendicular to the magnetic flux.
Further problems on energy stored
1. An inductor of 20H has a current of 2.5A flowing in it. Find the energy stored in the magnetic
field of the inductor. [62.5J]
2. Calculate the value of the energy stored when a current of 30mA is flowing in a coil of
inductance400mH [0.18mJ]
3. The energy stored in the magnetic field of an inductor is 80J when the current flowing in the
inductor is 2A. Calculate the inductance of the coil. [40H]
Short answer questions on electromagnetic induction
1. What is electromagnetic induction?
2. State Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
3. State Lenz’s law
4. Explain briefly the principle of the generator
5. The direction of an induced e.m.f. in a generator may be determined using Fleming’s ......rule
6. The e.m.f. E induced in a moving conductor may be calculated using the formula E=Blv.
Name the quantities represented and their units
7. The total e.m.f., E, for a loop conductor with N turns is given by: E= ............
8. What is self-inductance? State its symbol
9. State and define the unit of inductance
10. When a circuit has an inductance L and the current changes at a rate of (di/dt) then
the induced e.m.f. E is given by E= ...... volts
11. If a current of I amperes flowing in a coil of N turns produces a flux of webers, the coil
inductance L is given by L= ......henrys
12. The energy W stored by an inductor is given by W = ......joules
13. If the number of turns of a coil is N and its reluctance is S, then the inductance, L, is given by:
L= .........
14. What is mutual inductance? State its symbol
15. The mutual inductance between two coils is M. The e.m.f. E2 induced in one coil by the
current changing at (dI1/dt) in the other is givenbyE2 = ......volts
16. Two coils wound on an iron ring of reluctance S have NA and NB turns respectively.
The mutual inductance, M, is given by: M= .........

34
IGNITION SYSTEM OF A CAR

35
 Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents
Alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic field, as shown
in Fig. a or by rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil, as shown in Fig. (b).
36
The value of the voltage generated depends, in each case, upon the number of turns
in the coil, strength of the field and the speed at which the coil or magnetic field
rotates. Alternating voltage may be generated in either of the two ways shown
above, but rotating-field method is the one which is mostly used in practice.
The a.c.generator
Let a single turn coil be free to rotate at constant angular velocity symmetrically
between the poles of a magnet system as shown in Fig. above. An e.m.f. is
generated in the coil (from Faraday’s laws) which varies in magnitude and reverses
its direction at regular intervals. The reason for this is shown in Fig. below. In
positions (a), (e) and (i) the conductors of the loop are effectively moving along the
magnetic field, no flux is cut and hence no e.m.f. is induced. In position (c)
maximum flux is cut and hence maximum e.m.f. is induced. In position (g),
maximum flux is cut and hence maximum e.m.f. is again induced. However, using
Fleming’s right-hand rule, the induced e.m.f. is in the opposite direction to that in
position (c) and is thus shown as −E. In positions (b), (d), (f) and (h) some flux is cut
and hence some e.m.f. is induced. If all such of the coil, one cycle of alternating
e.m.f. is produced as shown. This is the principle of operation of the a.c. generator
(i.e. the alternator). positions of the coil are considered, in one revolution.

TERMS RELATED TO ALTERNATING QUANTITY

Cycle
37
Cycle is one complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quantity.
Hence, each diagram of Fig. below represents one complete cycle. A cycle may also
be sometimes specified in terms of angular measure. In that case, one complete
cycle is said to spread over 360º or 2π radians.
Period
Period is the time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle. For
example, a Ω0-Hz alternating current has a time period of 1/50 second.
Frequency
The number of cycles made per second is called the frequency of the alternating
quantity. Its unit is hertz (Hz).

Amplitude
The maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating quantity is known as its
amplitude.

A.C.values

Instantaneous values are the values of the alternating quantities at any instant of
time. They are represented by small letters, i, v, e, etc., (see Fig.(f) and (g)).
The peak value or the maximum value or the amplitude of the waveform is the
largest value reached in a half cycle. Such values are represented by Vm, Im, m
,etc.(see Fig.(f)and(g)).
A peak-to-peak value of e.m.f. is the difference between the maximum and
minimum values in a cycle. Is shown in Fig. (g)
The average or mean value of a symmetrical alternating quantity, (such as a sine
wave), is the average value measured over a half cycle, (since over a complete cycle
the average value is zero).
The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is given by that steady (d.c.) current which
when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same heat as
produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for the
same time.
The effective value of an alternating current is that current which will produce the
same heating effect as an equivalent direct current. The effective value is called the
root mean square (r.m.s.) value and whenever an alternating quantity is given, it is
assumed to be the rms value. For example, the domestic mains supply in Nigeria is

38
240V and is assumed to mean ‘240V rms’. The symbols used for r.m.s. values are I,
V, E, etc. For a non-sinusoidal waveform as shown in Fig.below the r.m.s. value is
given by:

Example 1. Determine the peak and mean values for a 240V mains supply.

2. A supply voltage has a mean value of 150V. Determine its maximum value and its
r.m.s. value.
39
 For a sinewave, meanvalue = 0.637×maximum value.
Hence

3. . Determine the periodic time for frequencies of (a) 50Hz and (b)20kHz.

4. Determine the frequencies for periodic times of (a)4ms (b)4µs.

The equation of a sinusoidal waveform

In Fig. below, 0A represents a vector that is free to rotate anticlockwise about 0 at
an angular velocity of ω rad/s.
A rotating vector is known as a phasor.

After time t seconds the vector 0A has turned through an angle ωt. If the line BC is
constructed perpendicular
to 0A as shown, then

If all such vertical components are projected on to a graph of y against angle ωt(in
radians), a sine curve results of maximum value 0A. Any quantity which varies
40
sinusoidally can thus be represented as a phasor. A sine curve may not always start
at 0 ◦ . To show this a periodic function is represented by y=sin(ωt ±φ), where φ is
the phase (or angle) difference compared with y= sinωt. In Fig. (a), y 2 =sin(ωt +φ)
starts φ radians earlier than y 1 = sin ωt and is thus said to lead y 1 by φ radians.
Phasors y 1 and y 2 are shown in (b) at the time when t =0.

In Fig. (c), y 4 =sin(ωt −φ) starts φ radians later than y3 = sinωt and is thus said to
lag y 3 by φ radians. Phasors y 3 and y 4 are shown in Fig. 14.9(d) at the time when t
=0. Given the general sinusoidal voltage, v=V m sin(ωt ± φ), then
(i) Amplitude or maximum value=V m
(ii) Peak to peak value=2V m
(iii) Angular velocity= ωrad/s
(iv) Periodic time, T =2π/ω seconds
(v) Frequency, f =ω/2πHz (since ω=2πf)
(vi) φ=angle of lag or lead (compared with v=V m sinωt)

Example 1. An alternating voltage is given by v=282.8sin314t volts. Find (a) the r.m.s.
voltage, (b) the frequency and (c) the instantaneous value of voltage when t =4ms.

(a)The general expression for an alternating voltage is v=V m sin(ωt ±φ).

Comparing, v = 282.8sin314t with this general expression gives the peak
voltage as 282.8V.
Hence the r.m.s. voltage = 0.707×maximum value
=0.707×282.8=200V

41
Examnple 2: An alternating voltage is given by V = 75sin(200πt −0.25) volts. Find (a)
the amplitude, (b) the peak-to-peak value, (c) the r.m.s. value, (d) the periodic time,
(e) the frequency, and (f) the phase angle (in degrees and minutes) relative to
75sin200πt.

Single-phase series a.c.circuits

Purely resistive a.c.circuit
In a purely resistive a.c. circuit, the current I R and applied voltage V R are in phase.

42
Purely inductive a.c.circuit
In a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the current IL lags the applied voltage VL by 90 ◦ (i.e.
π/2rads).

In a purely inductive circuit the opposition to the flow of alternating current is called
the inductive
reactance, XL.

where f is the supply frequency, in hertz, and L is the inductance, in henry’s. XL is

proportional to f as shown below.

Purely capacitive a.c.circuit

In a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the current IC leads the applied voltage VC by 90 ◦
(i.e. π/2rads).

43
In a purely capacitive circuit the opposition to the flow of alternating current is called
the capacitive
reactance, XC

where C is the capacitance in farads. XC varies with frequency f as shown in Fig.

below.

Example 1. (a) Calculate the reactance of a coil of inductance 0.32H when it is

connected to a50Hz supply. (b)A coil has a reactance of 124Ω in a circuit with a
supply of frequency 5kHz. Determine the inductance of the coil.

Example 2. A coil has an inductance of 40mH and negligible resistance. Calculate

its inductive reactance and the resulting current if connected to (a) a 240V, 50Hz
supply, and (b) a 100V, 1kHz
supply.

44
Example 3. Determine the capacitive reactance of a capacitor of 10 μ F when
connected to a circuit of frequency (a) 50Hz (b) 20kHz

Example 4. A capacitor has a reactance of 40Ω when operated on a 50Hz supply.

Determine the value of its capacitance.
Since

45
Example 5. Calculate the current taken by a 23 μ F capacitor when connected to a
240V, 50Hz supply.

Exercises: problems on purely inductive and capacitive a.c.circuits

1. Calculate the reactance of a coil of inductance 0.2H when it is connected to (a) a 50Hz, (b) a
600Hz and (c) a 40kHz supply. [(a) 62.83? (b) 754? (c) 50.27k?]
2. A coil has a reactance of 120Ω in a circuit with a supply frequency of 4kHz. Calculate the
inductance of the coil. [4.77mH]
3. A supply of 240V, 50Hz is connected across a pure inductance and the resulting current is 1.2A.
Calculate the inductance of the coil. [0.637H]
4. An e.m.f. of 200V at a frequency of 2kHz is applied to a coil of pure inductance
50mH.Determine (a) the reactance of the coil, and (b) the current flowing in the coil. [(a) 628? (b)
0.318A]
5. A 120mH inductor has a 50mA, 1kHz alternating current flowing through it. Find the p.d. across
the inductor. [37.7V]

6. Calculate the capacitive reactance of a capacitor of 20 μ F when connected to an a.c. circuit of

frequency (a) 20Hz, (b) 500Hz, (c) 4kHz [(a) 397.9Ω (b) 15.92Ω (c) 1.989Ω]
7.A capacitor has a reactance of 80Ω when connected to a 50Hz supply. Calculate the value of its
capacitance.[39.79μF]
8. Calculate the current taken by a10 μF capacitor when connected to a 200V, 100Hz supply.
[1.257A]
9. A capacitor has a capacitive reactance of 400Ω when connected to a 100V, 25Hz supply.
Determine its capacitance and the current taken from the supply. [15.92 μ F, 0.25A]
46
10. Two similar capacitors are connected in parallel to a 200V, 1kHz supply. Find the value of each
capacitor if the circuit current is 0.628A. [0.25 μ F]

R–L series a.c.circuit

In an a.c. circuit containing inductance L and resistance R, the applied voltage V is
the phasor sum of VR and VL (see Fig. below, and thus the current I lags the applied
voltage V by an angle lying between 0 ◦ and 90 ◦ (depending on the values of VR and
VL ), shown as angle φ. In any a.c. series circuit the current is common to each
component and is thus taken as the reference phasor.

From the phasor diagram of Fig. above, the voltage triangle is derived.
For the R–L circuit:

and
In an a.c. circuit, the ratio applied voltage V to current I is called the impedance, Z, i.e.

If each side of the voltage triangle is divided by current I then the ‘impedance
triangle’ is derived.

Example 6. In a series R–L circuit the p.d. across the resistance R is 12V and the
p.d. across the inductance L is 5V. Find the supply voltage and the phase angle
between current and voltage.
From the voltage triangle , supply voltage

47
(‘Lagging’ infers that the current is ‘behind’ the voltage, since phasors revolve
anticlockwise)
Example 7. A coil has a resistance of 4Ω and an inductance of 9.55mH. Calculate (a)
the reactance, (b) the impedance, and (c) the current taken from a 240V, 50Hz
supply. Determine also the phase angle between the supply voltage and current.
R=4Ω ,L=9.55mH=9.55×10-3 H, f =50Hz and V =240V
(a) Inductive reactance, X L = 2πfL
= 2π(50)(9.55 × 10 −3 )
= 3Ω

Example 8. A coil of inductance 318.3mH and negligible resistance is connected in

series with a 200 Ω resistor to a 240V, 50Hz supply. Calculate (a) the inductive
reactance of the coil, (b) the impedance of the circuit, (c) the current in the circuit, (d)
the p.d. across each component, and (e) the circuit phase angle.

48
 R–C series a.c. circuit
In an a.c. series circuit containing capacitance C and resistance R, the applied
voltage V is the phasor sum of VR and VC (see Fig. below) and thus the current I
leads the applied voltage V by an angle lying between 0 ◦ and 90 ◦ (depending on the
values of V R and V C ), shown as angle α.
From the phasor diagram of Fig. , the ‘voltage triangle’ is derived.

49
And

Example 9. A resistor of 25Ω is connected in series with a capacitor of 45 μ F.

Calculate (a) the impedance, and (b) the current taken from a 240V, 50Hz supply.
Find also the phase angle between the supply voltage and the current.

R=25Ω, C =45 μ F=45×10-6 F, V =240V and f =50Hz.

Capacitive reactance,

50
Example 10. A capacitor C is connected in series with a 40Ω resistor across a
supply of frequency 60Hz. A current of 3A flows and the circuit impedance is 50Ω.
Calculate
(a) the value of capacitance, C,
(b) the supply voltage,
(c) the phase angle between the supply voltage and current,
(d) the p.d. across the resistor, and
(e) the p.d. across the capacitor. Draw the phasor diagram.

51
 R–L–C series a.c. circuit
In an a.c. series circuit containing resistance R, inductance L and capacitance C, the
applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VR , VL and VC (see Fig. below). VL and VC
are anti-phase, i.e. displaced by 180 ◦, and there are three phasor diagrams possible
— each depending on the relative values of V L and V C

52
Example 11. A coil of resistance 5Ω and inductance 120mH in series with a 100 μF
capacitor, is connected to a 300V, 50Hz supply. Calculate (a) the current flowing,
(b) the phase difference between the supply voltage and current,
(c) the voltage across the coil and (d) the voltage across the capacitor.

53
54
 Series resonance
As stated before, for an R–L–C series circuit, when XL =XC ((d)), the applied voltage
V and the current are in phase. This effect is called series resonance. At resonance:
(i) VL =VC
(ii) Z =R (i.e. the minimum circuit impedance possible in an L–C–R circuit)
(iii) I =V/R (i.e. the maximum current possible in an L–C–R circuit
(iv) Since XL =XC , then 2πf r L=1/2πf r C from which.

and
where fr is the resonant frequency.
(v) The series resonant circuit is often described as an acceptor circuit since it has
its minimum impedance, and thus maximum current, at the resonant frequency.
(vi)Typical graphs of current I and impedance Z against frequency are shown in Fig.
below

55
Example 12. A coil having a resistance of 10Ω and an inductance of 125mH is
connected in series with a 60 μ F capacitor across a 120V supply. At what frequency
does resonance occur? Find the current flowing at the resonant frequency.
Resonant frequency,

Single-phase parallel a.c. circuits

R–L parallel a.c.circuit
In the two branch parallel circuit containing resistance R and inductance L shown in
Fig. below, the current flowing in the resistance, IR , is in-phase with the supply
voltage V and the current flowing in the inductance, IL , lags the supply voltage by 90
◦ . The supply current I is the phasor sum of IR and IL and thus the current I lags the
applied voltage V by an angle lying between 0 ◦ and 90 ◦ (depending on the values of
I R and I L ), shown as angle φ in the phasor diagram.

56
 R–C parallel a.c.circuit
In the two branch parallel circuit containing resistance R and capacitance C shown
in Fig. below, IR is in-phase with the supply voltage V and the current flowing in the
capacitor, IC , leads V by 90 ◦ . The supply current I is the phasor sum of IR and IC
and thus the current I leads the applied voltage V by an angle lying between 0 ◦ and
90 ◦ (depending on the values of IR and IC ), shown as angle α in the phasor diagram.

L–C parallel circuit

In the two branch parallel circuit containing inductance L and capacitance C shown
in Fig.below, IL lags V by 90 ◦ and I C leads V by 90 ◦

57
Theoretically there are three phasor diagrams possible — each depending on the
relative values of
IL and IC :
(i) IL >IC (giving a supply current, I =IL −IC lagging V by 90 ◦ )
(ii) IC >IL (giving a supply current, I =IC −IL leading V by 90 ◦ )
(iii) IL =IC (giving a supply current, I =0).

LR–C parallel a.c.circuit

In the two branch circuit containing capacitance C in parallel with inductance L and
resistance R in series (such as a coil) shown in Fig. (a), the phasor diagram for the
LR branch alone is shown in Fig. (b)
and the phasor diagram for the C branch is shown alone in Fig. (c). Rotating each
and superimposing on one another gives the complete phasor diagram shown in Fig.
(d)

58
The current ILR of Fig. (d) may be resolved into horizontal and vertical components.
The horizontal component, shown as op is ILR cosφ 1 and the vertical component,
shown as pq is ILR sinφ 1 . There are three possible conditions for this circuit:
(i) IC >ILR sinφ 1 (giving a supply current I leading V by angle φ—as shown in Fig. (e))
(ii) ILR sinφ>I C (giving I lagging V by angle φ—as shown in Fig.(f))
(iii) I C =I R sinφ 1 (this is called parallel resonance,
There are two methods of finding the phasor sum of currents ILR and IC in Fig.(e)
and (f). These are:
(i) by a scaled phasor diagram, or
(ii) (ii) by resolving each current into their ‘in-phase’ (i.e. horizontal) and
‘quadrature’ (i.e. vertical) components.

Parallel resonance
Resonance occurs in the two branch network containing capacitance C in parallel
with inductance L and resistance R in series (see Fig.(a)) when the quadrature (i.e.
vertical) component of current ILR is equal to IC . At this condition the supply
current I is in-phase with the supply voltage V.

Resonant frequency
59
When the quadrature component of ILR is equal to IC then: IC =ILR sinφ 1 (see
Fig.below).
Hence

60
 THREE PHASE AND SINGLE PHASE SUPPLY
There are two types of system available in electric circuit, single phase and three
phase system. In single phase circuit, there will be only one phase, i.e the current will
flow through only one wire and there will be one return path called neutral line to
complete the circuit. So in single phase minimum amount of power can be
transported. Here the generating station and load station will also be single phase.
This is an old system using from previous time. In 1882, new invention has been
done on polyphase system, that more than one phase can be used for generating,
transmitting and for load system. Three phase circuit is the polyphase system
where three phases are send together from the generator to the load. Each phase
are having a phase difference of 120°, i.e 120° angle electrically. So from the total of
360°, three phases are equally divided into 120° each. The power in three phase
system is continuous as all the three phases are involved in generating the total
power. The sinusoidal waves for 3 phase system is shown below

Presently 3-ø AC system is very popular and being used worldwide for power
generation, power transmission, distribution and for electric motors.
The three phases can be used as single phase each. So if the load is single phase,
then one phase can be taken from the three phase circuit and the neutral can be
used as ground to complete the circuit.

61
The three phase system can be used as three single phase line so it can act as three
single phase system. The three phase generation and single phase generation is
same in the generator except the
arrangement of coil in the generator to get 120° phase difference. The conductor
needed in three phase circuit is 75% that of conductor needed in single phase circuit.
And also the instantaneous power in single phase system falls down to zero as in
single phase we can see from the sinusoidal curve but in three phase system the net
power from all the phases gives a continuous power to the load.

There are three voltage source connected together to form a three phase circuit.
And actually it is inside the generator. The generator is having three voltage source s
which are acting together in 120° phase difference. If we can arrange three single
phase circuit with 120° phase difference, then it will become a three phase circuit.
So 120° phase difference is a must otherwise the circuit will not work, the three
phase load will not be able to get active and it may also cause damage to the
system. The size or metal quantity of three phase devices is not having much
difference. Now if we consider the transformer, it will be almost same size for both
single phase and three phase because transformer will make only the linkage of flux.
So the three phase system will have higher efficiency compared to single phase
because for the same or little difference in mass of transformer, three phase line will
be out whereas in single phase it will be only one. And losses will be minimum in
three phase circuit. So overall in conclusion the three phase system will have better
and higher efficiency compared to the single phase system. In three phase circuit,
62
connections can be given in two types:
1. Star connection
2. Delta connection
Star Connection
In star connection, there is four wire, three wires are phase wire and fourth is neutral
which is taken from the star point. Star connection is preferred for long distance
power transmission because it is having the neutral point. In this we need to come
to the concept of balanced and unbalanced current in power system.
When equal current will flow through all the three phases, then it is called as
balanced current. And when the current will not be equal in any of the phase, then it
is unbalanced current. In this case, during balanced condition there will be no
current flowing through the neutral line and hence there is no use of the neutral
terminal. But when there will be unbalanced current flowing in the three phase circuit,
neutral is having a vital role. It will take the unbalanced current through to the
ground and protect the transformer. Unbalanced current affects transformer and it
may also cause damage to the transformer and for this star connection is preferred
for long distance transmission. The star connection is shown below

In star connection, the line voltage is √3 times of phase voltage. Line voltage is the
voltage between two phases in three phase circuit and phase voltage is the voltage
between one phase to the neutral line. And the current is same for both line and
phase. It is shown as expression below

If a balance symmetrical load is connected across three phase voltage system in

parallel, then the three currents will flow in neutral wire which quantities would be
same, but they would be differ by 120° (out of phase), hence the vector sum of these
three currents = 0. i.e.
IR + IY + IB = 0 ……………. Victorially
The voltage between any two terminals or Voltage between Line and Neutral (Star
Point) is called Phase voltage or Star voltage. And the voltage between two Lines is
called Line to Line Voltage or Line Voltage.
Delta Connection
In delta connection, there is three wires alone and no neutral terminal is taken.
Normally delta connection is preferred for short distance due to the problem of
unbalanced current in the circuit. The figure is shown below for delta connection. In
the load station, ground can be used as neutral path if required.

63
In this system of interconnection, the starting ends of the three phases or coils are
connected to the finishing ends of the coil. Or the starting end of the first coil is
connected to the finishing end of the second coil and so on (for all three coils) and it
looks like a closed mesh or circuit as shown in fig
In more clear words, all three coils are connected in series to form a close mesh or
circuit. Three wires are taken out from three junctions and the all outgoing currents
from junction assumed to be positive.

Delta or Mesh Connection System is also called Three Phase Three Wire System (3-
Phase 3 Wire) and it is the best and suitable system for AC Power Transmission.

In delta connection, the line voltage is same with that of phase voltage. And the line
current is √3 times of phase current. It is shown as expression below,

ADVANTAGES OF THREE PHASE SUPPLY OVER SINGLE

PHASE
Three phase system has the following advantages as compare to single phase
system:
1. Power to weight ratio of 3-ø alternator is high as compare to 1-ø alternator.
Means for generation for same amount of Electric Power, the size of 3-ø
alternator is small as compare to 1-ø Alternator. Hence, the overall cost of
alternator is reduced for generation of same amount of power. Moreover, of
due to reduction in weight, transportation and installation alternator become
convenient and less space is required to accommodate the alternator in power
house.
2. For electric power transmission and distribution of same amount of power, the
requirement of conductor material is less in 3-ø system as compare to 1-ø
system. Hence, the 3-ø transmission and distribution system is economical as
compare 1-ø system.
3. Let us consider the power produced by single phase supply and 3-phase
supply at unity power factor. Wave form of power produce due 1-phase supply
at unity power factor is shown in figure (C) and Wave form of power produced
due to 3-phase supply is shown in figure (D) below.
64
From power wave forms shown in figure (C) and (D) above it is clear that in 3-
phase system, the instantaneous power is always constant over the cycle results
in smooth and vibration free operation of machine. Whereas in 1-ø system the
instantaneous power is pulsating hence change over the cycle, which leads to
vibrations in machines.
4. Power to weight ratio of three phase induction motor is high as compare to
single phase induction motor. Means for same amount of Mechanical Power,
the size of three phase induction motor is small as compare to single phase
induction motor. Hence, the overall cost of induction motor is reduced.
5. Moreover, due to reduction in weight, transportation and installation of
induction motor become convenient and less space is required to
accommodate the Induction motor.
6. 3-phase induction motor is self-started as the magnetic flux produced by 3-
phase supply is rotating in nature with constant magnitude. Whereas 1-ø
induction motor is not self-started as the magnetic flux produced by 1-ø
supply is pulsating in nature. Hence, we have to make some arrangement to
make the 1-ø induction motor self-started. Which further increase the cost of 1
-øinduction motor.
7. 3-phase motor is having better power factor and efficiency as compare to 1-ø
motor.
8. Power to weight ratio of 3-phase transformer is high as compare to 1-ø
65
 transformer. Means for same amount of Electric Power, the size of 3-phase
transformer is small as compare to 1-ø transformer. Hence, the overall cost of
transformer is reduced. Moreover, due to reduction in weight, transportation
and installation of transformer become convenient and less space is required
to accommodate the transformer.
9. If fault occurs in any winding of 3-phase transformer, the rest of two winding
can be used in open delta to serve the 3-phase load which is not possible in 1-
ø transformer. This ability of 3-phase transformer further increase the
reliability of 3-phase transformer.
10. A 3-phase system can be used to feed a 1-ø load, whereas vice-versa is
not possible.
11. DC rectified from 3-phase supply is having the ripple factor 4% and DC
rectified from 1-ø supply is having the ripple factor 48.2 %. Mean DC rectified
from 3-ø supply contains less ripples as compare to DC rectified from 1-
øsupply. Hence the requirement of filter is reduced for DC rectified from 3-
phasesupply. Which reduce the overall cost of convector.
From above it clear the 3-phase system is more economical, efficient, reliable
and convenient as compare to 1-ø system.

66
 EEC 115
ATOM
An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element which can take part in a
chemical reaction. Atoms are the smallest possible particles of an element that
could exist and still possess the chemical properties of that element. Atoms of
different elements have various shape. The distinction between atom and molecules
of an element is that atoms is the smallest particles which can participate in
chemical reaction while molecule is the smallest particles which normally exist
when the elements is not involved in a chemical reaction.

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF AN ATOM

Atoms are themselves built up from many particles, three of which are of direct
interest to chemist. The three particles which are also regarded as the fundamental
particles are the proton, the electron and the neutron.
According to the electron theory of matter, an atom is made up of tiny particles. The
central part of the atom is known as the nucleus. The nucleus of the atom consists
of particles called protons and neutrons held together in a compact form by a
binding energy. The outer portion of the atom is made up of orbiting particles called
electrons. Electrons normally move about the centre of an atom in paths which are
referred to as shells orbits. Each of these shells can contain only a certain maximum
number of electrons. The central part of the atom shows its nucleus. We should
note that protons are positively charged particles while electrons are negatively
charged particles, since opposite charges attract, the negatively charged electrons
are attracted to the positively charged protons in the
nucleus. Consequently, this electric force of attraction holds the electrons in their
orbit. The number of orbiting electrons normally equals the number of protons in the
nucleus. For that reason an atom is said to be neutrally charged.

PROPERTIES OF FUNDAMENTAL SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

PARTICLES MASS CHARGE

proton 1 unit Positive(+)
Neutron 1 unit Neutral
Electron 1/1840 Negative(-)

THE ARRANGEMENTS OF ELECTRONS AROUND THE NUCLEUS

The arrangement of electrons around the nucleus is known as electronic
configuration. Niels Bohr in 1913 suggested that the electrons in an atom revolve
round the centrally placed nucleus along certain imaginary circular paths called
orbits or shells situated at various distance from the nucleus. These shells is
denoted by letter K,L,M,N,O,P,Q and are associated with definite energy content of
the electron, increasing outwards from the nucleus shell K which is nearest to the
nucleus and has the lowest energy. It contain the least no of electrons which is 2
and can not hold more than 2. The maximum possible no of electrons in a shell
67
numbered n is 2n2 where n is the shell no in the outermost shell of any atom. The
maximum no of electron possible is 8.

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE ATOMS OF HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, AND

SODIUM
ATOM HYDROGEN-1 OXYGEN-2,6, SODIUM-2,8,1
Diagramatic
representation

No of proton 1 8 11
No of electron 1 8 11
No of neutron - 8 12
Electronic k1 k2l6 28 1
klm
configuration

CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTOR

Conductor is a material through which electric current or charges can flow freely.
Metals such as copper typify conductors, while most non-metallic solids are said to
be good insulators, having extremely high resistance to the flow of charge through
them. "Conductor" implies that the outer electrons of the atoms are loosely bound
and free to move through the material. Conductors contain large number of free
electrons. Most atoms which hold on to their electrons tightly are called insulators.
In copper, the valence electrons are essentially free and strongly repel each other.
Any external influence which moves one of them will cause a repulsion of other
electrons which propagates, "domino fashion" through the conductor. Metals, liquid
and plasmas (gases whose molecules are charged) are conductors. Resistivities of
conductor ranges from (10-6 - 10-3Ωm)

Types of conductors and their properties

Many types of materials can conduct electricity. Take these materials listed here
and put them in order from lightest to heaviest with respect to their densities, that is,
weight per unit volume: aluminum, copper, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, water,
zinc.

Insulator
An Insulator is a material or object which resists the flow of heat (thermal insulators)
or electric charge (electrical insulators). The term insulator has the same meaning
as the term dielectric, but the two terms are used in different contexts. The opposite
of insulators are conductors and semiconductors, which permit the flow of charge.
Semiconductors are strictly speaking also insulators, since they prevent the flow of
electric charge at low temperatures, unless doped with atoms that release extra
charges to carry the current). However, some materials (such as silicon dioxide) are
very nearly perfect electrical insulators, which allow flash memory technology. A
68
much larger class of materials, (for example ceramic, polyester, rubber and many
plastics) are "good enough" insulators to be used for home and office wiring (into
the hundreds of volts) without noticeable loss of safety or efficiency. Insulator have
resistivities in the range (109 - 1022Ωm).

Semiconductor
A semiconductor is a material with conductance that is intermediate between that
of an insulator and a conductor. Semiconductor are intermediate in their ability to
conduct charge. A semiconductor behaves as an insulator at very low temperature,
and has an appreciable conductance at room temperature. A semiconductor can be
distinguished from a conductor by the fact that, at absolute zero, the uppermost
filled electron energy band is fully filled in a semiconductor, but only partially filled in
a conductor. The distinction between a semiconductor and an insulator is slightly
more arbitrary. A semiconductor has a band gap which is small enough such that its
conduction band is appreciably thermally populated with electrons at room
temperature, whilst an insulator has a band gap which is too wide for there to be
appreciable thermal electrons in its conduction band at room temperature.
Semiconductor have resistivities in the range (10-3 - 10-9Ωm). example are silicon,
germanium, gallium arsenide.

FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONDUCTOR, INSULATOR AND

SEMICONDUCTOR
The electronic band structure is an energy schema to describe the conductivity of
conductors, insulators, and semiconductors. The schema consists of two energy
bands (valence and conduction band) and the band gap. The valence electrons -
which serve as charge carriers - are located in the valence band, in the ground state
the conduction band is occupied with no electrons. Between the two energy bands
there is the band gap, its width affects the conductivity of materials. The distinction
between conductor, insulator and semiconductor can be made from 2 points of
view (i) valence bond model (ii)energy band model.

i. Valency bond model: semiconducting and insulating materials form strong

chemical bond of the electrovalent, covalent or molecular type . conductor
are mainly metals. Silicon has 4 valence electrons in its outermost shell
with 4 neighbouring atoms or covalent bond.
ii. Energy band model: the discrete energy level of gas atoms merge into
energy bands as the atoms come closer to form a solid. valence band is the
range of energies possessed by conduction of free electrons . The
separation between the two band is known as forbidden energy gap. In the
upper energy band (conduction band) the electrons are free to move
between atoms and become charge carrier. In the lower energy band
(valence band) electrons are tightly bound to their atoms and are free to
move about. In some circumstances it is possible for electron in the lower
69
 band to gain enough energy to jump into the higher band and become a
charge carrier.

In the parlance of solid-state physics, semiconductors (and insulators) are defined

as solids in which at absolute zero (0 K), the uppermost band of occupied electron
energy states, known as the valence band, is completely full. Or, to put it another
way, the Fermi energy of the electrons lies within the forbidden band gap. The Fermi
energy, or Fermi level can be thought of as the energy up to which available electron
states are occupied at absolute zero. At room temperatures, there is some smearing
of the energy distribution of the electrons, such that a small, but not insignificant
number have enough energy to cross the energy band gap into the conduction band.
These electrons which have enough energy to be in the conduction band have
broken free of the covalent bonds between neighbouring atoms in the solid, and are
free to move around, and hence conduct charge. The covalent bonds from which
these excited electrons have come now have missing electrons, or holes which are
free to move around as well. (The holes themselves don't actually move, but a
neighbouring electron can move to fill the hole, leaving a hole at the place it has just
come from, and in this way the holes appear to move.) It is an important distinction
between conductors and semiconductors that, in semiconductors, movement of
charge (current) is facilitated by both electrons and holes. Contrast this to a
conductor where the Fermi level lies within the conduction band, such that the band
is only half filled with electrons. In this case, only a small amount of energy is
needed for the electrons to find other unoccupied states to move into, and hence for
current to flow. The ease with which electrons in a semiconductor can be excited
from the valence band to the conduction band depends on the band gap between
the bands, and it is the size of this energy band gap that serves as an arbitrary
dividing line between semiconductors and insulators. Materials with a band gap
energy of less than about 3 electron volts are generally considered semiconductors,
while those with a greater band gap energy are considered insulators..The current-
carrying electrons in the conduction band are known as "free electrons," although
they are often simply called "electrons" if context allows this usage to be clear. The
holes in the valence band behave very much like positively-charged counterparts of
electrons, and they are usually treated as if they are real charged particles.

When no of atoms is combining then the whole energy levels are dividing in sub
energy levels and become overlapped. They make a band, which is called energy
band. Remember that the energy of free electron is changing continuously. In a solid
there are three type of energy band.

i. FILLED BAND; As clear from its name it is that type of band, which is near to the
nucleus, and it is completely full from electron. In that type of band there are no free
electron.
ii. VALANCE BAND; The last band of the atom is called valance band and the
electron of that band is called valance electron.
70
When valance electron gain some energy then they leave that band and cross the
energy gap which is also called forbidden energy gap and goes to conduction band
then current flow starts from this material. The energy of the valance electron is
more as compare to filled band.

iii. CONDUCTION BAND; When free electrons are escape from its permanent atom
then they to conduction band and such process is called conduction. The electron of
such band is called free electron.

ENERGY BAND STRUCTURE FOR AN INSULATOR

INSULATOR; Insulator is that material in which current does not flows easily e.g.
Wood; paper, plastic, oil, mica etc The reason for insulation is the wide gap between
the valance band and conduction band. A large amount of energy is required to shift
electrons from the valence band in to the conduction band.
In an insulating materials the outer electrons are all shared between atoms to form
bonds; so they are not available as charge carriers (the inner electrons are of course
tightly bound to individual atoms). These bonding or valence electrons have a range
of allowed energies which form a valence band. This valency band is completely
filled, so there are no vacant allowed energy levels which would allow the electrons
to gain energy to form an applied electric field and move from an occupied state in
the atom to an empty state in another. There is another allowed energy band above
the valency band and if electrons could somehow get into this empty band, they
could skip from atom to atom through the structure.

ENERGY BAND STRUCTURE FOR A CONDUCTOR

CONDUCTOR; Conductor is those materials in which current flows easily. For
example silver, ccopper and aluminum etc The reason for the conduction is the
absence of forbidden band, so very small amount of energy is required for the flow
of electric current. There are many free electrons in the conducting materials.
The energy levels of adjacent atoms have spread to form bands that overlap. The
top of the valence band is above the bottom of the conduction band , this means
that electrons in the valence band can easily move to vacant energy levels in the
partially filled conduction band . An applied electric supplies the tiny amount of
energy needed to move electrons from one atom to a vacant state in a conduction
band of an adjacent atom and then accelerate the electrons through the material.
71
 ENERGY BAND STRUCTURE FOR A SEMICONDUCTOR
SEMI CONDUCTOR; Semi conductor are those material which has theconduction
property in between conductor and insulator. It means semi conductor do not allow
the free electron to flow as conductor allow. In the same way semiconductor do not
block the current as insulator do. For example silicon, boron, carbon etc. The reason
for such type of conductor is the small gap between the valence band and
conduction band. Semi conductors have comparatively less free electron than the
conductor.
It has filled valency band and empty conduction band just like an insulator. Infact all
semiconductor are insulator at very low temperature. The band gap however is
much smaller than in material that are insulator at room temperature, as a result
some electrons will be thermally excited into the conduction band where they can
move freely through the material. when this happens the electrons leave holes in the
valence. The holes behave like a positive charge carrier and can also move through
the material. When a potential difference is connected across a semiconductor,
holes and electron drift in opposite direction and both contribute to the current that
flows. The concentration of charge carriers in a typical semiconductor at room
temperature is about 1021m-3 . The concentration of charge carrier in a metal is
about 10 million times greater, this is where semiconductor get their name.

CONCEPT OF CURRENT AND ELECTRON FLOW

At any instant in time, the electrons in a conductor are in random motion. However,
if a directional force e.g. electromotive force EMF from a battery is applied to the
conductor as shown in Fig below, then end A of the conductor is positive while end

72
B is negative. This results in directed flow of electrons. The directional movement of
free electrons is referred to as current flow and the conventional current flow is in
the opposite direction of electron flow as can be seen in the diagram. Normally,
conventional current flow is generally used.

ELECTRIC CURRENT, POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE, ELECTRO-MOTIVE FORCE AND

RESISTANCE

Electric Current(I)
Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charges or electrons round a circuit. It
has a symbol I and is measured in amperes (A). The instrument for measuring
electric current is Ammeter. Ammeter is placed in series when measuring electric
current.

Potential Difference (P.d.)

Potential difference between any two point in a circuit is the workdone in joules
when one coulomb of charge moves from one point to the other. Or the potential
difference between two points in a circuit is defined as the number of joules of
electrical energy transferred from one side of the points to the other with the
passage of one coulomb from one point to another. It is measured in volts (V).
Voltmeter is used to measure p.d. The voltmeter is always placed in parallel when
measuring p.d

Electromotive Force (e.m.f)

Electromotive force of a cell is the potential difference across it when not delivering
current to external circuit. Electromotive force is the force that gives rise to electric
current in a circuit; also it’s the force that makes flow of electric current in a circuit.
This force arises from many effects including chemical (e.g. battery cells) and
magnetic, as (e.g. generator). The unit of electromotive force is the volt, symbol E. it
is measured with a voltmeter.

73
Resistance
It is an opposition to the flow of charge or current. The resistance can be defined as
an opposing force experience by the flow of charge through a material. The
opposition is due to the collision between electrons and other atoms in the material,
and it converts electrical energy into heat energy. The unit of resistance is Ohm (),
and has a symbol R. it is measured with an ohmmeter.

MULTIPLES AND SUBMULTIPLES

Since it is often necessary to describe quantities that exist in large multiples or
submultiples of a unit, therefore standard prefixes are used to denote powers of 10
of SI units. See below table;

Examples
1. Convert 500kiloohm to ohm
1000Ω = 1kΩ
∴ 1000x500 = 500000Ω

2. Convert 0.005A to milliamp

1000Ma = 1A
∴ 0.005/1000 = 5mA

DIRECT CURRENT
An electric current is caused by the motion of electric charge in a conductor when
an electric field (potential gradient is maintained within the conductor). Direct

74
current is obtained from a cell or a battery, while alternating current is obtained from
the mains supply in houses and portable generators.

ANALOGY BETWEEN CURRENT FLOW AND WATER FLOW

WATER FLOW ELECTRIC CURRENT FLOW
1 The flow of water through the pipe, The flow of current through the conductor
ABC is maintained by the source of ABC is maintained by the battery or cell
the water supply which is referred to as th source of the
EMF
2 The pressure at A is equal to The EMF maintains a steady potential
atmospheric pressure due to the gradient along ABC such that the potential
column of water in the cylinder. The at A is higher than that at B which in turn
pressure at C is atmospheric. higher than that at C.
Therefore there is a steady pressure
gradient between A&C along the
pipe.
3 Water flow in the pipe because Electricity flows in the conductor because
difference points along the pipe are different points along the conductor are at
at different pressure. different potential.
4 The rate of flow of water through The rate of flows of electric charges
the pipe depends on the pressure through the conductor depends on the
difference between its ends. potential difference between its ends
5 The rate of flow of water is the The electric current is the same at all point
same at all points along the pipe ; along the conductor; the same quantity of
the quantity of water passes charge passes through A,B,C in unit time.
through A,B or C in unit.

BASIC DC CIRCUIT
DC circuit is a closed path in which an electric current carries energy from a source
such as a battery to load such as a lamp. Example is shown below.

OHMS LAW
Ohms law states that the current flowing through a metallic conductor is
proportional to the potential difference between its ends, provided the temperature
and other physical conditions of the conductor remains constant. It means if
75
different p.d are applied to the same conductor , different current will be found to
flow through the conductor.
If we denote by I, the current flowing through the conductor whose ends are at
different V, then in mathematical form , ohms law.

V=IR
V
R=
I
WHERE R is the resistance of the conductor called the constant.
For metallic conductor ohms law states that R is a constant provided the physical
conditions of the conductor remains unchanged. For such a conductor, a graph of
the p.d against the current is a straight line passing through the origin.

Ohms law is strictly true for metallic conductors. There are other electrical
conductor which do not obey the law. They are referred to as non ohmic conductor.
These include electrolytes, vacuum diodes , junction diodes, thermistor, rectifier,
voltage dependent resistors etc.

RESISTIVITY
Resistivity is the resistance of a unit length with unit cross sectional area of the
material concerned. The S.I unit of resistivity is ohm metre. If L is the length of the
given material and A is the cross sectional area, then R is the resistance.
L L
Rα OR R =ρ
A A

RA
∴ ρ=
L

CONDUCTIVITY
Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity. It is usually denoted by б.
1
Conductivity =
Resistivity
76
 RESISTIVITY OF SOME COMMON SUBSTANCE AT ROOM
TEMPERATURE
MATERIAL RESISTIVITY
Copper 1.8
Iron 11.5
Brass 6.6
NAOH 3.0
Glass 103-107
The resistance of a conductor depends on
(i) the nature of the material
(ii) the size of the sample, length and cross sectional area
(iii) the temperature of the sample

SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUIT

There are two types of electric circuit, series and parallel circuit
 In series circuit the current is not diverted and is the same in each component.
However , the EMF of the cell is shared between the components
 In parallel circuit it has at least two possible branches, the current can be
different in each branch, but it adds up to the current that is drawn from the
cell. The voltage drop across each branch is the same as the EMF of the cell.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUIT

SERIES CIRCUIT PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Same current flows through all parts of Same voltage acts across all parts of the
the circuit circuit
Different resistor have their individual Different resistors have their individual
voltage drop current
Voltage drop are additive Branch current are additive
Applied voltage equal the sum of Total current equal the sum of current
different voltage drops flowing through individual resistor
Resistance are additive Conductance are additive.

RESISTORS IN SERIES

Any resistors in series can be replaced by a single resistor of value Re=R1+R2+R3

77
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

Any resistors in parallel can be replaced by a single resistor of value

1 1 1 1
= + +
Re R1 R2 R3

QUESTIONS
1. What value of resistor could be used to replaced a set of 3,4,5Ω resistors
connected in parallel?
1 1 1 1
= + +
Re R1 R2 R3

1 1 1 1
= + +
Re 2 4 5

Re =1.3 Ω
2. Calculate the value of the single resistor that could replaced the network of
resistors shown below.

78
 1 1 1
R1//R2 , = +
Re R1 R2

1 1 1
= + = 5Ω
Re 10 10

5Ω+5Ω=10Ω

5Ω+5Ω=10Ω

1 1 1 1
= + + = 3.33Ω
Re R1 R2 R3

3. A sample of an ohmic conductor has a voltage drop of 9V measured across it,

the resistance of the sample is 3kΩ. What is the current in the sample?
79
 V = 9V
R = 3kΩ = 3000
V 9
I= = = 3mA
R 3000

4. Two metre resistance wire of cross sectional area of 0.5mm2 has a resistance
of 2.2Ω . calculate (i) the resistivity of the material
(ii) the length of the wire which when connected in parallel with the 2m
length, will give a resistance of 2.0 Ω
Solution
A = 0.50mm2 = 0.50X10-6
R = 2.2Ω
L= 2m
RA
ρ=
L

2.2X0.5X10-6
ρ= = 5.5X10-7Ωm
2

1 1 1
= +
Re R1 R2

1 1 1
= +
2.0 R 2.2

R = 22Ω
20
R∝L, L= X 2 = 20m
2.2
5. Distinguish between an ammeter and a voltmeter. Draw a circuit diagram
showing how you would use them for measuring the current in a lamp and the
p.d across it.

Ammeter is used for measuring electric current and it is always placed in

series
Voltmeter is used for measuring potential difference and it is always placed in
80
 parallel

6. Calculate the resistance of 100m length of a wire having a uniform cross

sectional area of 0.1mm2. if the wire is drawn out to three times its original
length by how many times would you expect this resistance to be increased.
Solution
L = 100m
A= 0.1mm2 = 1.0x10-7m2
ρ = 50x10-8
R0 = ?
L 100
R =ρ = 50X10-8X = 500Ω
A 1.0X10-7

3L = 3X100 =300 & A =A/3

L = 300m
0.1
A= = 0.03333
3
ρ = 50X10-8
R1 = ?
50X10-8X300
R1 = = 4545Ω
3.3X10-8
4545
Ratio of original resistance to new resistance, = 9 times
500

7. The heating element of an electric toaster is made of nichrome tape of

thickness 0.05mm and width 1mm. the length of the tape is 5m. calculate the
resistance of the element. (take resistivity of nichrome to be 1.10x10-6Ωm)
Thickness of nichrome = 0.05mm
Width = 1mm
Resistivity = 1.10x10-6
Length = 5m
Cross sectional area = 0.05x1mm = 0.05x10-6m2
L 5
R =ρ = 1.10X10-6X = 110Ω
A 0.05X10-6

8. A circuit consists of a 1 Ω wire in series with a parallel arrangement of 6 Ω and

3 Ω and a p.d of 12V is connected across the whole circuit. Calculate the
current in each of the 3 wires and the p.d across each.

81
 1 1 1
= +
Re R1 R2

1 1 1
= +
Re 6 3

Re = 2Ω
RT =2+1 =3Ω
V 12
I = = = 4A
R 3
VR = IR =4X1=4V
V1=12v-4v=8v
V1 8
I1 =
= = 1.333A
R1 6
V 8
I2 = 1 = = 2.667A
R2 3
9. A coil consists of 2000turns of copper wire having a cross sectional area of
0.8mm2. the mean length per turn is 80cm and the resistivity of copper is
0.02Ωm. find the resistance of the coil and power absorbed by the coil when
connected across 110V DC power supply.

Given
No of turns =2000
Area = 0.8mm2= 0.8x10-6
80
Length of coil= x 2000 = 1600m
100

L
R =ρ
A
0.02x1600
R=
0.8x 10-6
R = 40Ω
V2
Power absorbed = =
R

82
 1102
=
40
= 302.5W

KIRCHOFF’S LAWS
Kirchoff’s current law(KCL) states that in any electrical network , the algebraic sum
of current meeting at a point or junction is zero. It means that the total current
leaving a junction is equal to the total current entering a junction.

Incoming current = Outgoing current

I1+I5 =I2+I3+I4
I1+I5-I2-I3-I4=0
Kirchoff’s voltage law(KVL) states that the algebraic sum of the product of current
and resistance in each of the conductor in any closed path in a network plus the
algebraic sum of EMF’S in that path is zero. Or the algebraic sum of all voltage
drops and EMF’s in any closed path of a network is always zero. It means the sum
of EMF’s in a network is equal to the voltage drops across all the resistors in the
network.
Using KVL

VR1+VR4+VR2-VR3=E1-E2
I1R1+I2R2-I3R3+I4R4=E1-E2
NOTE: in going around the loop which can be done clockwise or anticlockwise an
EMF is considered positive (+) if the negative (-) terminal of its source is met first. If
the positive terminal is met first, the EMF is considered negative. An IR(voltage drop)
is considered positive if the current in the resistor is in the direction as the path
being followed. If the current direction is opposite to the path, the IR drop is
considered negative.

83
 SOLVED PROBLEMS ON KIRCHOFF’S LAWS
a. (I)Find the unknown current marked in fig.a below
(II)Determine the value of EMF in fig .b

From fig a
I1 = 50A-20A=30A
I2 =20A+35A =35A
I3 =30A-150A = -120A
I4 = 15A+120A =135A
I5 =150A-40A =110A

From fig b
1X2+2X2+2.5X2+1.5X2 = -4+3+6+E
E = 9V
b. Find the current I1,I2,I3 and the voltage across the 3Ω resistor in the circuit
shown in fig. a below, using kirchoff’s voltage and current laws.

Solution

84
Using KCL
I1=I2+I3 …………………………………………………………………eqn 1
Using KVL
From loop 1, ABCEGH 6V =2 I1+6I2
3V =I1+3I2 ………………..eqn 2
From loop 2, ABDFGH 6V =2 I1+3I2………………eqn 3
Substituting eqn 1 into eqn 2, 3v=( I2+I3) + 3I2
3v = I2 + 3I2+I3
3v = 4I2+I3………………..eqn 4
Substituting eqn 1 into eqn 3, 6v=2 I1 + 3I3
6v = 2(I2 + I3)+3I3
6v = 2I2+5I3………………eqn5

X1 3v = 4I2+I3………………..eqn 4
X2 6v = 2I2+5I3………………eqn5
3v = 4I2+I3
12v = 4I2+10I3
3-12 = I3-10I3
-9 =-9I3
I3= 1A, I2= 0.5A, I1 =1.5A
Voltage across 3Ω resistor, V= IR =1X3 =3V

85
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
In a network of linear resistances containing more than one generator or sources of
EMF, the current which flows at any point is the sum of all the current which would
flow at that point if each generator were considered separately and all the other
generators replaced for the time being by resistance equal to their internal
resistances.
The superposition principle is a method that allows us to determine the current
through or the
voltage across any resistor or branch in a network. The advantage of using this
approach instead of Kirchhoff’s laws is that it is not necessary to use determinant or
matrix algebra to
analyze a given circuit.
In order to apply the superposition principle it is necessary to remove all sources
other than the one being examined. In order to ‘’Zero’’ a voltage source, we replace it
with a short circuits, since the voltage across a short circuit is zero volts. A current
source is zeroed by replacing it with an open circuit, since the current through an
open circuit is zero amps.

Example
Determine all the branch currents using the superposition principles in the circuit
shown below.

Solution
To solve this problems we shall follow the steps.
Step I, Re-draw the given circuit diagram with E 1 = 15V and E 2 = OV, as shown in
Fig b below

86
Step II: Next, determine all the branch currents I 1 ’ , I 2 ’ and I 3 ’ indicated in Fig 1b
above ,
With E 1 = 15V and E 2 = OV.
Step III: we find the equivalent resistance of 3Ω resistor and 2Ω resistor connected
in parallel.
i.e. 3Ω //2Ω = 1.2Ω
Step IV: The circuit diagram of Fig above reduces to the form shown in Fig 2 below

Step V: we can apply the Kirchhoff’s Voltage law to the circuit diagram of Fig.2
above to obtain,

Step VI: Turn back to fig (1b) and bear in mind that I1 is the total current that flows
into the 3Ω
resistor branch and 2Ω resistor branch which are in parallel. Applying the principle of
current
division rule, we get

87
Step VII: Draw the corresponding circuit diagram if the original circuit diagram of Fig
(1a) has E1 = OV and E2 = 10V, to produce the circuit diagram shown in Fig.(3)
below

Following all the stages in step II above, we obtain the following results:
(i) R4Ω//R3Ω = (4 X 3) /(4+3)= 1.714Ω
(ii) The resulting equivalent circuit diagram after combing R4Ω and R3Ω in parallel
gives Fig 4 below.

(iii) Applying Ohm’s law to the circuit diagram of Fig 4 above, we get

(iv) with reference to Fig 3, we see that if I3 is to serve as the total current then
according to
KCL then I 1 and I 2 must be seen to flow into node A. For
(v) this to happen the direction I 2 must be opposite to what is indicated in the
diagram of Fig
3. This means that I 2 must bear a negative value. Only I 1 flows into node A.
88
Step VIII: The total branch currents can be obtained by adding up algebraic as
follows:

I1 = I 1 + I1 = 2.885 + 1.154 = 4.039A

I2 = I2 + I 2 = 1.154A – 1.538A = - 0.384A

I3 = I3 + I 3 = 1.731A + 2.693A = 4.424A

Exercise 1 use superposition theorem to find the current I1, I2,I3 in the electrical
network shown below.

EXERCISES
1.Use Kirchhoff’s laws to find the current flowing in the 6Ω resistor of Fig.below and
the
power dissipated in the 4Ω resistor. [2.162A, 42.07W]

89
2. Find the current flowing in the 3Ω resistor for the network shown in Fig.below.
Find also
the p.d. across the 10Ω and 2Ω resistors. [2.715A, 7.410V, 3.948V]

c. For the networks shown in Fig.below, find the values of the currents marked.
[(a) I 1 =4A, I 2 =−1A, I 3 =13A (b) I 1 =40A, I 2 =60A, I 3 =120A I 4 =100A, I 5
=−80A]

d. Find currents I 3 , I 4 and I 6 in Fig.below [I 3 =2A, I 4 =−1A, I 6 =3A]

5. For the circuit shown in Fig.below, find, using the superposition theorem, (a)
the
current flowing in and the p.d. across the 18Ω resistor, (b) the current in the 8V
battery and (c) the current in the 3V battery.[ 2.229A, 2.156A, 0.073A, 1.314V,]

90
 TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE
The temperature coefficient of resistance of a material is defined as the increase in
resistance per ohm original resistance per ◦ C rise in temperature. Or is the increase
in the resistance of a 1Ω resistor of that material when it is subjected to a rise of
temperature of 1◦C. The symbol used for the temperature coefficient of resistance
is α (Greek alpha). Thus, if some copper wire of resistance 1Ω is heated through 1 ◦
C and its resistance is then measured as 1.0043Ω then α=0.0043Ω/Ω◦ C for copper.
The units are usually expressed only as ‘per ◦ C’, i.e. α=0.0043/ ◦ C for copper. If the
1Ω resistor of copper is heated through 100 ◦ C then the resistance at 100 ◦ C would
be 1+100×0.0043=1.43Ω. Some typical values of temperature coefficient of
resistance measured at 0 ◦ C are given below:
Copper 0.0043/ ◦ C
Nickel 0.0062/ ◦ C
Constantan 0
Aluminium 0.0038/ ◦ C
91
 Carbon −0.00048/ ◦ C
Eureka 0.00001/ ◦ C
If the resistance of a material at 0 ◦ C is known the resistance at any other
temperature can be determined from:

Where R0= initial resistance

R1 =Final resistance
Ѳ0 =initial temperature
Ѳ1= final temperature
If the resistance of a coil of insulated copper wire is measured at various
temperatures up to say 200◦ C , it is found to vary as shown in the figure 1 below.

Graph of resistance against temperature

The graph of resistance against temperature is shown in Fig.2. below.

92
EXAMPLE 1. A coil of copper wire has a resistance of 100Ω when its temperature is
0 ◦ C. Determine its resistance at 70 ◦ C if the temperature coefficient of resistance
of copper at 0 ◦ C is 0.0043/ ◦ C.
Resistance R θ =R 0 (1+α 0 θ). Hence resistance at 100 ◦ C,
R 100 = 100[1 + (0.0043)(70)]
= 100[1 + 0.301]
= 100(1.301) = 130.1Ω

93
EXAMPLE 2. An aluminium cable has a resistance of 27Ω at a temperature of 35 ◦ C.
Determine its resistance at 0 ◦ C. Take the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0
◦ C to be 0.0038/ ◦ C.

Resistance at θ ◦ C, R θ =R 0 (1+α 0 θ). Hence resistance at 0 ◦ C,

EXAMPLE 3. A carbon resistor has a resistance of 1KΩ at 0 C. Determine its

resistance at 80 C.
Assume that the temperature coefficient of resistance for carbon at 0 C is -0.0005/
C.

Resistance at temperature Ѳ ◦ C,
RѲ = R0(1+α0Ѳ)
RѲ =1000[1+(-0.0005)(80)]
=1000[1-0.040] = 1000(0.96) = 960

EXAMPLE 4. The resistance of a coil of aluminium wire at 18 ◦ C is 200Ω. The

temperature of the wire is increased and the resistance rises to 240Ω. If the
temperature coefficient of resistance of aluminium is 0.0039/ ◦ C at 18 ◦ C
determine the temperature to which the coil has risen.
Let the temperature rise to θ ◦ C. Resistance at θ ◦ C,
R θ = R 18 [1 + α 18 (θ − 18)]
i.e.
240 = 200[1 + (0.0039)(θ − 18)]
240 = 200 + (200)(0.0039)(θ − 18)
240 − 200 = 0.78(θ − 18)
40 = 0.78(θ − 18)
51.28 = θ − 18, from which,
θ = 51.28 + 18 = 69.28 ◦ C
EXAMPLE 5. Some copper wire has a resistance of 200Ω at 20 ◦ C.A current is
passed through the wire and the temperature rises to 90 ◦ C. Determine the
resistance of the wire at 90 ◦ C, correct to the nearest ohm, assuming that the
temperature coefficient of resistance is 0.004/ ◦ C at 0 ◦ C.

94
EXAMPLE 6: A 60w bulb carries a current of 0.5A when operating on 120v , the
temperature of its tungsten filament is then 1800◦ C. find the resistance at its
operating temperature. Also find its approximate resistance at 20◦ C(temperature
coefficient of tungsten at 20◦ C =4.5x10-3)
Solution
V=IR
V 120
R= = = 240Ω
I 0.5
R = R20 [1 + α Δt]
240= R20 [1 + 4.5x10-3 x1780]
R20 =26.6Ω

EXERCICES
1. A coil of aluminium wire has a resistance of 50Ω when its temperature is 0 ◦ C.
Determine
Its resistance at 100 ◦ C if the temperature coefficient of resistance of aluminium at
0 ◦ C is
0.0038/ ◦ C [69Ω]
2. A copper cable has a resistance of 30Ω at a temperature of 50 ◦ C. Determine its
resistance at 0 ◦ C. Take the temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at 0 ◦ C
as 0.0043/ ◦ C [24.69Ω]
3. The temperature coefficient of resistance for carbon at 0 ◦ C is −0.00048/ ◦ C.
What is the
Significance of the minus sign? A carbon resistor has a resistance of 500Ω at 0 ◦ C.
Determine
95
its resistance at 50 ◦ C. [488Ω]
4. A coil of copper wire has a resistance of 20Ω at 18 ◦ C. If the temperature
coefficient of resistance of copper at 18 ◦ C is 0.004/ ◦ C, determine the resistance
of the coil when the temperature rises to 98 ◦ C [26.4Ω]
5. The resistance of a coil of nickel wire at 20 ◦ C is 100Ω. The temperature of the
wire
is increased and the resistance rises to 130Ω. If the temperature coefficient of
resistance of
nickel is 0.006/ ◦ C at 20 ◦ C, determine the temperature to which the coil has risen.
[70 ◦ C]
6. Some aluminium wire has a resistance of 50Ω at 20 ◦ C. The wire is heated to a
temperature
of 100 ◦ C. Determine the resistance of the wire at 100 ◦ C, assuming that the
temperature
coefficient of resistance at 0 ◦ C is 0.004/ ◦ C. [64.8Ω]
7. A copper cable is 1.2km long and has a cross-sectional area of 5mm2 . Find its
resistance at 80 ◦ C if at 20 ◦ C the resistivity of copper is 0.02×10-6 Ωm and its
temperature coefficient of resistance is 0.004/ ◦ C. [5.95Ω]

96
 ENERGY AND ITS VARIOUS TYPES
ENERGY
Energy is the ability to do work. The SI unit of energy is the Joules. The Joules can
be defined as the work done when a force F of 1N (Newton) acts through a distance
d of 1m in the direction of the force.
Work done = F (Newton) x d (meters)
There are many forms of energy, namely;
Electrical Energy
Mechanical Energy
Thermal Energy
Light Energy
Chemical Energy
Wind Energy
Solar Energy
Atomic Energy, e.t.c.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELECTRICAL, MECHANICAL AND THERMAL

ENERGY
One form of energy can be converted into another by means of a suitable process.
For example, an electric motor converts electric energy into mechanical energy. The
various forms of energies are related by the law of conversation of energy.
The Law of Conversation of Energy states that Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed.
This means that when needs to be converted; the total energy in a system is equal
to the total energy output from the system. For example a car in motion has
mechanical (Kinetic) energy and when the brake are applied for it to come to rest,
this mechanical energy is converted into heat energy and sound energy.

Consider an electric fan. For an electric fan to rotate it takes voltage supplies from
the main
supply and causes the electric motor to rotate. This action in turn causes the blades
of the fan to rotate and produce wind energy (a form of mechanical energy) and
sound energy. In this case, electric energy was converted to mechanical energy and
sound energy.

ELECTRIC ENERGY AND POWER

POWER
97
The unit of power is the watt(W) where one watt is one joule per second. Power is
defined as the rate of doing work or transferring energy. Thus,
W
power, in watts, P=
t

where, W is the work done or energy transferred, in joules, and t is the time, in
seconds. Thus, energy, in joules, W =Pt.
When a direct current of I amperes is flowing in an electric circuit and the voltage
across the circuit is V volts, then power, in watts P =VI
Electrical energy = Power × time
= VIt joules
Although the unit of energy is the joule, when dealing with large amounts of energy,
the unit used is the kilowatt hour (kWh) where
1kWh = 1000watt hour
= 1000 × 3600watt seconds or joules
= 3600000J = 3.6 Mega joules
Power = work done /time taken
Therefore Electric Power can be written as;
P = IV, joules

Or P = I2 R, joules

Or P = V2/R , joules

JOULE’S LAW
Electrical Energy E is the energy required for V volts of electricity to make an electric
current of I amperes to flow through a conductor of resistance R Ohms for a time T
seconds.
E = IVt, joules
2
Or E = I Rt, joules
2
V
Or E= t, joules
R

The above expressions are also known as Joules Law, which states that; The
amount of work required to maintain a current of I amperes through a resistance of
R Ohms, for time t seconds is ; I2 R .

Example 1
An electric motor develops 5KW at the speed of 100rev/min. calculate (a) the work
done in 30mins
(i) in kilowatt hour (ii) in megajoules (b) the torque in N-m.

Solution
(a) (i), Work done in KWh = power(in kw) x time(in hrs)
98
 = 5 x 30/60 = 2.5KWh

ii, work done in mega joules . but 1kwh = 3.6MJ

Therefore w.d. = 2.5 x 3.6 =9MJ

(b) power = 2π x T x n
5000 = 2πT X 1000/60
T = 47.74N-m

Example 2
An electric kettle takes 2KW at 240V. Calculate (a) the current and (b) the resistance
of the heating element.
Solution
(a) I = P/V = 2000/240
I = 8.33A

(b) From P = V2 /R
R = V2 /P = 2402 /2000 = 28.8Ω
Example 3. An electric heater consumes 1.8MJ when connected to a 250V supply
for 30minutes. Find the power rating of the heater and the current taken from the
supply.

Example 4
The power expended in a certain resistor is given by I2 R. If the power expended in
the resistor is 175W when the current is 5A, Calculate the power in the resistor when,
(i) Both current & resistance are double.
(ii) Current is half and resistance double.
(iii) When current is double and resistance half.

99
EXAMPLE 4. A source e.m.f. of 5V supplies a current of 3A for 10minutes. How
much energy is
provided in this time?
Energy=power × time, and power = voltage × current.
Hence
Energy = VIt = 5 × 3 × (10 × 60)
= 9000Ws or J = 9Kj

EXAMPLE 5. A 100W electric light bulb is connected to a 250V supply. Determine (a)
the
current flowing in the bulb, and (b) the resistance of the bulb.

EXAMPLE 6. A current of 5A flows in the windingof an electric motor, the resistance

of the winding being 100Ω. Determine (a) the p.d. across the winding, and (b) the
power dissipated by the coil.

100
EXAMPLE 7. An electric heater consumes 3.6MJ when connected to a 250V supply
for 40minutes. Find the power rating of the heater and the current taken from the
supply.

EXAMPLE 8. Determine the power dissipated by the element of an electric fire of

resistance 20Ω when a current of 10A flows through it. If the fire is on for 6hours
determine the energy used and the cost if 1unit of electricity costs 13p.

EXAMPLE 9. A business uses two 3kW fires for an average of 20hours each per
101
week, and six
150W lights for 30hours each per week. If the cost of electricity is 14p per unit,
determine the weekly cost of electricity to the business.
Energy=power×time.
Energy used by one 3kW firein 20hours =3kW× 20h=60kWh.
Hence weekly energy used by two 3kWfires=2× 60=120kWh.
Energy used by one 150W light for 30hours=150W×30h=4500Wh=4.5kWh.
Hence weekly energy used by six 150W lamps 6=× 4.5=27kWh.
Total energy used per week=120+27=147kWh.
1 unit of electricity=1kWh of energy.
Thus weekly cost of energy at 14p per kWh=14×147=2058p
=£20.58.

EXERCISES
1. Find the conductance of a resistor of resistance (a) 10Ω (b) 2kΩ (c) 2mΩ
[(a) 0.1S (b) 0.5mS (c) 500S]
2. A conductor has a conductance of 50μS.What is its resistance? [20kΩ]
3. An e.m.f. of 250V is connected across a resistance and the current flowing
through the resistance is 4A. What is the power developed? [1kW]
4. 450J of energy are converted into heat in 1minute. What power is dissipated?
[7.5W]
5. A current of 10A flows through a conductor and 10W is dissipated.Whatp.d. exists
across
the ends of the conductor? [1V]
6. A battery of e.m.f. 12V supplies a current of 5A for 2minutes. How much energy is
supplied in this time? [7.2kJ]
7. A d.c. electric motor consumes 36MJ when connected to a 250V supply for 1hour.
Find
the power rating of the motor and the current taken from the supply. [10kW, 40A]
8. The hot resistance of a 250V filament lamp is 625Ω. Determine the current taken
by the
lamp and its power rating. [0.4A, 100W]
9. Determine the resistance of a coil connected to a 150V supply when a current of
(a)75mA
(b) 300 μ A flows through it. [(a) 2kΩ (b) 0.5MΩ]
10. Determine the resistance of an electric fire which takes a current of 12A from a
240V supply. Find also the power rating of the fire and the energy used in 20h. [20Ω,
2.88kW, 57.6kWh]
11. Determine the power dissipated when a current of 10mA flows through an
appliance
having a resistance of 8kΩ. [0.8W]
12. 85.5J of energy are converted into heat in 9s. What power is dissipated? [9.5W]
13. A current of 4A flows through a conductor and 10W is dissipated. What p.d.
exists across the ends of the conductor? [2.5V]
102
14. Find the power dissipated when:
(a) a current of 5mA flows through a resistance of 20kΩ
(b) a voltage of 400V is applied across a 120kΩ resistor
(c) a voltage applied to a resistor is 10kV and the current flow is 4m [(a) 0.5W (b)
1.33W (c) 40W]
15. A battery of e.m.f. 15V supplies a current of 2A for 5min. How much energy is
supplied
in this time? [9kΩ]
16. A d.c. electric motor consumes 72MJ when connected to 400V supply for 2h
30min.
Find the power rating of the motor and the current taken from the supply. [8kW, 20A]
17. A p.d. of 500V is applied across the winding of an electric motor and the
resistance
of the winding is 50Ω. Determine the power dissipated by the coil. [5kW]
18. In a household during a particular week three 2kW fires are used on average 25h
each and
eight 100W light bulbs are used on average 35h each. Determine the cost of
electricity for the week if 1 unit of electricity costs 15p. [£26.70]
19. Calculate the power dissipated by the element of an electric fire of resistance
30Ω when a
current of 10A flows in it. If the fire is on for 30 hours in a week determine the
energy used.
Determine also the weekly cost of energy if electricity costs 13.5p per unit. [3kW,
90kWh, £12.15]

103
 ELECTRIC CHARGE
Electrostatics is the branch of science, which deals with the phenomena associated
with electricity at rest. Under normal circumstances an atom is electrically neutral
which means that the aggregate of positive charge of protons is exactly equal to the
aggregate of negative charge of electrons. But if somehow some electrons are
removed from atoms of body, then it is left with a preponderance of positive charge
and the body is said to be pensively charge. If on the other hand, some electrons
are added to the atoms of a body, then negative charge out-balance thee positive
charge and the body is said to be negatively charged.
Therefore the deficiency of electrons of the atoms in a body makes it to be
positively charged while the excess of electrons of the atoms in a body makes it
negatively charged, so the charge is known as the total deficiency or excess of
electrons in a body and the unit is in Coulomb (abbreviated C).

COULOMBS LAWS OF ELECTROSTATICS

1. First Law: like charges of electricity repels each other, whereas unlike charges
attract each
other.
2. Second Law: the force exerted between two point charges is;
(i) directly proportional to the product of their strength.
(ii) inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
The force of attraction or repulsion between two electrically charged bodies is
proportional to the magnitude of their charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance separating them. This is known as the coulombs laws of
electrostatics and can be expressed mathematically as;

104
 Q1Q2
F = K where k is a constant of
d2
proportionality
1
K=
4πε0

Example 1
Calculate the electrostatic force of repulsion between two alpha particles when at a
distance of 10-13 meters from each other. The charge of an alpha particle is 3.2 X 10
-19
c.
Solution:

105
Example 2
Calculate the distance of separation between two electrons for which the electric
-19
force between them is O.1N. Charge of election is 16 X 10 C.

Example 3. Calculate the electrostatic force of repulsion between two α-particles

when at a
distance of 10-13 m from each other. Charge of an α-particles is 3.2 × 10-19 C. If mass
of each
particle is 6.68 × 10-27 N-m2 /kg 2 .

Example 4. The small identical conducting spheres have charges of 2.0 × 10-9 and -
0.5 ×10-9 respectively. When they are placed 4 cm apart, what is the force between
them ? If they are
brought into contact and then separated by 4 cm, what is the force between them ?

DEFINATION OF TERMS USED IN ELECTROSTATICS

Electric fields
106
Electric fields are region through which electric force is being experienced or felt. It
is a region where a force acts on a charged body placed in the region. An electric
field is represented by a line of force. The line of force in an electric field show the
path along which a charged particle would move in the field. The direction shown on
a line of force is the direction along which a free positive test charge would move. In
an electric field, if the lines of force are close to each other, it denotes a strong field.
Fig .a--------- electric field pattern around a positive point charge
Fig. b------electric field pattern between two unlike charges

(a)
Electric field strength
The electric field strength is the total voltage acting on a field per length of the line
(field). Electric field strength E at a point in an electric field is the force per unit
charge on a positive test charge placed at that point.
force f
Electric field strength E = =
charge q
It is a vector quantity . its direction is the direction of the force on a positive test
charge placed at that point. The unit of electric field strength or intensity is newton
per coulomb or volt per meter.

The electric field strength, symbol E, in the dielectric is given by the equation E =
V/d, (V/m)
When a P.d of V volts is applied between two metals plates or electrodes, which are
d meters apart an electric field is established between the plates. The arrangement
in fig below is referred to as parallel–plate capacitor. The medium separating the
plates is an insulator, and it is known as the dielectric. A feature of the capacitor is
that they are capable of storing energy, and this energy is stored in the dielectric
material of the capacitor.

Electric flux density

Electric flux density D is the amount of flux passing through a defined area A that is
perpendicular to the direction of the flux. One line of electric flux is assumed to
107
emanate from a positive charge of one coulomb, hence Q lines of flux emanate from
a charge of Q coulomb. Therefore, Electric flux = Q, it is equal to the stored charge. If
the flux passes through a dielectric of area A (the area being measured
perpendicular to the direction of the flux), then the electric flux density is the amount
of electric flux passing through a small area A at right angle to the flux per unit area,
it has symbol D. Mathematically

Permittivity
The permittivity, symbol e, of a dielectric material is a measure of the ability of the
material to allow an electric flux to be established in it. It has the dimensions of
farad per meters’ (f/m). For a given value, a material with a high value of
permittivity produces a greater electrostatic flux than does a material with a lower
value of permittivity for a simple parallel-plate capacitor.

Permittivity of free space

In electrostatics, the ratio of the electric flux density in a vacuum to the electric field
strength is termed the permittivity of free space and is represented by the symbol εo.
Hence,

Relative permittivity
Relative permittivity (εr) is the ratio of the absolute permittivity to the permittivity of
free space. Note that εr has no dimension because ε and ε0 have the same units.

Electric potential
The electric potential v at a point in an electric field is the workdone to move a unit
positive charge from infinity to the point. The electric potential at infinity is assumed
to be zero. Electric potential is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is the volt which is
equivalent to joule per coulomb.

CAPACITANCE
Capacitance is the property of a capacitor to store electric charge or electricity. It
consist of two conducting plates. A capacitor is an arrangement which has the
ability to store electricity as excess of positive charges on one plate and deficiency
of it on the other. Therefore the property of a capacitor to store electric charge when
its plates are at different potentials is reflected to as its capacitance.

108
The unit of capacitance is termed the farad (symbol f) and farad can be defined as
the capacitance of a capacitor between the plates of which there appears a
difference of potential of 1 volt when it is charged by 1 coulomb of electricity.
Q=CV
Capacitance of Parallel Plate Capacitors in terms of Area, the distance between
Plates and permittivity of the dielectric

Example 1
Two conducting plates are arranged parallel to each other and spaced 1.5mm apart.
If the plates are charged until the potential difference between them is 150V, what is
the electric field strength between the plates?

Example 2
Two plates, each of area 5cm2 , are placed parallel to each other and very close
together, and a
charge of 15 X 10-8 C is stored on the plates. Calculate the electric flux density in the
space between the plates.
Solution

Example 3
Calculate the charge expected on a 400uF capacitor which is connected to a 100V
source.
Solution

CAPACITOR CONNECTIONS
Parallel connection
Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential difference
(voltage). The reason for putting capacitors in parallel is to increase the total
amount of charge stored. In other words, increasing the capacitance we also

109
increase the amount of energy that can be stored. The total capacitance (Ceq) is
given by:

Series connection
The current through capacitors in series stays the same, but the voltage across
each capacitor
can be different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total
voltage.
The reason for putting capacitors in series we get less capacitance and less charge
storage
than with either alone (the total voltage is divided between the number of
capacitors).

In parallel, the total charge stored is the sum of the charge in each capacitor. While
in
series, the charge on each capacitor is the same. the total capacitance is given by:

ENERGY STORE IN A CAPACITOR

If a capacitor having capacitance C farads is charged at a constant current of I
amperes for t seconds, as in the figure below, the charge Q is It coulombs.

110
 Practical types of capacitor
Practical types of capacitor are characterized by the material used for their dielectric.
The main types include: variable air, mica, paper, ceramic, plastic, titanium oxide and
electrolytic.
1. Variable air capacitors. These usually consist of two sets of metal plates
(such as aluminium), one fixed, the other variable. The set of moving plates
rotate on a spindle as shown by the end view of Fig.below.

As the moving plates are rotated through half a revolution, the meshing, and
therefore the capacitance, varies from a minimum to a maximum value.
Variable air capacitors are used in radio and electronic circuits where very low
losses are required, or where avariable capacitance is needed. The maximum
value of such capacitors is between 500pF and 1000pF.
2. Micacapacitors.Atypicaloldertypeconstruction is shown in Fig. below

111
 Usually the whole capacitor is impregnated with wax and placed in a bakelite
case. Mica is easily obtained in thin sheets and is a good insulator. However,
mica is expensive and is not used in capacitors above about 0.2 μ F.A
modified form of mica capacitor is the silvered mica type. The mica is coated
on both sides with a thin layer of silver which forms the plates. Capacitance is
stable and less likely to change with age. Such capacitors have a constant
capacitance with change of temperature, a high working voltage rating and a
long service life and are used in high frequency circuits with fixed
values of capacitance up to about 1000pF.

3. Paper capacitors. A typical paper capacitor is shown in Fig. below where the
length of the roll corresponds to the capacitance required.

The whole is usually impregnated with oil or wax to exclude moisture, and
then placed in a plastic or aluminium container for protection. Paper
capacitors are made in various working voltages up to about 150kV and are
used where loss is not very important. The maximum value of this type of
capacitor is between 500pF and 10 μ F. Disadvantages of paper capacitors
include variation in capacitance with temperature change and a shorter
service life than most other types of capacitor.
4. Ceramic capacitors. These are made in various forms, each type of
construction depending on the value of capacitance required. For high values,
a tube of ceramic material is used as shown in the cross section of Fig. 17.
For smaller values the cup construction is used as shown in Fig. 18,and for
still smaller values the disc construction

112
 shown in Fig.19 is used. Certain ceramic materials have a very high
permittivity and this enables capacitors of high capacitance to be made which
are of small physical size with a high working voltage rating. Ceramic
capacitors are available in the range 1pF to 0.1 μ F and may be used in high
frequency electronic circuits subject to a wide range of temperatures.

5. Titanium oxide capacitors have a very high capacitance with a small physical
size when used at a low temperature.
6. Electrolytic capacitors. Construction is similar to the paper capacitor with
aluminium foil used for the plates and with a thick absorbent material, such as
paper, impregnated with an electrolyte (ammonium borate), separating the
plates. The finished capacitor is usually assembled in an aluminium container
and hermetically sealed. Its operation depends on the formation of a thin
aluminium oxide layer on the positive plate by electrolytic action when a
suitable direct potential is maintained between the plates.
This oxide layer is very thin and forms the dielectric. (The absorbent paper
between the plates is a conductor and does not act as a dielectric.) Such
capacitors must always be used on d.c. and must be connected with the
correct polarity; if this is not done the capacitor will be destroyed since the
oxide layer will be destroyed. Electrolytic capacitors are manufactured with
working voltage from 6V to 600V, although accuracy is generally not very high.
These capacitors possess a much larger capacitance than other types of
capacitors of similar dimensions due to the oxide film being only a few
microns thick. The fact that they can be used only on d.c. supplies limit their
usefulness.

Discharging capacitors
When a capacitor has been disconnected from the supply it may still be charged and
it may retain this charge for some considerable time. Thus precautions must be
taken to ensure that the capacitor is automatically discharged after the supply is
switched off. This is done by connecting a high value resistor across the capacitor
113
terminals.
Exercise : Short answer questions on capacitors and capacitance
1. What is a capacitor?
2. State five practical applications of capacitors
3. Explain the term ‘electrostatics’
4. Complete the statements: Like charges ...... ; unlike charges ......
5. How can an ‘electric field’ be established between two parallel metal plates?
6. What is capacitance?
7. State the unit of capacitance
8. Complete the statement: Capacitance=············
9. Complete the statements: (a) 1 μ F= ...F (b) 1pF= ...F
10. Complete the statement: Electric field strength E =············
11. Complete the statement: Electric flux density D=············
12. Draw the electrical circuit diagram symbol for a capacitor
13. Name two practical examples where capacitance is present, although
undesirable
14. The insulating material separating the plates of a capacitor is called the ......
15. 10 volts applied to a capacitor results in a charge of 5 coulombs. What is the
capaci-
tance of the capacitor?
16. Three 3 μ F capacitors are connected in parallel. The equivalent capacitance is. ...
17. Three3 μ Fcapacitorsareconnectedinseries. The equivalent capacitance is. ...
18. State a disadvantage of series-connected capacitors
19. Name three factors upon which capacitance depends
20. What does ‘relative permittivity’mean?
21. Define ‘permittivity of free space’
22. What is meant by the ‘dielectric strength’of a material?
23. State the formula used to determine the energy stored by a capacitor
24. Namefivetypesofcapacitorcommonlyused
25. Sketch a typical rolled paper capacitor
26. Explain briefly the construction of a variable air capacitor
27. State three advantages and one disadvantage of mica capacitors
28. Name two disadvantages of paper capacitors
29. Between what values of capacitance are ceramic capacitors normally available
30. What main advantages do plastic capacitors possess?
31. Explain briefly the construction of an electrolytic capacitor
32. Whatisthemaindisadvantageofelectrolytic capacitors?
33. Name an important advantage of electrolytic capacitors
34. What safety precautions should be taken when a capacitor is disconnected from
a
supply?

114
EXAMPLE 1
Two capacitors, A and B, of capacitance 2µF and 4µF respectively, are connected in
series to a dc supply; the charge store by each capacitor is 0.16mc. Determine:
(a) the p.d across each capacitor
(b) the energy stored in each capacitor
(c) the effective capacitance of the series combination.

Example 2
Three capacitors C1, C2 and C3 are connected in parallel to give an equivalent
capacitance of 2uF. If the d.c. supply to the parallel combination of the capacitors is
20V, the capacitance of C1 is 0.5uF and the charge stored by C2 is 4?C, determine
the capacitance of C2 and C3.

Solution

115
Example 3. (a) Determine the p.d. across a 4 μ F capacitor when charged with 5mC
(b) Find the
charge on a 50pF capacitor when the voltage applied to it is 2kV.

Example 4. A direct current of 4A flows into a previously uncharged 20 μ F capacitor

for 3ms.
Determine the p.d. between the plates.

Example 5. A 5 μ F capacitor is charged so that the p.d. between its plates is 800V.
Calculate how long the capacitor can provide an average discharge current of 2mA.

116
Example 6. Calculate the equivalent capacitance of two capacitors of 6 μ F and 4 μ
F connected (a) in parallel and (b) in series.

Example 7. What capacitance must be connected in series with a 30 μ F capacitor

for the
equivalent capacitance to be 12 μ F?

Example 8. Capacitance’s of 1 μ F, 3 μ F, 5 μ F and 6 μ F are connected in parallel to

a direct
voltage supply of 100V. Determine (a) the equivalent circuit capacitance, (b) the
total charge
and (c) the charge on each capacitor.

117
Example 9. Capacitance’s of 3 μ F, 6 μ F and 12 μ F are connected in series across a
350V supply. Calculate (a) the equivalent circuit capacitance, (b) the charge on each
capacitor, and (c) the p.d. across each capacitor.

118
119
 Exercise
Problems on capacitors and capacitance
1. Find the charge on a 10 μ F capacitor when the applied voltage is 250V. [2.5mC]
2. Determine the voltage across a 1000pFcapacitor to charge it with 2 μ C. [2kV]
3. The charge on the plates of a capacitor is 6mC when the potential between them
is 2.4kV.
Determine the capacitance of the capacitor.[2.5 μ F]
4. For how long must a charging current of 2A be fed to a 5 μ F capacitor to raise the
p.d. between its plates by 500V. [1.25ms]
5. A direct current of 10A flows into a previously uncharged 5 μ F capacitor for 1ms.
Determine
the p.d. between the plates. [2kV]
6. A 16 μ F capacitor is charged at a constant current of 4 μ A for 2min. Calculate
the final
p.d .across the capacitor and the corresponding charge in coulombs. [30V,480 μ C]
7. A steady current of 10A flows into a previously uncharged capacitor for 1.5ms
120
when
the p.d. between the plates is 2kV. Find the capacitance of the capacitor. [7.5 μ F]
8. Capacitors of 2 μ F and 6 μ F are connected (a) in parallel and (b) in series.
Determine
the equivalent capacitance in each case. [(a) 8 μ F (b) 1.5 μ F]
9. Find the capacitance to be connected in series with a 10 μ F capacitor for the
equivalent
capacitance to be 6 μ F [15 μ F]
10. What value of capacitance would be obtained if capacitors of 0.15 μ F and 0.10
μ F are
connected (a) in series and (b) in parallel [(a) 0.06 μ F (b) 0.25 μ F]
11. Two 6 μ F capacitors are connected in series with one having a capacitance of
12 μ F. Find
The total equivalent circuit capacitance. What capacitance must be added in series
to obtain
a capacitance of 1.2 μ F? [2.4 μ F, 2.4 μ F]
12. Determine the equivalent capacitance when the following capacitors are
connected (a) in
parallel and (b) in series:
(i) 2 μ F, 4 μ F and 8 μ F
(ii) 0.02 μ F, 0.05 μ F and 0.10 μ F
(iii) 50pF and 450pF
(iv) 0.01 μ F and 200pF
[(a) (i) 14 μ F (ii) 0.17 μ F (iii) 500pF (iv) 0.0102 μ F (b) (i) 1.143 μ F (ii) 0.0125 μ F(iii)
45pF (iv) 196.1pF]
13. For the arrangement shown in Fig. below find (a) the equivalent circuit
capacitance and
(b) the voltage across a 4.5 μ F capacitor. [(a) 1.2 μ F (b) 100V]

14. Three 12 μ F capacitors are connected in series across a 750V supply. Calculate
(a)the
equivalent capacitance, (b) the charge on each capacitor and (c) the p.d. across
each
capacitor. [(a) 4 μ F (b) 3mC (c) 250V]
15. If two capacitor sharing capacitances of 3 μ F and 5 μ F respectively are
connected in series

121
across a 240V supply, determine (a) the p.d. across each capacitor and (b) the
charge on
each capacitor. [(a) 150V, 90V (b) 0.45mC on each]
16. In Fig. below capacitors P, Q and R are identical and the total equivalent
capacitance of
the circuit is 3 μ F. Determine the values of P, Q and R [4.2 μ F each]

17. Capacitances of 4 μ F, 8 μ F and 16 μ F are connected in parallel across a 200V

supply.
Determine (a) the equivalent capacitance,(b)the total charge and
(c)thechargeoneach
capacitor. [(a) 28 μ F (b) 5.6mC (c) 0.8mC, 1.6mC, 3.2mC]
18. A circuit consists of two capacitors P and Q in parallel, connected in series with
another
capacitor R. The capacitances of P, Q and R are 4 μ F, 12 μ F and 8 μ F respectively.
When
the circuit is connected across a 300V d.c. supply find (a) the total capacitance of
the
circuit, (b) the p.d. across each capacitor and (c) the charge on each capacitor.
[(a) 5.33 μ F (b) 100V across P, 100V across Q, 200V across R (c) 0.4mC on P,
1.2mC on Q, 1.6mC on R]
19. For the circuit shown in Fig. below, determine (a) the total circuit capacitance, (b)
the total
energy in the circuit, and (c) the charges in the capacitors shown as C 1 and C 2
[(a) 0.857 μ F, (b) 1.071mJ (c) 42.85 μ C on each]

122
 ABRAHAM ADESANYA POLYTECHNIC, IJEBU-IGBO
PMB 1020, IJEBU IGBO, OGUN STATE

CENTRE FOR PART-TIME STUDIES(CEPATS)

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY/DEPARTMENT OF ELECT/ELECT. ENGR.

FIRST SEMESTER EXAMINATION 2016/2017 SESSION

COURSE TITLE: ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE 2

COURSE CODE: EEC125 TIME:
2:00 HRS
LEVEL: ND II ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC ENG. & COMPUTER ENGINEERING
INSTRUCTION: ANSWER ANY FIVE QUESTION

1a. Define the following terms: (i)Magnetic flux (ii)Magnetic flux density (iii)Reluctance
(iv)Magnetomotive force
8mks
b. A coil of 300 turns is wound uniformly on a ring of non magnetic material. The ring
has a mean circumference of 40cm and a uniform cross sectional area of 4cm2. If
the current in the coil is 5A. calculate (i)The magnetic field strength (ii) The flux
density (iii)The total magnetic flux in the ring (take µo=4πx10-7).
6mks

2a. State Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction.

4mks

123
 b. A coil of resistance 100Ω is placed in a magnetic field of 1 mWb. The coil has 100
turns and a galvanometer of 400Ω resistance is connected in series with it. Find the
average e.m.f. and the current if the coil is moved in 1/10th second from the given
field to a field of 0.2mWb.
6mks
c. State 4 application of Electromagnetic Induction
4mks

3a. Explain the following terms (i) Self Inductance (ii) Mutual Inductance (iii)
Coefficient of self inductance (iv) Coefficient of mutual induction
8mks
b. The field winding of a d.c. electromagnet is wound with 960 turns and has
resistance of 50 Ω when the exciting voltages is 230 V, the magnetic flux linking the
coil is 0.005Wb. Calculate (i) the self-inductance of the coil and (ii)the energy stored
in the magnetic field. 6mks

4a. State five analogies between magnetic circuit and electrical circuit
5mks
b. A closed magnetic circuit of cast steel contains a 6cm long path of cross sectional
area 1 cm2 and a 2cm path of cross sectional area 0.5 cm2. A coil of 200 turns is
wound uniformly around the 6cm length of the circuit and a current of 0.4A flows.
Determine the flux density in the 2cm path, if the relative permeability of the cast
steel is 750. (take µo=4πx10-7) 9mks

5a.Explain the difference between single phase and three phase supply
6mks

b. An Alternating voltage has the equation 282.8sin314t . What are the values of (i)
RMS voltage (ii) Frequency (iii)Instantaneous voltage when t= 4ms
8mks

6a.Define the following terms as applied to AC theory (i) Frequency (ii) Period
3mks

b. A coil of resistance 5Ω and inductance 120mH in series with a 100 μF capacitor, is

connected to a 300V, 50Hz supply. Calculate

(i) the reactance of the capacitor

(ii) the reactance of the inductor
(iii) the impedance of the circuit

(iv) the current flowing in the circuit

(v )phase angle between the supply voltage and current

124
 11mks

7a. Differentiate between a magnetic circuit and electric circuit

5mks

b. State the laws of parallel current

4mks

c. Two coils of inductances 4 and 6 Henry are connected in parallel. If their mutual
inductance is 3 Henry, calculate the equivalent inductance of the
combination if (i) mutual inductance assists the self-inductance (ii) mutual
inductance opposes the self-inductance 5mks

EEC125 MARKING GUIDE

1a
(i)Magnetic flux(Ø); is a group of magnetic field lines emitted outward from the
north pole of a magnet.
2mks

125
(ii)Magnetic flux density(β); is the amount of magnetic flux per unit area of a
section , perpendicular to the direction of flux .
2mks

(iii)Reluctancy(S); it is the magnetic resistance of a magnetic circuit to the presence

of magnetic flux. The opposition offered to magnetic line of force or flux by a
magnetic circuit is called its reluctance.
2mks

(iv)Magnetomotive force(MMF);is the property of certain substance or phenomenon

that give rise to magnetic field. It is also any physical force that produces magnetic
flux. It tends or drives flux through a magnetic circuit.
2mks

1b
SOLUTION

GIVEN

I=5A

N=300 Turns

A=4 cm2=4x10-4 m2

L=40cm=40x10-2 m

µo=4πx10-7

NI
(a)magnetic field strength, H=
L

300x5
= = 3750A/m
40x10-2
2mks

(b)for a magnetic material µr=1, hence the flux density, β=µoH

β=µoH=4πx10-7x3750

=4.712Mt
2mks

126
 (c)flux, Ø = βA = 4.712x10-3x4x10-4

=1.885µwb
2mks

2a
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
First Law.
It states whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an e.m.f. is
always induced in it. or
Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is induced in that conductor.
2mks

Second Law.
It states that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of
flux-linkages.
2mks

2b
Solution.
N(Φ2-Φ1)
Induced e.m.f. =
t
1/2mk
100(0.001-0.0002)
=
0.1
= 0.8 V
2mks
Total circuit resistance = 100 + 400 = 500 Ω
1mk
V= IR
1/2mk
V 0.8 -3
∴ Current induced = = = 1.6 × 10 A = 1.6 mA
R 500
2mks

2c

APPLICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

I. they are used in electric generators
II. they are used in the design of electric motors
III. they are used in the design of transformer
127
Iv they are used in the design of relays/ contactor
4mks

3a
Self-inductance is the property of the coil due to which it opposes any increase or
decrease or current of flux through it.
2mks

Mutual Inductance is defined as the ability of one coil (or circuit) to produce an
e.m.f. in a nearby coil by induction when the current in the first coil changes.
2mks

Coefficient of Self-induction (L)

The coefficient of self-induction of a coil is defined as the weber-turns per ampere in
the coil
By ‘weber-turns’ is meant the product of flux in webers and the number of turns with
which the flux is linked.
2mks

Coefficient of Mutual inductance(M)

The coefficient of mutual inductance between the two coils is defined as the weber-
turns in one coil due to one ampere current in the other.
2mks

3b

128
 4a
ANALOGY BETWEEN MAGNETIC CIRCUIT AND ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

MAGNETIC CIRCUIT ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

mmf EMF
(1) Flux= Current =
reluctance Resistance
1 1
(2) permeance = Conductance=
reluctance resistance
(3) Mmf(Ampere Turn) Emf(Volts)
(4) Flux Ø (Weber) Current(I) (Ampere)
(5) Flux density β (Wb/m2) Current density (A/m2)
(6) Hopkinson’s law Ohms law
(7) Magnetic field β Current density
1 1
(8) permeability = Conductivity=
relucivity resistivity
(9) relucivity resistivity
(10) Total MMF=ØS1+ ØS2+ ØS3+……. Total EMF=IR1+IR2+IR3+………
1 1 1
(11) Reluctance s= = Resistance R=Ƿ
µA µoµr A

Any five 5mks

4b
-2
GIVEN; L1=6cm=6x10 m

L2=2cm=2x10-2m

129
 A1=1 cm2=1x10-4 m2

A2=0.5 cm2=0.5x10-4 m2

µr for steel=750

β=?, Ø=?

µo=4πx10-7

L1
S1 = =
µoµrA1
6x10-2
(4πx10-7)x(750)x(1x10-4 )

=6.366x105A/wb
2mks

L2
S2 = =
µoµrA2
2x10-2
(4πx10-7)x(750)x(0.5x10-4 )

=4.244x105A/wb
2mks

Total reluctance , ST= S1 +S2 = (6.366+4.244)x105 =10.61x105A/wb

1mk

mmf mmf NI
ST= , Ø= =
Ø S S

200X0.4
Ø= =7.54x10-5wb
10.61x105
2mks

Ø 7.54x10-5
Flux density, β = = = 1.51T
A 0.5x10-4
2mks

5a

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SINGLE PHASE AND 3 PHASE

SUPPLY

1. In single phase supply, the power flows through one conductor whereas the three
phase supply consists three conductors for power supply.
2. The single phase supply requires two wires (one phase and one neutral) for completing
130
the circuit. The three phase requires three phase wires and one neutral wire for completing
the circuit.
3. The single phase supplies the voltage up to 230V whereas the three phase supply
carries the voltage up to 415V.
4. The maximum power is transferred through three phases as compared to single phase
supply.
5. The single phase has two wire which makes the network simple whereas the three
phase network is complicated as it consists four wires.
6. The single phase system has only one phase wire, and if the fault occurs on the network,
then the power supply completely fails. But in three phase system the network has three
phases, and if the fault occurs on any one of the phases, the other two will continuously
supply the power.
7. The efficiency of the single phase supply is less as compared to three phase supply.
Because the three phase supply requires less conductor as compared to single phase
supply for the equivalent circuit.
8. The single phase supply requires more maintenance and become costly as compared to
three phase supply.
9. The single phase supply is mostly used in the house and for running the small loads.
The three phase supply is used in large industries and for running the heavy loads.
Any five 5mks
5b
(a)The general expression for an alternating voltage is V=V m sin(ωt ±φ).
Comparing v = 282.8sin314t with this general expression gives the peak voltage
as 282.8V.
Hence the r.m.s. voltage = 0.707×maximum value
= 0.707×282.8=200V

2mks

6a

Period
Period is the time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle. For
example, a 50-Hz alternating current has a time period of 1/50 second.
131
2mks
Frequency
The number of cycles made per second is called the frequency of the alternating
quantity. Its unit is hertz (Hz).
2mks

6b

7a
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MAGNETIC CIRCUIT AND ELECTRICAL
CIRCUIT
132
 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
1 Flux does not actually flow Electric current flows in electric circuit
2 Reluctance of magnetic circuit does At constant temperature the resistance of an
depend on flux and hence flux density electric circuit is constant and is independent
established. of the current strength or current density
3 In magnetic circuit, energy is needed Flow of current in an electric circuit involves
only for creating the flux initially but not continuous expenditure of energy
for maintaining it
4 There is no loss of energy due to Electric current through the resistance
reluctance in magnetic circuit causes
energy loss in form of heat
5 There is hardly any material which can There are many materials which are fairly bad
be conductor of electricity
considered as insulator of magnetic
flux
6 Permeability of any magnetic material Conductivity of different materials are
does not largely vary from material to different that means it greatly varies from
material material to material
7 For a particular temperature the But in case of conductivity, it is fixed and
permeability depends upon the flux independent of current density at a particular
density or total amount of flux temperature
Any
five five 5mks
7b
LAWS OF PARALLEL CURRENT
(i)Two parallel conductors attract each other if current through them flow in the same
direction and repel each other if current through them flow in opposite direction.
2mks
(ii)The force between two such parallel conductors is proportional to the product of the
current strengths and the length of the conductor considered and varies inversely as
distance between them.
2mks
µoI1I2L
F=
2πd
7c

133
 ABRAHAM ADESANYA POLYTECHNIC, IJEBU-IGBO
FIRST SEMESTER EXAMINATION NDI 2016/2017 SESSION
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

..........................................................................................................................................

COURSE TITLE: ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE 1

COURSE CODE: EEC115 TIME: 2:00
HRS
LEVEL: ND I ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC ENG. & COMPUTER ENGINEERING
INSTRUCTION: ANSWER ANY FIVE QUESTION

1a. Define energy and state its various form

6mks
b. The power expended in a certain resistor is given by I2 R. If the power expended in
the resistor is 175W when the current is 5A, Calculate the power in the resistor
when,
(i) Both current & resistance are double.
(ii) Current is half and resistance double.
(iii) When current is double and resistance half.
8mks

2a. Define the following terms and state the unit in which they are measured: (i)Electric
current (ii)Potential Difference (iii)Electromotive force (iv)Resistance
8mks

b. Two metre resistance wire of cross sectional area of 0.5mm2 has a resistance of
2.2Ω. Calculate (i) the resistivity of the material
(ii)the length of the wire which when connected in parallel with the 2m length, will
give a resistance of 2.0 Ω
6mks

3a. Define Capacitance of a capacitor and list the different types

4mks
b. Two capacitors, A and B, of capacitance 2µF and 4µF respectively, are connected in
series to a dc supply; the charge store by each capacitor is 0.16mc. Determine:
(i) the p.d across each capacitor
(ii) the energy stored in each capacitor
(iii) the effective capacitance of the series combination.
10mks

4a. State five analogies between water flow and current flow
5mks
b. A circuit consists of a 1 Ω wire in series with a parallel arrangement of 6 Ω and 3 Ω
and a p.d of 12V is connected across the whole circuit. Calculate the current in each
134
 of the 3 wires and the p.d across each using ohms law
9mks

5a. For the network shown in Fig.below, find the values of the currents marked
5mks

b. State kirchoff’s laws

4mks

c. Differentiate between conductor, insulator and semiconductor

5mks

6a.Define the following terms (i)Electric field strength (ii)Electric flux density (iii)Electric
potential

(iv)Electric field
8mks

b. The small identical conducting spheres have charges of 2.0 × 10-9 and -0.5 ×10-9
respectively. When they are placed 4 cm apart, what is the force between them ? If
they are brought into contact and then separated by 4 cm, what is the force between
them ? 6mks

7a. State the coulomb’s laws of electrostatic

4mks

b. If two batteries are connected in parallel, one of EMF 6V and internal resistance 0.5Ω
and the other of EMF 8V and internal resistance 0.6Ω, and in turn connected to an
135
 external 10Ω resistor. Find the current in each resistor using kirchoff’s laws
10mks

MARKING GUIDE EEC115

1a

Energy is the ability to do work. The SI unit of energy is the Joules.

2mks

There are many forms of energy, namely;

Electrical Energy
Mechanical Energy
Thermal Energy
Light Energy
Chemical Energy
Wind Energy
Solar Energy
136
Atomic Energy any four
4mks

1b

2a

(i) Electric Current(I)

Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charges or electrons round a circuit. It
has a symbol I and is measured in amperes (A). The instrument for measuring
electric current is Ammeter.
2mks

(ii) Potential Difference (P.d.)

Potential difference between any two point in a circuit is the workdone in joules
when one coulomb of charge moves from one point to the other. Or the potential
137
difference between two points in a circuit is defined as the number of joules of
electrical energy transferred from one side of the points to the other with the
passage of one coulomb from one point to another. It is measured in volts (V).
2mks

(iii) Electromotive Force (e.m.f)

Electromotive force of a cell is the potential difference across it when not delivering
current to external circuit. Electromotive force is the force that gives rise to electric
current in a circuit; also it’s the force that makes flow of electric current in a circuit.
2mks

(iv) Resistance
It is an opposition to the flow of charge or current. The resistance can be defined as
an opposing force experience by the flow of charge through a material. The unit of
resistance is Ohm (), and has a symbol R. it is measured with an ohmmeter.
2mks

2b

Solution
2 -6
A = 0.50mm = 0.50X10
R = 2.2Ω
1mk
L= 2m
RA
ρ=
L

2.2X0.5X10-6
ρ = = 5.5X10-7Ωm
2
2mks

1 1 1
= +
Re R1 R2

1 1 1
= +
2.0 R 2.2

R = 22Ω
1mk
20
R∝L, L = X 2 = 20m
2.2
2mks

3a
Capacitance is the property of a capacitor to store electric charge or electricity. It
138
consist of two conducting plates.
1mks
2b(ii)
Types of capacitor
I. Ceramic capacitor
II. Mica capacitor
III. Polyester capacitor
IV. Tantalum capacitor
V. Electrolytic capacitor/ paper capacitor any
three 3mks

3b

4a

ANALOGY BETWEEN CURRENT FLOW AND WATER FLOW

139
 WATER FLOW ELECTRIC CURRENT FLOW
1 The flow of water through the pipe, The flow of current through the conductor
ABC is maintained by the source of the ABC is maintained by the battery or cell which
water supply is referred to as th source of the EMF
2 The pressure at A is equal to The EMF maintains a steady potential
atmospheric pressure due to the gradient along ABC such that the potential at
column of water in the cylinder. The A is higher than that at B which in turn higher
pressure at C is atmospheric. than that at C.
Therefore there is a steady pressure
gradient between A&C along the pipe.
3 Water flow in the pipe because Electricity flows in the conductor because
difference points along the pipe are at different points along the conductor are at
different pressure. different potential.
4 The rate of flow of water through the The rate of flows of electric charges through
pipe depends on the pressure the conductor depends on the potential
difference between its ends. difference between its ends
5 The rate of flow of water is the same The electric current is the same at all point
at all points along the pipe ; the along the conductor; the same quantity of
quantity of water passes through A,B charge passes through A,B,C in unit time.
or C in unit.

5mks

4b

1 1 1
= +
Re R1 R2

1 1 1
= +
Re 6 3

Re = 2Ω
RT =2+1 =3Ω
1mk
V 12
I = = = 4A
R 3
2mks
VR = IR =4X1=4V
1mk
V1=12v-4v= 8v
1mk
V1 8
I1 = = = 1.333A
R1 6
2mks
140
 V1 8
I2 = = = 2.667A
R2 3
2mks

5a
I1 = 100A-60A = 40A
1mk

I2 = 10A+50A = 60A
1mk

I3 = 100A+20A = 120A
1mk

I4 = 120A-20A = 100A
1mk

I5 = 20A-100A = -80A
1mk

5b

KIRCHOFF’S LAWS
Kirchoff’s current law(KCL) states that in any electrical network , the algebraic sum of
current meeting at a point or junction is zero. It means that the total current leaving a
junction is equal to the total current entering a junction.
2mks

Kirchoff’s voltage law(KVL) states that the algebraic sum of the product of current and
resistance in each of the conductor in any closed path in a network plus the algebraic sum
of EMF’S in that path is zero. Or the algebraic sum of all voltage drops and EMF’s in any
closed path of a network is always zero.
2mks
5c
Conductor Insulator Semiconductor
The conductivity of conductor The conductivity of insulator The conductivity of
is very high. is very low. semiconductor is
moderate.
It has very low resistivity. It has very high resistivity. It has moderate resistivity.
It has no forbidden gap. It has large forbidden gap It has small forbidden gap.
Conductor has positive Insulator has negative Semiconductor has negative
141
temperature coefficient of temperature coefficient of temperature coefficient of
resistance. resistance. resistance
In conductor, both the effect of In insulator, effect of In semiconductor, effect of
resistance and temperature are resistance is decreases and resistance is decreases and
increases effect of temperature is effect of temperature is
increases. increases.
There is large number of There is small number of There is moderate number of
electrons available for electrons available for electrons
conduction. conduction. available for conduction.
Examples: Paper, Mica glass. Silicon, Germanium.
Metals, aluminium, copper.

5mks
6a
(i )The electric field strength is the total voltage acting on a field per length of the
line (field). Electric field strength E at a point in an electric field is the force per unit
charge on a positive test charge placed at that point.
force f
Electric field strength E = =
charge q
2mks

(ii) Electric flux density

Electric flux density D is the amount of flux passing through a defined area A that is
perpendicular to the direction of the flux.
2mks

(iii)Electric potential
The electric potential v at a point in an electric field is the workdone to move a unit
positive charge from infinity to the point.
2mks

(iv)Electric fields
Electric fields are region through which electric force is being experienced or felt. It
is a region where a force acts on a charged body placed in the region. An electric
field is represented by a line of force.
2mks

6b

142
 7a
COULOMBS LAWS OF ELECTROSTATICS
1. First Law: like charges of electricity repels each other, whereas unlike charges
attract each
other.
2mks
2. Second Law
The force of attraction or repulsion between two electrically charged bodies is
proportional to the magnitude of their charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance separating them.
2mks

7b

E1=I3R3-I1r1
6 = 10 I3-0.5 I1………………………eqn 1
1mk
E2=I3R3+I2r2
8 = 10 I3+0.6 I2………………………eqn 2
1mk
Applying KCL to junction A in fig above
I2=I1+I3……………………………………….eqn 3
1mk
Substituting I2 into eqn 2
8 = 10 I3+0.6(I1+I3)
8 = 10 I3+0.6I1+0.6I3
143
 8 = 10.6 I3+0.6I1…………… eqn 4
1mk

6 = 10 I3-0.5 I1 x10.6
8 = 10.6 I3+0.6I1 x10
106 I3-5.3 I1 = 63.6
_ 106 I3+6 I1 = 80
...............................................................

-5.3 I1-6 I1=63.6-80

-11.3 I1= -16.5
I1= -16.5/-11.3 = 1.450A
2mks
From 6 = 10 I3-0.5 I1
6 = 10 I3-0.5 (1.450)
6 = 10 I3-0.725
6+0.725 =10 I3
6.725=10 I3
I3=6.725/10 = 0.6725A
2mks
I2=I1+I3 =1.45+0.6725
=2.1225A
2mks
ABRAHAM ADESANYA POLYTECHNIC, IJEBU-IGBO
FIRST SEMESTER EXAMINATION NDI 2016/2017 SESSION
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC ENGINEERRING

COURSE TITLE: ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE II

COURSE CODE: EEC125 TIME: 2:00
HRS
LEVEL: ND I ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC ENG. & COMPUTER ENGINEERING
INSTRUCTION: ANSWER ANY FIVE QUESTIONS

1a. Define the following terms (i) Magnetic flux (ii)Magnetic flux density
(iii)Magnetic field strength (iv) Reluctance
8mks
b. A coil of 300 turns is wound uniformly on a ring of non magnetic material. The ring has
a mean circumference of 40cm and a uniform cross sectional area of 4cm2. If the current
in the coil is 5A. Calculate (i)the magnetic field strength (ii)the flux density (iii)the total
magnetic flux in the ring (take µo=4πx10-7)
6mks

2a. State faradays laws of electromagnetic induction

4mks
b. Two coils with a coefficient of coupling of 0.5 between them are connected in series so
as to magnitise (a) in the same direction (b) in the opposite direction. The corresponding
values of total inductances are for (a) 1.9H and for (b) 0.7H. Find the self inductance of
144
the two coils and the mutual inductance between them.
10mks

3a. State 5 analogies between magnetic circuit and electrical circuit

5mks
b. A closed magnetic circuit of cast steel contains a 6cm long path of cross sectional
2 2
area 1 cm and a 2cm path of cross sectional area 0.5 cm . A coil of 200 turns is wound
uniformly around the 6cm length of the circuit and a current of 0.4A flows. Determine the
flux density in the 2cm path, if the relative permeability of the cast steel is 750. (take
µo=4πx10-7). 9mks

4a. Define the following terms as applied to alternating quantity (i) Frequency (ii) Period
(iii) Amplitude (iv) cycle
8mks
b. An alternating voltage is given by V=282.8sin314t volts . Find (i) the RMS voltage, (ii)
the frequency and (iii) the instantaneous value of voltage when t= 4ms
6mks

5a. Define the following terms (i) Self inductance (ii) Mutual inductance (iii)coefficient of
self induction (iv) coefficient of mutual inductance
8mks
b. The field winding of a DC electromagnet is wound with 960 turns and has a resistance
of the 50 ohm when the exciting voltage is 230V , the magnetic flux linking the coil is
0.005wb. Calculate
(i) the current flowing in the coil (ii) the self inductance of the coil (iii) the energy stored in
the magnetic field
6mks

6a. State the laws of parallel current

3mks

. b. State 4 properties of (i)Soft magnetic materials (ii) Hard magnetic materials

8mks
c. Mention 3 application of electromagnetism
3mks

7a. Explain the difference between single phase and three phase supply
5mks b. State the advantages of three phase supply over single phase supply
5mks
c.(i) Cal. the reactance of a coil of inductance 0.32H when it is connected to a 50Hz supply
2mks
(ii)A coil has a reactance of 124Ω in a circuit with a supply of frequency 5kHz. Determine
the inductance of the coil
2mks
MARKING GUIDE EEC125

1a

Magnetic flux(Ø); is a group of magnetic field lines emitted outward from the north pole of
145
a magnet.

The S.I unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb)

2MKS

Magnetic flux density(β); is the amount of magnetic flux per unit area of a section ,
perpendicular to the direction of flux .

Ø
Where β =
A

The S.I unit is weber per square metre ( wb/m2 ) which is equal to one tesla(T).
2MKS

Magnetic field strength(H); magnetic field strength at any point within a magnetic field is
numerically equal to the force experienced by a N-pole of one weber placed at that point.
2MKS

Reluctancy(S); it is the magnetic resistance of a magnetic circuit to the presence of

magnetic flux. The opposition offered to magnetic line of force or flux by a magnetic
circuit is called its reluctance The unit is A/wb.
2MKS

1b

SOLUTION

GIVEN

I=5A

N=300 Turns

A=4 cm2=4x10-4 m2

L=40cm=40x10-2 m

µo=4πx10-7

NI
(a)magnetic field strength, H=
L

300x5
= = 3750A/m
40x10-2
2mks

(b)for a magnetic material µr=1, hence the flux density, β=µoH

146
 β=µoH=4πx10-7x3750

=4.712Mt
2mks

(c)flux, Ø = βA = 4.712x10-3x4x10-4

=1.885µwb
2mks

2a

First Law.
It states whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an e.m.f. is
always induced in it. or
Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is induced in that conductor.
2mks
Second Law.
It states that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of
flux-linkages.
2mks
2b
L = l1+l2+2M
1.9 = l1+l2+2M………………………………eqn 1
1mk
L = l1+l2-2M
0.7 = l1+l2-2M………………………………eqn 2
1mk
Subtracting eqn 2 from eqn 1 1.2= 4M
M= 0.3H
1mk
substituting m into eqn 1
M=k l1l2
0.3
l1l2 = = 0.6
0.5
l1l2 = 0.36
1mk
substituting m into eqn 1
0.7 = l1+l2-2(0.3)
147
 0.7 = l1+l2-0.6
1.3 = l1+l2 ………………………………eqn3
1mk
1.3 - l1 = l2
l1l2 =(1.3 - l1 )l1 = 0.36
1mk
1.3l1 - l1 2 =0.36
l1 2 - 1.3l1+ 0.36 =0
1mk
Using Alnighty formula
l1 = 0.9 H or 0.4H
3mk

3a
ANALOGY BETWEEN MAGNETIC CIRCUIT AND ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

MAGNETIC CIRCUIT ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

mmf EMF
(1) Flux= Current =
reluctance Resistance
1mk
1 1
(2) permeance = Conductance=
reluctance resistance
1mk
(3) Mmf(Ampere Turn) Emf(Volts)
1mk
(4) Flux Ø (Weber) Current(I) (Ampere)
1mk
(5) Flux density β (Wb/m2) Current density (A/m2)
1mk
148
(6) Hopkinson’s law Ohms law
(7) Magnetic field β Current density
1 1
(8) permeability = Conductivity=
relucivity resistivity
(9) relucivity resistivity
(10) Total MMF=ØS1+ ØS2+ Total EMF=IR1+IR2+IR3+………
ØS3+…….
1 1 1
(11) Reluctance s= = Resistance R=Ƿ
µA µoµr A
b
-2
GIVEN; L1=6cm=6x10 m

L2=2cm=2x10-2m

A1=1 cm2=1x10-4 m2

A2=0.5 cm2=0.5x10-4 m2

µr for steel=750

β=? Ø=?

µo=4πx10-7

L1
S1 = =
µoµrA1
6x10-2
(4πx10-7)x(750)x(1x10-4 )

=6.366x105A/wb
2mks

L2
S2 = =
µoµrA2
2x10-2
(4πx10-7)x(750)x(0.5x10-4 )

=4.244x105A/wb
2mks

Total reluctance , ST= S1 +S2 = (6.366+4.244)x105

=10.61x105A/wb
1mks

mmf mmf NI
ST= , Ø= =
Ø S S
149
 200X0.4
Ø= =7.54x10-5wb
10.61x105
2mks

Ø 7.54x10-5
Flux density, β = = =1.51T
A 0.5x10-4
2mks

4a
Frequency
The number of cycles made per second is called the frequency of the alternating
quantity. Its unit is hertz (Hz).

2mks
Period
Period is the time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle.
2mks

Amplitude
The maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating quantity is known as its
amplitude.
2mks

Cycle is one complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quantity.
2mks

B
(a)The general expression for an alternating voltage is v=V m sin(ωt ±φ).
Comparing, v = 282.8sin314t with this general expression gives the peak
voltage as 282.8V.
Hence the r.m.s. voltage = 0.707×maximum value
=0.707×282.8= 200V
2mks

150
 5a
(i) Self inductance is property of the coil due to which it opposes any increase or
decrease or current of flux through it.
2mks

(ii)Mutual inductance is defined as the ability of one coil (or circuit) to produce an
e.m.f. in a nearby coil by induction when the current in the first coil changes.
2mks

(iii)The coefficient of self-induction of a coil is defined as the weber-turns per

ampere in the coil.
2mks

(iv)The Coefficient Of Mutual Inductance between the two coils is defined as the
weber-turns in one coil due to one ampere current in the other.
2mks

151
 6a
LAWS OF PARALLEL CURRENT
(i)Two parallel conductors attract each other if current through them flow in the
same direction and repel each other if current through them flow in opposite
1
direction. 1 mks
2
(ii)The force between two such parallel conductors is proportional to the product of
the current strengths and the length of the conductor considered and varies
inversely as distance between them.
1
1 mks
2
µoI1I2L
F=
2πd

b
PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

HARD MAGNETIC MATERIAL SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIAL

1 They are good permanent magnet They are not a good magnetic material
2 They have high coercivity (coercivity They have low coercivity (coercivity is
is higher than 1000A/m) lower than 1000A/m)
3 They are materials that are able to They are materials that are not able to
keep their magnetism permanently keep their magnetism after switching off
the magnetic field
4 They have high residual induction They have low residual induction

152
 8mks
c
APPLICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETISM

(i) Used in the design of electric motor

(ii) Used in the design of transformer

(iii) Used in the design of electric generators, alternator

7a
THREE PHASE AND SINGLE PHASE SUPPLY
In single phase circuit, there will be only one phase, i.e the current will flow through only
one wire and there will be one return path called neutral line to complete the circuit while
Three phase circuit is the polyphase system where three phases are send together from
the generator to the load. Each phase are having a phase difference of 120°, i.e 120° angle
electrically.

153
The three phase system can be used as three single phase line so it can act as three single
phase system.
5mks

b
ADVANTAGES OF THREE PHASE SUPPLY OVER SINGLE PHASE
Three phase system has the following advantages as compare to single phase system:
1. Power to weight ratio of 3-ø alternator is high as compare to 1-ø alternator.
2. The 3-ø transmission and distribution system is economical as compare 1-ø system.
3. Power to weight ratio of three phase induction motor is high as compare to single
phase induction motor.
4. Moreover, due to reduction in weight, transportation and installation of induction
motor become convenient and less space is required to accommodate the Induction
motor.
5. 3-phase induction motor is self-started as the magnetic flux produced by 3- phase
supply is rotating in nature with constant magnitude. Whereas 1-ø induction motor is
not self-started as the magnetic flux produced by 1-ø supply is pulsating in nature.
6. 3-phase motor is having better power factor and efficiency as compare to 1-ø motor.
7. Power to weight ratio of 3-phase transformer is high as compare to 1-ø transformer.
Means for same amount of Electric Power, the size of 3-phase transformer is small
as compare to 1-ø transformer.
8. If fault occurs in any winding of 3-phase transformer, the rest of two winding can be
used in open delta to serve the 3-phase load which is not possible in 1-ø transformer.
9. A 3-phase system can be used to feed a 1-ø load, whereas vice-versa is not possible.
10.DC rectified from 3-phase supply is having the ripple factor 4% and DC rectified from
1-ø supply is having the ripple factor 48.2 %. Mean DC rectified from 3-ø supply
contains less ripples as compare to DC rectified from 1-øsupply.
Any 5mks

154
WEEK 6 EXPERIMENT 6
VERIFICATION OF KIRCHOFF’S LAWS
TITLE :- Kirchhoff’s Current Law
OBJECTIVE : To verify Kirchhoff current law
APPARATUS : (I) Variable DC power supply
(II) Voltmeter(0-15V)
(III) 4 Milliameters
(IV) Resistor R 1 = 1KΩ, Resistor R 2 = 2.2KΩ, Resistor R 3 = 4.7KΩ
PROCEDURES :-
STEP (I); Firstly attach the DC power supply module to your experimental set. Make
the
circuit connections as in given Fig. below.

STEP (II) Connect the Voltmeter in parallel and Ammeters in series as shown above.
STEP (III) Vary the voltage from 1 to 10V by turning the DC variable power supply
knob.
STEP (IV) Apply the voltages given below to your circuit respectively and
measure the current values for every step. Write your measurements into the
table below.
MEASURED VALUE CALCULATED VALUE
V(VOLTS) I1 I2 I3 I (mA) I1+I2+I3 I1 I2 I3 I (mA) I1+I2+I3
(mA) (mA) (mA) (mA) (mA) (mA) (mA) (mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1. Are the currents entering and the currents leaving equal? Is KCL dependent on
currents and voltage values?
2. Calculate the value of the current in each resistor and write down the results in
the table.
3. Compare the calculated values with the measured ones.

155
WEEK 7 EXPERIMENT 7
VERIFICATION OF KIRCHOFF’S LAWS
TITLE :- Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
OBJECTIVE : To verify Kirchhoff Voltage law
APPARATUS : (I) Variable power supply
(II) Voltmeter
(III) Milliammeter
(IV) Resistor R 1 = 1KΩ, Resistor R 2 = 2.2KΩ, Resistor R 3 = 4.7KΩ
(V) Breadboard
PROCEDURES :-
STEP (I); Firstly attach the DC power supply module to your experimental set. Make
the
circuit connections as shown in Fig. below.

STEP (II) Connect the Voltmeter in parallel and Ammeter in series as shown above.
STEP (III) Vary the voltage Vs from 1 to 10V by turning the DC variable power
supply knob.
STEP (IV) Apply the voltages given below to your circuit respectively and
measure the
current values for every step. Write your measurements into the table
below.
STEP(V) Verify that the sum of the voltage drops on the resistors corresponds to
the voltage V S .
MEASURED VALUE CALCULATED VALUE
Vs(VOLTS) ImA V1 V2 V3 Vs VI+V2+V3 ImA V1 V2 V3 Vs V1+V2+V3

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

156
9
10
1. Are the sum of voltage drops equal to Vs? What conclusion can you drawn from
this?
2. Calculate the values of the voltage drops on the resistors and write down the
results in the table.
3. Compare the calculated values with the measured ones.

157
WEEK 5 EXPERIMENT 5
VERIFICATION OF OHM’S LAWS
TITLE :- Verification Of Ohm’s Laws
OBJECTIVE : (i) To determine the relationship between the voltage across a resistor
and the
current flowing through it
APPARATUS : (I) Variable DC power supply
(II) Voltmeter(0-15V)
(III) Milliameters
(IV) Resistor R 1 = 2KΩ,
(V) Breadboard
PROCEDURES :-
STEP (I); Firstly attach the DC power supply unit to your experimental setup. Make
the
circuit connections as shown in Fig. below.

STEP (II) Connect the Voltmeter in parallel and Ammeter in series as shown above.
STEP (III) Vary the voltage from 1 to 10V by turning the DC variable power supply
knob.
STEP (IV) Apply the voltages given below to your circuit respectively and
measure the current values for every step. Write your measurements into the
table below.
V(VOLTS) MEASURED CALCULATED
I(mA) (ImA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
I. Calculate the value of the current in each step and write down the results in
the table.
II. Compare the calculated values with the measured ones.
III. Are the currents measured and the currents calculated equal? Is current
and voltage values dependent?

158
IV. Plot a graph of V against I measured and determine the slope of the graph.
V. A voltage of 12v across a lamp produces a current of 0.2A. Cal. The
resistance of the filament of the lamp.

159
WEEK 1 EXPERIMENT 1
MEASUREMENT OF BASIC ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES
TITLE :- Measurement Of Basic Electrical Quantities such as Voltage and Current
OBJECTIVES : (i) To measure voltage using voltmeter
(ii) To measure electric Current using Ammeter
(III) Resistor 1k

APPARATUS : (I) Variable DC power supply

(II) Digital Multimeter/ Voltmeter/ Ammeter

MEASURING VOLTAGE USING MULTIMETER USED AS VOLTMETER

PROCEDURES :-
STEP (I); Plug the black probe into COM and the red probe into VmAΩ

STEP (II) Set the multimeter to “2V” in the DC (direct current) range.
STEP (III) Connect the black probe to the battery’s ground or ‘-’ and the red probe to
power
or ‘+’.
STEP(IV) Squeeze the probes with a little pressure against the positive and negative
160
 terminals of the AA battery.
Note: If you’ve got a fresh battery, you should see around 1.5V on the display (this battery is brand
new, so its voltage is slightly higher than 1.5V).

STEP(IV) Repeat the steps for PP3 battery.

Note: If you’ve got a fresh battery, you should see around 9V on the display (this battery is brand
new, so its voltage is slightly higher than 9V).

Write your measurements into the table below.

MEASURED
VOLT
AA Battery
PP3 Battery

MEASURING CURRENT USING MULTIMETER USED AS AN AMMETER

PROCEDURES :-
STEP (I); Connect the simple circuit shown in the figure below

STEP (II) Connect the ammeter or Multimeter terminals to one end of the resistor
1kΩ and
to the source.
STEP (III) Switch on the DC power supply and adjust to 5V .

STEP(IV) Set the multimeter to 200mA. Make sure the red probe is plugged into the
200mA
fused port.
161
Note: However, if your circuit will be using close to or more than 200mA, switch your probe to the
10A side, just to be safe. Overloading the current can result in a blown fuse rather than just an
overload display
STEP(IV) Record your reading in the table below

MEASURED
CURRENT

162
WEEK 2

EXPERIMENT 2
MEASUREMENT OF BASIC ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES
TITLE :- Measurement of basic electrical quantities such as resistance
OBJECTIVE : (i)To determine the ohmic value and tolerance of resistor using colour
code table
(ii)To measure the value of resistor using Multimeter used as ohmmeter.
APPARATUS : (I) Digital Multimeter
(II) Different value of resistors R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9 & R10

PROCEDURES :-
STEP (I); Record the colour code , resistance value and tolerance of resistors R1
through
R10 in the table. Use colour code chart shown below.

STEP (II) Set the Multimeter (Ω) function and measure the actual value of each
resistor
as shown in fig. below.

163
STEP (IV) Enter the values under measured value in the table below.
STEP (III) Compare the specified value with the measured value.

RESISTOR COLOUR INDICATED MEASURED TOLERANCE

CODE VALUE VALUE
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
R10

164
WEEK 3 EXPERIMENT 3
SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUIT
TITLE :- Resistance in Series and Parallel
OBJECTIVE : (i)To measure and calculate the resistance in series.
APPARATUS : (I) Digital Multimeter
(II) Variable DC power supply
(III) Milliammeter
(IV) Resistor R1= 2k, R2= 5k , R3= 1k
(v) Breadboard
PROCEDURES :-
STEP 1 Connect resistors R1, R2 in series.

STEP 2 Measure the total resistance in the circuit using multimeter set to ohm
range.
STEP 3 Add one more Resistor R3 to the circuit you connected in step 1 and
repeat step 2

165
 STEP 4 Repeat step 3 till R6 is used
STEP 5 Setup the circuit shown below and set the power supply voltage to 10V by
turning
the DC variable power supply knob.

STEP 6 Measure the current flowing.

STEP 7 Add one more Resistor R3 in series to the circuit you connected in step 5
and
repeat step 6 till R6 is used.

STEP 8 Record your readings in the table below .

STEP 9 Record your observation.
No RESISTOR IN SERIES TOTAL CURRENT (ImA)
RESISTANCE(Ω)
1 R1+R2
2 R1+R2+R3
3 R1+R2+R3+R4
4 R1+R2+R3+R4+R5
5 R1+R2+R3+R4+R5+R6

166
WEEK 4 EXPERIMENT 4
SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUIT
TITLE :- Resistance in Series and Parallel
OBJECTIVE : (i)To measure and calculate the resistance in parallel.
APPARATUS : (I) Digital Multimeter
(II) Variable DC power supply
(III) Milliammeter
(IV) Resistor R1= 2k, R2= 5k , R3= 1k
(v) Breadboard
PROCEDURES :-
STEP 1 Connect resistors R1, R2 in parallel.

167
 STEP 2 Measure the total resistance in the circuit using multimeter set to ohm
range.
STEP 3 Add one more Resistor (e.g R3) to the circuit you connected in step 1 and
repeat
step 2

STEP 4 Repeat step 3 till R6 is used

STEP 5 Setup the circuit shown below and set the power supply voltage to 10V by
turning
the DC variable power supply knob.

STEP 6 Measure the current flowing.

STEP 7 Add one more Resistor ( e.g R3) in parallel to the circuit you connected in
step 5
and repeat step 6 till R6 is used.

168
 STEP 8 Record your readings in the table below .
STEP 9 Record your observation.
N RESISTOR IN TOTAL VOLTAG CURREN CURREN TOTAL
o PARALLEL RESISTAN E (V) CURREN T (I2) T(I3) mA CURRENT
CE T (I1) mA mA (ImA)
1 R1//R2
2 R1//R2//R3
3 R1//R2//R3//R4
4 R1//R2//R3//R4//R5
5 R1//R2//R3//R4//R5//
R6

WEEK 8 EXPERIMENT 8
RESISTIVITY
TITLE :- Resistivity of a material
OBJECTIVE : To verify resistivity of a material
APPARATUS: (I) A length of a given resistance wire
(II) Digital multimeter
(III) Meter rule
(IV) Micrometer gauge
PROCEDURES :-
I. Measure the length of the given resistance wire
II. Measure the diameter, d of the material by a micro meter gauge
III. Compute the cross sectional area using the formula A = πd2 /4
IV. Set the digital multimeter to a suitable ohmmeter range and connect across the

169
 resistance wire at various lengths as shown in fig 8 below.
V. Start with a length of 10cm, 20cm, etc and tabulate the result in the form shown in
the table below.
VI. Plot a graph of RA (Ωnm2 ) against L(cm) and find the slope of the graph.
VII. Comment on the results in step VI.

Fig. 8
WEEK 9 EXPERIMENT 9
ELECTRICAL POWER
TITLE :- Experimental determination of power in a d.c circuit
OBJECTIVE : To determine the power in a d.c circuit.
APPARATUS:
I. DC Ammeter
II. DC Voltmeter
III. Different values of resistor R

Theory :
The power of a resistor can be determined in a dc circuit under any of the following
conditions:
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 I. if the resistance of the resistor is unknown, but the voltage (V) across the resistor
and
current (I) through the resistor can be measured. i.e Power P = IV, watts.
II. if the resistance (R) if the resistor and the current through it are known to give, P =
I2R (watts).
III. if the resistance (R) of the resistor and the voltage across it are known to give P =
V2 /R (watts)

PROCEDURES :-
(i) Connect the circuit shown in fig. 9 below with the voltmeter V across the resistor R
and the ammeter A in series with it.
(ii) Use the ammeter to record the current, I (Ampere) through the resistor and the
voltmeter to record the P.d. (volts) across the resistor.
(iii) Determine and record the value of R (in ohms) before the commencement of the
experiment.

Fig.9

RESULT ANALYSIS:-
Calculate the power P, across the resistor using each and all the formulae stated above.

WEEK 10 EXPERIMENT 10

CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF CAPACITOR

TITLE :- Charging and discharging current of a capacitor
OBJECTIVE : To determine charging and discharging of a capacitor
APPARATUS:
(I) Potentiometer
(II) Ammeter
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 (III) Power supply

PROCEDURES :-
Capacitor charging
Suppose we have an initially uncharged capacitor C (i.e. having zero voltage across it) in
Figure 10 below and we begin to move the wiper of the potentiometer towards the upper
end X. As this happen the potential difference across the capacitor C gradually increase,
and consequently the amount of charge stored by the capacitor also increase according to
the expression,. Q = CV, in order words, as the slider of the potentiometer moves upwards
X, so the upper plate of C becomes more positively charged with respect to point X which
is
earthed (i.e. at zero potential).

Fig. 10
Capacitor discharge current
Let us refer to fig. 10 and assume that the capacitor C has been fully charged to the
maximum voltage, E volts of the d.c supply. Once again we bear in mind that the slide of
the potentiometer must have point X for the potential difference across the capacitor to
be E volts. (the maximum value). Now, if the slide of the potentiometer is moved
downwards from X towards position Y (i.e. zero potential), then the capacitor begins to
discharge current from the upper plate of the capacitor (previously at a higher potential)
through the ammeter and the potentiometer to the position T. Under this condition, the
current flows through the ammeter in the opposite direction.

WEEK 11 EXPERIMENT 11
TESTING A CAPACITOR
TITLE :- Capacitor in a circuit
OBJECTIVE : To test capacitor by observing their charging and discharging using an
ohmmeter.
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APPARATUS:
I. Multimeter/ Ohmmeter
II. Capacitor

Capacitor is a device that stores energy in the electric field created between a pair of
conductors on which equal but opposite electric charges have been placed. Capacitance is
a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that more
charge can be stored.
Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol (F). However 1F is very large, so prefixes are
used to show the smaller values.

PROCEDURE:
I. Connect the circuit as below.
II. Read the ohmmeter and record the conditions of the capacitor which are:

a. If the ohmmeter reading move toward zero and then slowly returns to infinity means the
capacitor is in a good condition.
b. If the ohmmeter move towards zero and remain at zero means the capacitor is short
circuited .
c. If the reading doesn’t change and remains at infinity means the capacitor is open
circuited.

III. Replace the capacitor and repeat step 1 and 2.

IV. Repeat step 3 until all capacitors are tested.

FIG. 12

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 LABORATORY
MANUAL

EEC115

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
174
SCIENCE I

LABORATORY
MANUAL

EEC125

175
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
SCIENCE II

WEEK 1 EXPERIMENT 1

INDUCTANCE OF A COIL
TITLE :- Inductance of a coil
OBJECTIVE : To measure and test the inductor using ohmmeter
APPARATUS:
I. Ohmmeter.
II. Several types of inductors.

Theory:
Inductors are measured in Henrys (H), when current flow through an inductor a magnetic
field is created and can be measured using an ohmmeter.

Fig.1
PROCEDURE:

I. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 1 above.

II. Read the ohmmeter and record the conditions of the inductor which are:
 Zero reading of the ohmmeter indicates short circuited inductor.
 No reading of the ohmmeter indicates open circuited inductor.
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  Small resistance reading indicates a good inductor.
III. Replace the inductor with the next one and repeat step (I) and (II).
IV. Repeat step (3) until all inductors are tested.
V. Fill in your readings using the table below and answer the subsequent questions.

Conclusion:
Answer the following questions:
(1) Draw the symbol of the inductor?
(2) State the measurement unit of the inductor?
(3) Complete the following:
If the inductor is short circuit the ohmmeter will indicate ………………….
If the inductor is open circuit the ohmmeter will indicate ………………….
If the inductor is in a good condition the ohmmeter will indicate ……………

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WEEK 2 EXPERIMENT 2

FARADAYS LAWS
TITLE :- Verification of Faraday's Laws
OBJECTIVE : To Verify Faraday's Laws by Experiment

APPARATUS:
I. Permanent Magnet
II. Center zero Meter
III. Coil
THEORY:
For this experiment we shall need a coil C, a centre-zero galvanometer G (so that current in
either direction in C can be detected by G) and a permanent magnet, M. Besides, two
conditions need to be considered in the experiments. These conditions are:
(i) Magnet moving and coil at rest
(ii) Coil moving and magnet at rest.

PROCEDURES :-
Procedure I (Magnet moving and coil at rest)
(a) Push the N pole of a permanent magnet M towards one end of C at rest. The needle of
G deflects to the right as shown in Fig. 2(a), indicating an induced current flow (as a result
of set-up of an induced e.m.f.).

(b) Take, (say) three similar magnets together to increase the strength of the magnet and
move them into the coil at the same speed. As a result the induced current increases with
increase the magnetic flux of the magnets.

(c) Hold the magnet, M at rest close to one end of the coil (at rest) or right inside the coil.
The needle of G stays at the zero mark, indicating that the induced current is zero (because
there was no relative movement between the magnet, M and coil C. (as shown in Fig.1).

(d) Take the N pole of the magnet quickly away from the coil. The induced current now
flows in the direction opposite to when M was pushed in the forward, direction (as
indicated by the direction of the needle of the galvanometer G.) as the induced currents
produced are opposite the motion of the disc or motion producing the currents which
proves the Lenz's law;

178
Derive the expressions for magnitude of e.m.f. induced in a (straight)
Conductor or a coil E.m.f. induced in a straight conductor
Fig. 1 shows a straight conductor lying within a uniform magnetic field of flux density B
Tesla,
(or, Wb/m2 ).

Fig.1
Result and Conclusion

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WEEK 3 EXPERIMENT 3

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

TITLE :- Investigation of electromagnetic induction

OBJECTIVE : to produce electricity without battery by using magnets and magnetic field
APPARATUS:
I. Galvanometer.
II. Permanent magnet.
III. Solenoid or coil with many turns

THEORY:
Electricity could be produced without a battery by using magnets or magnetic fields. This
phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction.

PROCEDURE:

For this experiment you need to connect a coil C, to a centre-zero galvanometer G (so that
current in either direction in C can be detected by G) and a permanent magnet, M as shown
in the fig. below 3.1a,3.1b,3.1c. Besides, two conditions need to be considered in the
experiments. These conditions are:

I. Magnet moving and coil at rest

(a) Push the N pole of a permanent magnet M towards one end of C at rest. The needle of
G deflects to the right as shown in Fig. 3.1(a), indicating an induced current flow (as a
result of set-up of an induced e.m.f.).

(b) Take, (say) three similar magnets together to increase the strength of the magnet and
move them into the coil at the same speed. As a result the induced current increases with
increase the magnetic flux of the magnets.

(c) Hold the magnet, M at rest close to one end of the coil (at rest) or right inside the coil.
The needle of G stays at the zero mark, indicating that the induced current is zero (because
there was no relative movement between the magnet, M and coil C. (as shown in Fig3.1b).

(d) Take the N pole of the magnet quickly away from the coil. The induced current now
flows in the direction opposite to when M was pushed in the forward, direction (as
indicated by the direction of the needle of the galvanometer G.) as the induced currents
produced are opposite the motion of the disc or motion producing the currents which
proves the Lenz's law;
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(e)Move the magnet slowly towards one end of the coil and observe the induced current.
Now move the magnet faster to the end of the coil and observe that the induced current is
increased.

(f)Place some soft iron, such as mu-metal, inside the coil as a core and push the magnet
towards the end of the coil. A much greater induced current now flows compared to the
case when there was air inside the coil.

II. Coil moving, magnet at rest

(a)keeping the N pole stationary, move the coil C quickly towards N. An induced current is
obtained in C (fig3.2a)

(b)Repeat, moving the coil C quickly back from N. An induced current is now obtained in
the opposite direction (fig3.2b)

(c)Move the coil and magnet together at the same speed. No induced current is
obtained(fig3.2c)

181
Question 2
Write your observations and what conclusion can you arrived at when performing this
experiment for (i) Magnet moving and coil at rest
(ii) Coil moving, magnet at rest

WEEK 4 EXPERIMENT 4
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF A CURRENT

TITLE :- Magnetic Effect of Current Carrying Conductor

OBJECTIVE : To Demonstrate the Magnetic Effect of a Current Carrying Conductor in a
Magnetic
Field.

APPARATUS:
I. A battery
II. Switch
III. A straight conductor
IV. A permanent magnet
V. Connecting wires
VI. Variable resistor
THEORY: In 1821 Ampere established that a current - carrying conductor experiences a
force when placed in a magnetic field. The purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate
that a force exists on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field. This can be
achieved by using the set-up shown in figure below. You can use any of the setup fig 4a or
fig 4b

Fig4a

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 Fig4b

PROCEDURES :-
1. Press the switch S lo put on the circuit and allow current to flow through the
conductor. Notice that the conductor moves up (vertically) momentarily to show that a
force acts at right angles to the magnetic field and the length AB of the conductor.

2. Alter the rheostat R to increase the current and notice that the conductor moves faster
up to show increase in force on the conductor as current increases.

3. Alter the position of the magnet slightly sideways so that the strength of the magnetic
field on the conductor decreases. Notice that the conductor moves less quickly to show
that the force (on the conductor) decreases.
4. Alter the magnet position so that the field direction is parallel to the length AB of the
conductor and ensure that the circuit remains switched on. Notice that the current-carrying
conductor remains practically still i.e. the conductor ceases to move in any direction) and
shows that no force acts on the conductors.

RESULT ANALYSIS & CONCLUSION

Fill the missing part in the sentences below
We notice that:
1. a ………….acts on a current-carrying conductor in a………………….. when it is placed at right
angles to the field direction.

2. the ………………………. of the force is ……………………….. both to the conductor and the field.

3. the force on the conductor ……………….. when the current increases and when the
magnetic field strength increases.

4. the force on the conductor ………………. when the angle between the conductor and the
field is less than a right angle (i.e. 90°) and becomes zero when the conductor lies parallel
183
to the magnetic field.

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 ABRAHAM ADESANYA POLYTECHNIC, IJEBU-IGBO
FIRST SEMESTER EXAMINATION NDI 2017/2018 SESSION
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

..........................................................................................................................................

COURSE TITLE: ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE 1

COURSE CODE: EEC115 TIME: 2:00
HRS
LEVEL: ND I ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC ENG. & COMPUTER ENGINEERING
INSTRUCTION: ANSWER ANY FIVE QUESTION

1a.

185