ZOOM INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

( Senior Secondary : Affiliated to CBSE, Delhi )

Study Materials July 2024-25
Class – X Subject : Social Science

Geography

Chapter 3 – Water Resources

Water

Three-fourths of the earth’s surface is covered with water, but only a small proportion of it
accounts for freshwater that can be put to use. Water is a renewable resource.

Water Scarcity and the Need for Water Conservation and Management

The availability of water resources varies over space and time.

 Water scarcity is caused by over

over-exploitation,
exploitation, excessive use and unequal access to
water among different social groups.
 Water resources are being over
over-exploited
exploited to expand irrigated areas for dry-season
dry
agriculture.
 In some areas,, water is sufficiently available to meet the needs of the people. But,
those areas still suffer from water scarcity due to bad quality of water.
The need of the hour is to conserve and manage our water resources. How do we do it?

 Safeguard ourselves from health hazards.

 Ensure food security, continuation of our livelihoods and productive activities.
 Prevent the degradation of our natural ecosystems.

Multi-Purpose
Purpose River Projects and Integrated Water Resources Management

In ancient times, we used to conserve water by constructing sophisticated hydraulic

structures like dams built of stone rubble, reservoirs or lakes, embankments and canals for
irrigation. We have continued this tradition in modern India by building dams in most of our
river basins.

Dams

A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often
creating a reservoir, lake or impoundment. “Dam” refers to the reservoir rather than the
structure.

Uses of Dams

Dams are built,

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  To impound rivers and rainwater that can be used later to irrigate agricultural fields.
 For electricity generation.
 Water supply for domestic and industrial uses.
 Flood control.
 Recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding.
Side Effects of Creating Dams

 Regulating and damming rivers affect their natural flow.

 Poorer the habitats for the rivers’ aquatic life.
 Fragmented rivers make it difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate.
 Dams created on the floodplains submerge the existing vegetation and soil, leading to
its decomposition over a period of time.
 Creating of large dams has been the cause of many new environmental movements
like the ‘Narmada BachaoAndolan’ and the ‘Tehri Dam Andolan’.
 Many times local people had to give up their land, livelihood and their control over
resources for the construction of the dam.
Most of the objections to the projects arose due to their failure to achieve the purposes for
which they were built. Most of the dams were constructed to control floods, but these dams
have triggered floods. Dams have also caused extensive soil erosion. Excessive use of water
has resulted in earthquakes, water-borne diseases, pests and pollution.

Rain Water Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is a simple method by which rainfall is collected for future usage. The
collected rainwater may be stored, utilised in different ways or directly used for recharge
purposes.

Different methods have been adopted in different areas for Rain Water Harvesting.

1. In hill and mountainous regions, people have built diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or
‘kuls’ of the Western Himalayas for agriculture.
2. Rooftop rainwater harvesting is commonly practised to store drinking water,
particularly in Rajasthan.
3. In the flood plains of Bengal, people developed inundation channels to irrigate their
fields.
4. In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rain-fed storage
structures that allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil such as ‘khadins’ in
Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in other parts of Rajasthan.
5. The tankas are part of the well-developed rooftop rainwater harvesting system and
are built inside the main house or the courtyard. This is mainly practised in Rajasthan,
particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi and Barmer areas for saving rainwater. Many houses
have constructed underground rooms adjoining the ‘tanka’ to beat the summer heat as
it would keep the room cool.
Tamil Nadu is the first state in India which has made rooftop rainwater harvesting structures
compulsory for all houses across the state. There are legal provisions to punish defaulters.

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Questions - Answers :

1. What are the two sources of groundwater?

Answer: The two sources of groundwater are natural recharge and artificial recharge.
2. What is water scarcity and which regions in India face it?
Answer: Water scarcity is the condition where the demand for water exceeds the available
supply of water. The regions in India that face water scarcity include Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
3. What is an irrigation system and Name two traditional irrigation methods.
Answer: An irrigation system is a process of supplying water to agricultural land to promote
plant growth. Two traditional irrigation methods are Dhekli and Rahat.
4. What is the impact of excessive use of chemical fertilizers on water resources?
Answer: The excessive use of chemical fertilizers leads to water pollution as these fertilizers
contain nitrates that infiltrate into the groundwater and pollute it.
5. What is water pollution and what causes it?
Answer: Water pollution refers to the contamination of water bodies, such as rivers, lakes,
and groundwater sources, with harmful substances. Causes of water pollution include
domestic and industrial waste, agricultural runoff, and oil spills.
6. What is the significance of rainwater harvesting?
Answer: Rainwater harvesting is an important method of conserving water resources as it
involves collecting rainwater and storing it for future use. It helps to recharge groundwater
sources and reduces reliance on surface water sources.
7. What is the Jal Shakti Abhiyan and its objective?
Answer: Jal Shakti Abhiyan is a campaign launched by the Government of India to conserve
water and ensure its sustainable use. The objective of the campaign is to reduce water
scarcity by improving the water situation in 256 water-stressed districts of the country.
8. What is the primary objective of the National Water Policy?
Answer: The primary objective of the National Water Policy is to ensure the sustainable use
of water resources and provide access to safe drinking water to all citizens of the country.
9. What are the adaptive measures for coping with climate change impacts on water
resources?
Answer: The adaptive measures for coping with climate change impacts on water resources
include rainwater harvesting, groundwater management, drought preparedness, flood
management, and water conservation.
10. What is the Indus Water Treaty and its significance?

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Answer: The Indus Water Treaty is a water-sharing agreement signed between India and
Pakistan in 1960 to manage the distribution of water from the Indus River and its six
tributaries. It is the most significant example of international water cooperation in the world.
11. What is the significance of watershed management?
Answer: Watershed management is important because it helps to conserve water and soil
resources in a particular area by promoting water conservation and soil conservation
practices. It also helps to recharge groundwater sources and protect the environment.
12. What is the impact of climate change on water resources?
Answer: Climate change is expected to have significant impacts on water resources,
including changes in rainfall patterns, increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather
events, and rising sea levels. These impacts can lead to water scarcity, droughts, floods, and
water-related disasters.
13. What is the Ganga Water Treaty and its significance?
Answer: The Ganga Water Treaty is a water-sharing agreement signed between India and
Bangladesh in 1996 to manage the distribution of water from the Ganga River. It is significant
because it is an example of international cooperation for managing shared water resources.
14. What are the benefits of water recycling?
Answer: Benefits of water recycling include reducing water consumption, reducing pollution,
conserving energy, and reducing the strain on freshwater resources. It is an important
method of conserving water resources and improving their sustainability.
15. What is the role of the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA)?
Answer: The Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) is responsible for regulating and
managing groundwater resources in India. Its role includes granting permits and conducting
surveys to monitor groundwater extraction, promoting water conservation, and implementing
groundwater protection measures where necessary.
16. What is the primary cause of water wastage in urban areas?
Answer: The primary cause of water wastage in urban areas is the inefficient use of water
due to leakage in water supply systems, excessive water consumption, and inadequate
maintenance of water infrastructure.
17. What is the impact of deforestation on water resources?
Answer: Deforestation leads to soil erosion, which pollutes water bodies and reduces their
capacity to recharge groundwater resources. It also reduces the forest cover that helps to
maintain the water cycle and the soil moisture level, leading to droughts, floods, and other
water-related disasters.
18. What is virtual water and how can it be used to improve water management?

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Answer: Virtual water is the amount of water required to produce a certain product or
commodity, which is often transported across regions or countries. It can be used to improve
water management by promoting water-efficient production methods and reducing the water
footprint of products.
19. What is rainwater harvesting, and how does it work?
Answer: Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting and storing rainwater for future
use. It involves collecting rainwater from rooftops, surfaces, and runoff, and storing it in tanks
or recharge structures. The collected water can be used for various purposes, such as
irrigation, domestic use, and industrial applications.
20. What is the significance of dams in water management?
Answer: Dams are significant in water management as they help regulate the flow of water in
rivers and streams, store water for future use, generate hydroelectric power, and provide
flood control. They are also used for irrigation and water supply purposes, which can help in
the sustainable management of water resources. However, the construction of dams can
have some negative impacts on the environment and can lead to the displacement of local
communities, so their impact on the environment and society must be carefully assessed
before construction.
21. What are the different types of water resources?
Answer: The different types of water resources include surface water, groundwater, glacier
water, and precipitation.
22. What is the importance of groundwater in India?
Answer: Groundwater is an important water resource in India, accounting for around 60% of
the total irrigation needs of the country. It is also an important source of drinking water for
rural communities.
23. What are the challenges of water management in India?
Answer: The challenges of water management in India include water scarcity, unsustainable
use of water resources, inefficient water use, pollution of water bodies, inadequate
infrastructure, and climate change impacts.
24. What is the National Water Mission, and what is its objective?
Answer: The National Water Mission is a program launched by the Government of India to
conserve water resources, promote sustainable water use, and improve water security in the
country. Its objective is to ensure integrated water resource management and provide access
to safe drinking water to all by 2030.
25. What is waterlogging, and what causes it?
Answer: Waterlogging refers to the saturation of soil with water to the extent that plant growth
is inhibited. It is caused by excessive irrigation, poor drainage, and flooding.

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26. What is salinization, and how does it impact soil and water quality?
Answer: Salinization refers to the accumulation of salts in soil and water, which can impact
the quality of both. It is caused by excessive use of irrigation water, which can lead to the
buildup of salts in the soil. Salinization can reduce fertility and productivity of soil, and render
it unsuitable for crop growth. It can also affect the quality of groundwater, making it unsuitable
for drinking and irrigation purposes.
27. What is the significance of the National River Conservation Plan?
Answer: The National River Conservation Plan is a program launched by the Government of
India to conserve and improve the quality of rivers in the country. It aims to reduce pollution,
improve water quality, and promote sustainable use of river resources.
28. What are the different methods of improving irrigation efficiency?
Answer: Different methods of improving irrigation efficiency include drip irrigation, sprinkler
irrigation, micro-irrigation, and precision farming. These methods use water more efficiently
and effectively, helping to conserve water resources.
29. What are the causes of water pollution, and what are its impacts?
Answer: The causes of water pollution include industrial waste, agricultural runoff, domestic
sewage, oil spills, and mining activities. The impacts of water pollution include reduced water
quality, adverse impacts on aquatic and human life, and negative impacts on public health
and the economy.
30. What are rainwater harvesting structures?
Answer: Rainwater harvesting structures are traditional and modern structures used to collect
and store rainwater for future use. They include a variety of structures such as tanks, wells,
ponds, and recharge structures.
Long-form questions and answers for Water Resources
1. Explain the water cycle and its importance in the water resources management.
Answer: The water cycle is the process of water moving between the atmosphere, land, and
water bodies. It involves evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration into soil, and
runoff to oceans and rivers. The importance of the water cycle in water resources
management is that it helps to distribute water resources across regions and maintain a
balance between water supply and demand. It also helps to recharge groundwater sources,
improve soil moisture, and provide support for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. By
understanding the water cycle, we can manage water resources sustainably, promote water
conservation, and reduce the impacts of water-related disasters.
2. Discuss the main challenges facing water resources management in India.
Answer: Water resources management in India faces several challenges, including water
scarcity, unsustainable use of water resources, inefficient water use, pollution of water

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bodies, inadequate infrastructure, and climate change impacts. Water scarcity is becoming a
critical issue in many parts of the country, where demand is outstripping supply.
Unsustainable use of water resources, such as over-extraction of groundwater, is leading to
depletion of sources and lowering of water tables. Inefficient water use is leading to
significant losses in irrigation, domestic and industrial sectors. Pollution of water bodies due
to untreated sewage, industrial effluents, and agricultural runoff is causing a significant
degradation of water
3. Explain different approaches to water conservation in India.
Answer: There are several approaches to water conservation in India, including promoting
efficient irrigation practices, rainwater harvesting, wastewater reuse, and maintaining and
restoring natural ecosystems. Efficient irrigation practices such as drip irrigation, sprinkler
irrigation, and micro-irrigation can reduce water use in agriculture. Rainwater harvesting
involves collecting rainwater and storing it for future use. Methods such as rooftop collection,
ground storage, and recharge structures can be used to collect and store rainwater.
Wastewater reuse involves treating and reusing wastewater for non-potable purposes, such
as irrigation or industrial use. Finally, maintaining and restoring natural ecosystems such as
wetlands, forests, and rivers can help conserve water resources. These measures can help
address water scarcity, reduce water pollution, and promote sustainable water management
in India.
4. Explain the impact of water pollution on the environment and human health.
Answer: Water pollution has severe impacts on the environment and human health. It can
disrupt aquatic ecosystems, leading to the extinction of aquatic species and loss of
biodiversity. Polluted water also negatively impacts human health, contributing to the spread
of waterborne diseases such as typhoid, cholera, and diarrhea. The presence of toxic
chemicals in water can also cause long-term illnesses such as cancer, kidney damage, and
reproductive disorders. Additionally, water pollution can impact agricultural productivity by
reducing soil fertility and crop yields, thereby threatening food security. It also negatively
impacts economic development by reducing tourism potential and creating additional
healthcare costs. Thus, effective measures to prevent and control water pollution are critical
for protecting the environment and sustaining human health.
5. Discuss the various methods of water treatment, highlighting their advantages and
disadvantages.
Answer: There are several methods of water treatment, including physical, chemical, and
biological methods. Physical methods include processes such as sedimentation and filtration,
where solid particles are removed from water using gravity or mechanical forces. Chemical
treatment involves dosing water with chemicals such as chlorine, ozone, and potassium
permanganate to disinfect it and destroy harmful microorganisms. Biological treatment
involves using bacteria or algae to break down organic matter and remove pollutants. Each of
these methods has its advantages and disadvantages. Physical methods are relatively

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simple and cost-effective, but they may not remove all pollutants, and may require significant
space and time to operate. Chemical methods can effectively remove harmful
microorganisms, but they may produce disinfection byproducts that are themselves toxic and
pose a risk to human health. Biological methods can help remove organic pollutants and are
environmentally friendly, but they may require more sophisticated technology and expertise
to operate effectively. Additionally, all water treatment methods require ongoing monitoring
and maintenance to ensure that they function optimally. Overall, a combination of these
methods is often required to effectively treat water for human consumption and other uses.
Chapter 4 Agriculture
Types of Farming

The physical attributes of the environment, technical advancements, and sociocultural

customs all influence the cultivation techniques.

There are two types of farming: commercial and subsistence. The following farming systems
are used in various parts of India.

Primitive Subsistence Farming

 It is an agriculture of “slash and burn.” After clearing some ground, farmers plant
cereals and other food crops. The farmers move and prepare a new area of land for
cultivation as the fertility of the soil declines.
 In different sections of the nation, it goes by different names. The term “jhumming”
refers to it in the northeastern states.
 This kind of agriculture has low land productivity.
 This kind of cultivation is monsoon dependent.

A small portion of India is home to this type of farming.

Intensive Subsistence Farming

 This kind of farming is done in places where there is a lot of population strain on the
land.
 High dosages of biochemical fertilisers and irrigation are employed in this labor-
intensive agricultural method to increase yield.
 Commercial Farming
 In order to achieve higher production, this style of farming uses higher amounts of
contemporary inputs, such as chemical fertilisers, insecticides, herbicides, and high-
yielding variety (HYV) seeds.
 In plantations, a single crop is produced over a wide region as a sort of commercial
farming. Large areas of land are covered by plantations, which employ migrant
labourers to help with the use of capital-intensive inputs. Every produce item is utilised
as a raw resource in manufacturing.

E.g., Tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, banana.

Cropping Pattern

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India has three cropping seasons:Rabi, Kharif, Zaid

Cropping Pattern

Rabi Kharif Zaid

Sowing Winter from October Beginning of the rainy season In between the Rabi
Season to December between April and May
and the Kharif seasons, there is a
short season during the summer
Harvesting Summer fromApril to months known as the Zaid season
September-October
Season June (in the months of March to July)

Paddy, Maize, Jowar, Bajra, Watermelon,

Important Wheat, Barley, Peas, Tur (Arhar),Moong, Urad, Muskmelon,
Crops Gram and Mustard. Cotton, Jute, Groundnut and Cucumber,Vegetable
Soyabean. s and Fodder crops

Major Crops in India

A variety of food and non-food crops are grown in different parts of India, depending upon the
variations in soil, climate and cultivation practices. Major crops grown in India are: Rice,
Wheat, Millets, Pulses, Tea, Coffee, Sugarcane, oil seeds, Cotton, Jute

Rice

 This crop is Kharif.

 It needs high humidity, high temperatures, and more than 100 cm of yearly rainfall.
 After China, India is the world’s second-largest producer of rice.
 It is grown in deltaic regions, coastal locations, and the plains of northeastern and
northern India.

Wheat

 It’s a Rabi crop here.

 When it comes to ripening, it needs strong sunshine and a cool growing season.
 It needs 50 to 75 centimetres of yearly precipitation spread evenly throughout the
growing season.
 India’s two principal wheat-growing regions are the northwest Ganga-Satluj plains and
the Deccan’s black soil region.
 In the northern and northwestern regions of India, it is the principal food crop and the
second-most significant cereal crop.

Millets

Jowar, Bajra and Ragi are the important millets grown in India.

These are known as coarse grains and have very high nutritional value.

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 Jowar Bajra Ragi

3rd most important food crop

with respect to area and It is a crop of dry regions.
production.
Grows well on sandy soils
and shallow black soil.
Grows well on red, black,
It is a rain-fed crop mostly
sandy, loamy and shallow
grown in moist areas.
black soils.

Major producing states are

Mainly produced in Major producing states are Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Maharashtra, Gujarat and Uttarakhand, Sikkim,
Pradesh. Haryana. Jharkhand and Arunachal
Pradesh.

Maize

 This crop is Kharif.

 It flourishes in old alluvial soil and needs temperatures between 21°C and 27°C to
thrive.
 It serves as both sustenance and fodder.
 Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana
are the states that produce the most maize.

Pulses

 The world’s biggest producer and consumer of pulses is India.

 The main source of protein in a vegetarian diet is pulses.
 India grows a variety of pulses, including Tur (Arhar), Urad, Moong, Masur, Peas, and
Gram.
 The majority of the time, pulses are planted in tandem with other crops to replenish
soil fertility.
 The states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, and
Karnataka are major producers of pulses.

Economics
Sectors of Indian Economy
Division of Sectors as Organised and Unorganised
Organised Sector

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  The organised sector has jobs with fixed schedules and stable employment. Workers
here have assured work.
 These jobs are regulated by the government. Laws like the Factories Act, Minimum
Wages Act, and Payment of Gratuity Act apply to them.
 Workers in this sector usually have regular hours. If they work extra, they get paid for
the extra time.
 Employment in the organised sector is secure. Employees can’t be fired without a
valid reason.
 Workers in this sector enjoy various benefits like paid leave, holidays, and medical
coverage. They also have retirement benefits like pensions.

Unorganised Sector

 The unorganised sector consists of small, scattered businesses not regulated by the
government.
 Since they’re not registered, they don’t have to follow government laws and
regulations.
 Jobs in this sector are often irregular and low-paying.
 Employment in the unorganised sector isn’t secure. Workers can be fired without any
reason.
 There are no benefits like paid leave, holidays, or medical coverage in the
unorganised sector.

Examples of the organised sector include government employees, factory workers, and
professionals like nurses or teachers. In contrast, the unorganised sector includes jobs like
farming, shopkeeping, or domestic work.

Protecting Workers in the Unorganised Sector

 The government can set minimum wages and working hours.

 It can offer cheap loans and basic services like education and healthcare.
 Laws can be made for benefits like paid leave and sick leave.

Sectors in Term of Ownership: Public and Private Sectors

Public Sector

 In the public sector, most assets are owned by the government, and it provides all
services.
 Examples include government-run services like railways or the post office.
 The main goal of the public sector is public welfare, not just making profits.

Private Sector

 In the private sector, individuals or companies own assets and provide services.
 Companies like Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO) or Reliance Industries
Limited (RIL) are examples.
 The main motive of the private sector is to make profits.

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Government Responsibilities

 The government raises money through taxes to provide services like roads, electricity,
and education.
 It supports farmers by buying their produce at fair prices and selling it at lower prices
to consumers.
 Ensuring proper schools, healthcare, and housing for all are also government duties.

Question-answer:
1. How is the tertiary sector different from other sectors? Illustrate with a few
examples.
Answer: The tertiary sector different from the other two sectors. This is because the
other two sectors produce goods but, this sector produces services rather than goods.
The activities under this sector help in the development of the primary and secondary
sectors. Therefore, it is also known as the service sector. These services are an aid or
support for the production process. For example, goods produced in the primary or
secondary sector use transportation service for movements of goods from one place
to another, banking and communication services to deal with payment for goods, etc.
Similarly, doctors, teacher, lawyers, tailor, etc., come under the tertiary sector as they
provide services rather than material goods. In recent times, certain new services
based on information technology such as internet cafe, ATM booths, call centers,
software companies etc have become important.

10. What do you understand by disguised unemployment? Explain with an

example each from the urban and rural areas.
Answer: Disguised Unemployment is a kind of unemployment in which there are
people who are visibly employed but are actually unemployed. This situation is also
known as Hidden Unemployment.In such a situation more people are engaged in a
work than required.
For example :
→ In rural areas, this type of unemployment is generally found in agricultural sector
like - in a family of 9 people all are engaged in the same agricultural plot. But if 4
people are with drawn from it there will be no reduction in output. So, these 4 people
are actually disguisedly employed.
→ In urban areas, this type of unemployment can be seen mostly in service sectors
such as in a family all members are engaged in one petty shop or a small business
which can be managed by less number of persons.

11. Distinguish between open unemployment and disguised unemployment.

Answer:

Open Unemployment Disguised unemployment

This is a kind of unemployment in
When a country’s labour force does which there are people who are visibly
not get opportunities for adequate employed but actually they don’t have
employment, this situation is called full employment. In such a situation
open unemployment. more people are engaged in work
than required.
This type of unemployment is This type of unemployment is
generally found in the industrial sector generally found in unorganized sector

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 of our country. This is also found where either work is not constantly
among the landless agricultural available or too many people are
labourers in rural areas. employed for the same work that does
not require so many hands.
The absence of alternative
This kind of unemployment exists due
employment opportunities leads to
to lack of resources.
this situation.

12. “Tertiary sector is not playing any significant role in the development of the
Indian economy.” Do you agree? Give reasons in support of your answer.
Answer: No, I do not agree with the statement that tertiary sector is not playing any
significant role in the development of Indian economy. Over the last four decades
(1970 -2010), tertiary sector has emerged as the largest producing sector. The growth
in the service sector can be attributed to various factors such as:
• Need for basic services like health, education, security, finance etc.
• Introduction of new services like IT.
• Development of primary and secondary activities.
• Increase demand for services due to increase in per capita income.
The GDP share of the tertiary sector has grown from around 40% in 1973 to more
than 50% in 2003.

13. Service sector in India employs two different kinds of people. Who are
these?
Answer: The service sector in India employs the following two different kinds of
people. They are :
• The people involved in the services that may directly help in the production of goods.
For example, people involved in the transportation, storage, communication, finance
etc.
• The people involved in such services that may not directly help in the production of
goods or the self-employed. e.g. teachers, doctors, barbers, cobblers lawyers etc.
They may be termed as ancillary workers mean those who give services to the primary
service providers.

14. Workers are exploited in the unorganised sector. Do you agree with this
view? Give reasons in support of your answer.
Answer: Yes, workers are exploited in the unorganized sector. This would be clear
from the following points:
• No rules and regulation followed.
• There is no fixed number of working hours. The workers normally work 10 – 12 hours
without paid overtime.
• They do not get other allowances apart from the daily wages.
• Government rules and regulations to protect the labourers are not followed there.
• There is no job security.
• Jobs are low paid the workers in this sector are generally illiterate, ignorant and
unorganized. So they are not in a position to bargain or secure good wages.
• Being very poor they are always heavily in debt. So, they can be easily made to
accept lower wages.
• Social discrimination.

15. How are the activities in the economy classified on the basis of employment
conditions?

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Answer: On the basis of employment conditions, the activities in the economy are
classified into organized and unorganized sectors:
Organized Sector- This sector covers those enterprises which are registered by the
government and have to follow its rules and regulations which are given in the various
laws such as the Factory Act, Minimum Wages Act, Payment of Gratuity Act, Shops
and Establishment Act etc. Workers in the organised sector enjoy the security of
employment. They are expected to work only a fixed number of hours. If they work
more, they have to be paid overtime by the employer. They get paid leave, payment
during holidays, provident fund, gratuity etc. For example, Reliance Industries Ltd.,
GAIL etc.
Unorganized Sector- It includes those small and scattered units which are largely
outside the control of the government. Though there are rules and regulations, these
are never followed here. For example, casual workers in construction, shops etc. Jobs
here are low paid and often not regular. There is no provision for overtime, paid leave,
holidays, leave due to sickness etc. There is In this sector there is no job security and
the conditions of employment are also very tough. People can be asked to leave
without prior information or reason.

16. Compare the employment conditions prevailing in the organised and

unorganized sectors.
Answer: The employment conditions prevailing in the organised and unorganised
sectors are vastly different. The Organised sector:The organised sector has
companies registered with the government and hence, it offers job security, paid
holidays, pensions, health and other benefits, fixed working hours and extra pay for
overtime work. The Unorganised sector:The unorganised sector is a host of opposites.
There is no job security, no paid holidays or pensions on retirement, no benefits of
provident fund or health insurance, unfixed working hours and no guarantee of a safe
work environment.

17. Explain the objective of implementing the NREGA 2005.

Answer: The objective of implementing the NREGA 2005 are:
→ To increase the income and employment of people.
→ Every state/region can develop tourism, regional craft, IT etc. for additional
employment.
→ The central government made a law implementing the right to work in 200 districts.
→ NREGA aims to provide employment of 100 days. If it fails to do so, it will give
unemployment allowances to the people.

21. Explain how public sector contributes to the economic development of a

nation.
Answer: In the following ways Public sector contributes to the economic development
of a nation:
• It promotes rapid economic development through the creation and expansion of
infrastructure.
• It creates employment opportunities.
• It generates financial resources for development.
• It ensures equality of income and wealth, thus a balanced regional development.
• It encourages development of small, medium and cottage industries.
• It ensures easy availability of goods at moderate rates.

22. The workers in the unorganised sector need protection on the following
issues: wages, safety and health. Explain with examples.
Answer: The workers in the unorganised sector need protection:

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  Wages: Labourers who are employed as a repair person, vendor etc. do not have
fixed income. They nearly manage to earn their living. They are not employed all
through the year.
 Safety: Workers in unorganized sector are not provided with safe drinking water or a
clean environment. Eg., Working in mining, chemical industries is hazardous.
 Health: Leave not granted in case of sickness. Medical facilities are not offered, E.g.
Construction workers.

**************

HISTORY
THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
(The Making of Nationalism in Europe – Strange case of Britain)
THINGS TO REMEMBER:

 Nationalism is a sense of identity with the nation. Many European nations experienced
heightened periods of nationalism in the 19th century.
 The concepts of liberty, equality, fraternity and nationalism dominated the social and
political scene of Europe in the 19th century.
 In 1848, Frederic Sorrieu, a French artist prepared a series of four prints visualizing his
dream of a world made up of ‘democratic and social republics’ as he called them. It shows
the people of Europe and America- men and women of all ages and social classes- marching
in long train and offering homage to the Statue of Liberty as they pass by it.
 The French revolution in 1789 was an influential event that marked the age of revolutions in
Europe. The major outcome of the revolution was the formation of a Constitutional
monarchy and a sizeable reduction in the royal and feudal privileges.
 The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of
a united community enjoying equal rights under a Constitution.
 Napoleon Bonaparte, the famous French ruler introduced several effective administrative
changes like the civil code of 1804, also known as the Napoleonic code- did away with all
the privileges based on birth, established equality before law and secured the right to
property.
 During the mid-18th century, Europe was divided into several small kingdoms and
principalities. The prominent empires in Europe were the autocratic Ottoman Empire that
ruled over eastern and central Europe, and Greece and Habsburg Empire that ruled
over Austria-Hungary.
 Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was dominant class. They owned estates in the
countryside, spoke French for the purposes of diplomacy and in high society.
 Industrialization began in England in the second half of 18th century, in its wake new social
groups came into being. It was among the educated, liberal middle classes that ideas of
national unity following the abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity.
 Liberalism was used to end aristocracy and clerical privileges. The term liberalism derives
from the Latin root liber, meaning free. For the new middle classes liberalism stood for the
individual and equality of all before the law.
 Conservatism was a political philosophy that stressed the importance of tradition,
established institutions, customs and preferred gradual development to quick change.

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 In 1815, the famous Treaty of Vienna took place with representatives of European
powers - (Britain, Prussia, Russia and Austria).The congress was hosted by Austrian
chancellor Duke Metternich with an objective of undoing most of the changes that had come
about during the Napoleonic wars.
 Treaty of Vienna- 1815
a. Bourbon dynasty was restored to power.
b. France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
c. A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in
future.
d. Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontier.
e. The German confederation of 39 states was left untouched.
f. Russia was given part of Poland while Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.
g. The main intention was to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon.
 After 1815, several liberals began working in secret societies all over Europe to propagate
their views and train revolutionaries.
 Giuseppe Mazzini, a famous Italian revolutionary, was part of a secret society called
Carbonari and also founded two underground societies called Young Italy in Marseilles
and Young Europe in Berne.
 Liberalism and Nationalism became associated with revolution in many regions of Europe
such as the Italian and German states.
 The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830.
 The Greek War of Independence was another event which mobilized nationalist feelings
among educated elite of Europe. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832recognized
Greece as an independent nation.
 Romanticism was a cultural movement that rejected science and reason and introduced
heart and emotions. The concern of romantics was to create a sense of shared collective
heritage and a common cultural past for arousing nationalism.
 The 1830s saw a rise in prices, bad harvest and poverty in Europe. Besides the poor,
unemployed and starving peasants, even educated middle classes revolted.
 In 1848, a large number of political associations came together in Frankfurt and decided to
vote for an all-German National Assembly.
 After 1848, nationalism in Europe moved away from its association with democracy and
revolution as the conservatives began to use nationalists’ ideas to strengthen the monarchy
and Germany came about through this process.
 On 18thJanuary, 1871, the King of Prussia, Kaiser William I was proclaimed the German
emperor in the Hall of Mirrors in the palace of Versailles. The nation-building process in
Germany had demonstrated the dominance of Prussian state power. The new state placed
the strong emphasis on modernizing the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in
Germany.
 During the middle of the 19th, Italy was divided into seven states and only one state, Sardinia-
Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house.
 Mazzini was the leader of the Republican Party. He had formed secret societies to
regenerate Italy by education. But rebellions staged by revolutionaries in 1831 and 1848
failed. The responsibility of unifying Italy came to Victor Emmanuel II, king of Sardinia-
Piedmont.

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 Giuseppe Garibaldi, played an important role in the unification of Italy. He joined the war
along with his armed volunteers called the ‘Red Shirts’. In 1860 Garibaldi and his troops
marched into southern Italy and the kingdom of Two Sicilians. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II
was announced king of united Italy.
 Britain has a different history of how it consolidated as a nation. The British Isles was
inhabited by ethnic English, Welsh, Scot or Iris. In 1707, the Act of Union between
England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great
Britain’.
 To ensure the growth of British identity, Scotland’s cultural and political institutions were
suppressed. The British imposed control over Ireland as well. In 1801, Ireland was forcibly
incorporated into the United Kingdom after a failed Irish revolt.


KNOW THE TERMS:

 Liberal nationalism: It refers to individual freedom, equality before law, government by

consent, freedom of markets, abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movement of
goods and capital.
 Nation-state: A sovereign state, resided by completely homogenous group of people who
share a feeling of common nationality.
 Zollverein: A customs union formed in1834 at the initiative of Prussia. It abolished tariff
barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.
 Conservatism: A political philosophy that stressed the importance of tradition, established
institutions, customs and preferred gradual development to quick change.
 Napoleonic code: The Civil code of 1804, introduced by Napoleon, was known as the
Napoleonic code. This code did away with all the privileges based on birth, established
equality before law and secured the right to property.

QUESTIONS/ANSWERS:

1. In which year was the Vienna congress held?

Ans. 1815
2. Name the French artist who had prepared a series of four prints visualizing his
dream of a world.
Ans. Frederic Sorrieu.
3. Who had founded the secret society Young Italy?
Ans. Mazzini.
4. Who headed the Vienna congress of 1815?
Ans. The Austrian chancellor Duke Metternich.

What does ‘Absolutist’ mean?

Ans. Literally, a government or system of rule that has no restraints on the power exercised.
In history, the term refers to a form of monarchical government that was centralized,
militarized and repressive.

6. How did liberalism stand in the economic sphere?

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Ans. In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of
state imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.

7. What was the objective of Treaty of Vienna?

Ans. The aim was to reverse most of the changes that had come about in Europe during
Napoleonic war. The Bourbon dynasty which had been deposed during the French revolution
was restored to power.

8. How did Metternich describe Mazzini?

Ans. Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.

9. Analyse the measures and practices introduced by the French revolutionaries to

create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.

Ans. a. The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the
notion of united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.

b. A new French flag, tricolour was chosen to replace the royal standard.

c. Estates general was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed as National
assembly.

d. New hymns were composed and martyrs commemorated all in the name of the nation.

e. A centralized system of administration was introduced; uniform laws were made for all
citizens.

f. French language was spoken and written and became a common language in Paris.

10. How was the ideology of liberalism allied with national unity in the early 19th
century in Europe?

Ans. a. Liberalism stood for the individual and equality of all before law.

b. It emphasized on the concept of government by consent.

c. It stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges.

d. It believed in the Constitution and representative government through Parliament.

11. How did Treaty of Vienna change the map of Europe?

Ans. a. In 1815, the European powers- Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria defeated
Napoleon.

b. The congress was hosted by Austrian chancellor Duke Metternich.

c. The Treaty of Vienna was signed to undo most changes that came about during
Napoleonic war.

d. The deposed Bourbon dynasty was restored to power.

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e. France lost its territories annexed under Napoleon.

f. To prevent further expansion of French territories, series of states were set upon
boundaries.

g. Kingdom of Netherlands including Belgium was set up in north.

h. Genoa was added to Piedmont in south.

i. Prussia was given new territories in western frontiers.

j. Austria was given the control of northern Italy.

k. 39 states of German federation were left untouched.

l. Eastern Russia was given a part of Saxony.

12. Explain the revolutionary principles incorporated by Napoleon in the administration

of France during his reign.

Ans. a. Abolishment of privileges based on birth- He did away with all the privileges based on
birth.

b. Simplification of administration- Napoleon simplified administrative divisions abolished the

feudal system.

c. Removal of guild restrictions- There were many guild restrictions which hampered the
growth of manufacturing.

d. Improvement in infrastructure- Transport and communication systems were improved.

e. Freedom of trade.

13. Explain the features of the Conservatives regime set up in Europe after the defeat of
Napoleon
in 1815.

Ans. a. Basic beliefs- Conservatives believed in preserving traditional institutions of state and
society.

b. Belief in modernization- Most of the conservatives realized that modernization could make
state powerful, more effective and strong.

c. Ways to strengthen autocratic rule- A modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic

economy, abolition of feudalism and serfdom could strengthen the autocratic monarchies of
Europe.

d. Against freedom of liberty- They did not tolerate criticism and dissent.

e. Vienna congress of 1815- Its main objective was to undo most of the changes that had
come about in Europe during Napoleonic war.

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14. Write the features of the painting of Frederic Sorrieu.

Ans. a. Men and women walking across the statue of liberty offering homage.

b. Statue of liberty has a torch of enlightenment and Charter of rights of Man.

c. On the earth lie the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions.

15. Define the term Romanticism. How did it facilitate the promotion of nationalist
sentiment?

Ans. Romanticism was a cultural movement that rejected science and reason and introduced
heart and emotions. The concern of the Romantics was to create a sense of shared
collective heritage and common cultural past for arousing nationalism.

a. Romantic artists criticized the glorification of reason and science and focused on
emotions, intuitions and mystical feelings.

b. Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances, the
true spirit of nation could popularized.

c. They gave emphasis on vernacular language to recover the national spirit and to carry the
modern nationalist message to large audience who were mostly illiterate.

16. Explain the role of Giuseppe Mazzini in the unification of Italy.

Ans. a. He became the member of various secret societies such as ‘Young Italy’ and ‘Young
Europe’.

b. He attempted revolution Liguria.

c. He wanted unification with wider alliance of nations.

d. He frightened conservatives through opposition of monarchy and vision of democratic

republics.

e. He favoured war for unification of Italy.

f. He wanted economic development and political dominance.

17. Describe the process of unification of Germany.

Ans. a. Nationalists feelings were widespread among middle class farmers. In 1848, they
tried to unify Germany into a nation.

b. This feeling was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military.

c. From then on Prussia took on the leadership of unification of Germany.

d. Its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck was the architect of this process. He took the help
of military and bureaucracy.

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 e. Three wars over seven years ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of
unification.

f. The Prussian King William I was proclaimed German emperor in January 1871.

18. Describe the process of unification of Britain.

Ans. a. In Britain, the formation of nation states was the result of long drawn out process

b. All ethnic groups such as English, Welsh, Scot or Iris had their own cultural and political
traditions

c. The English nation steadily grew in wealth and power and was able to extend its influence
over the other nations.

d. The Act of union 1707, between English and Scotland resulted in the formation of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain.

e. In 1801, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom after a failed Irish
revolt.

19.Describe the process of unification of Italy.

Ans. a. During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states.

b. During 1830s Mazzini decided to unite Italy. He had formed a secret society to achieve
his goal.

c. After earlier failures in 1831 and 1848 King Victor Emmanuel-II took to unify the Italian
states through wars.

d. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France by Cavour Sardinia-Piedmont

succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.

e. Under the leadership of Garibaldi armed volunteers marched into south Italy in 1860and
the Kingdom of two Sicilians and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in
order to drive out the Spanish rulers.

f. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel-II was proclaimed King of United Italy.

*********************

CIVICS
FEDERALISM
(What makes India a Federal Country?- Decentralisation in India)

THINGS TO REMEMBER:
 Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central
authority and various constituents units of the country.

21
 Federations are contrasted with unitary governments. Under the unitary system, either
there is one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central
government.
 The key features of Federalism are-
a. There are two or more levels (tiers) of government.
b. Each tier has its own jurisdiction in specific matters of legislation, taxation,
administration.
c. The jurisdiction of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the
Constitution.
d. The fundamental provisions of the Constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one
level of government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels.
e. Courts have the power to interpret the Constitution and the powers of different levels of
government.
f. Sources of revenue of each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its
financial autonomy.
g. The federal system thus have dual objectives: to safeguard and promote the unity of the
country while at the same time accommodate regional diversity.
 There are two kinds of routes through which federations have been formed.
a. Coming together federations- It is a federation in which several independent states
come together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that by pooling sovereignty and
retaining identity, they can increase their security. It includes USA, Switzerland, and
Australia.
b. Holding together federations- It is a federation in which a large country decides to
divide its power between the constituent states and the national government. It includes
India, Spain, and Belgium.
 Constitution clearly provided a three-fold distribution of legislative powers between
union government and state government. Thus, it contains three lists:
a. Union list includes subjects of national importance such as defense of the country,
foreign affairs, banking, communications and currency. The union government alone
can make laws relating to the subjects mentioned in the Union lists.
b. State list contains subjects of state and local importance such as police, trade,
commerce, agriculture and irrigation. The state government alone can make laws
relating to the subjects mentioned in the state lists.
c. Concurrent list includes subjects of common interests to both the union as well as
state government, such as education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption and
succession. Both the union as well as the state government can make law on the
subjects mentioned in this list. If their laws conflict with each other, the law made by the
union government prevails.
 Some units of the Indian union are smaller in size in comparison to other states to become
an independent state and cannot be merged with other existing states. Such units are
known as Union Territories.
 Residuary subjects are those subjects which do not fall in any of these three lists. New
subjects such as computer software that came up after the Constitution was made come
under residuary subjects.

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 The creation of linguistic states was the first and the major test for democratic politics in
our country. This was done to ensure that people who spoke the same language lived in
the same state.
 Some states were created not on the basis of language but to recognize differences based
on culture, ethnicity or geography.
 A second test for the Indian federation is the language policy. Our Constitution did not
give the status of national language to any one language.
 Hindi was identified as the official language. Besides Hindi, there are 21 other languages
recognized as Scheduled Languages by the Constitution.
 According to the Constitution, the use of English for official purposes was to stop in 1965.
Later, the Central government responded by agreeing to continue the use of English along
with Hindi for official purposes.
 Restructuring the Centre-State relations is one more way in which federalism has
been strengthen in practice.
 For a long time, the same party ruled both at the centre and in most of the states. This
meant that the State governments did not exercise their rights as autonomous federal
units. This undermined the spirit of federalism.
 All this changed significantly after 1990. This period saw the rise of regional political
parties in many states of the country.
 The period after 1990 witnessed the beginning of the era of Coalition governments at the
centre. Since no single party got a clear majority in the Lok Sabha, the major national
parties had to enter into an alliance with many parties including several regional parties to
form a government at the centre.
 Thus, federal power sharing is more effective today than it was in the early years after the
Constitution came into force.
 When power is taken away from central and state governments and given to local
government, it is called decentralisation. The basic idea behind decentralisation is that
there are a large number of problems and issues which are best settled at the local level.
 A major step towards decentralisation was taken in1992. The Constitution was amended to
make the third-tier of democracy more powerful-
a. Now it is constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to local government
bodies.
b. Seats are reserved in the elected bodies and the executive heads of these
institutions for the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes.
c. At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.
d. An independent institution called State Election Commission has been created in
each state to conduct panchayat and municipal elections.
e. The state governments are required to share some powers and revenue with local
government bodies. The nature of share varies from state to state.
 Rural local government is popularly known by the name Panchayati Raj. Each village or a
group of villages in some states, has a gram panchayat.
 The functions of gram panchayats are-
a. Decision-making body for the entire village.
b. The panchayat works under the overall supervision of the gram Sabha.
c. It has to meet atleast twice or thrice in a year to approve the annual budget of the gram
panchayat.

23
 d. To review the performance of the gram panchayat.
 A few gram panchayats are grouped together to form what is usually called a panchayat
samiti or block or mandal.
 All the panchayat samitis or mandals in a district together constitute the zilla parishad.
Zilla parishad chairperson is the political head of the zilla parishad.
 Municipalities are set up in towns. Big cities are constituted into municipal
corporations.
 Municipal chairperson is the political head of the municipality. In a municipal corporation
such an officer is called the mayor.

QUESTIONS/ANSWERS:
1. Education, forests, trade unions come under ___________
Ans. Concurrent list.
2. Which type of government has two or more levels?
Ans. Federal government.
3. In case of any dispute about the division of powers who can make a decision?
Ans. The High Court and the Supreme Court.
4. The federal government serves which two dual objectives?
Ans. First, to safeguard and promote unity of the country and secondly, to accommodate
regional diversity.

5. Name the countries which follows coming together style of federation.

Ans. USA, Switzerland and Australia.

6. What does jurisdiction mean?

Ans. The area over which the government has legal authority. The area may be defined in
terms of geographical boundaries or in terms of certain kinds of subjects.

7. Which subjects are included in the state list?

Ans. State list contains subjects of state and local importance. Such as police, trade,
commerce, agriculture and irrigation.

8. The subject of Computer software comes under which list?

Ans. Residuary list.

9. What do you mean by unitary system?

Ans. It is a system of government in which either there is only one level of government or
the subunits are subordinate to the central government.

10. Highlight three major distinctions between the federations of coming together
type and holding together type.

Ans. Coming Together Federation-

a. Independent states coming together on their own to form a bigger unit.

24
 b. All the states have equal power and are strong.

c. By pooling sovereignty and retaining identity they increase their security.

d. Ex. USA, Switzerland and Australia.

Holding Together Federation-

a. Large country decides to divide its power between states and the centre.

b. Central government tends to be more powerful.

c. Federating units have unequal power.

d. India, Spain and Belgium.

11. What are the three lists given in the Constitution?

Ans. The three fold distribution of legislative powers are-

a. Union list- It includes subject of national importance such as defense of the country,
foreignaffairs, banking, communication and currency
b. State list- It includes subjects of state and local importance such as police, trade,
commerce,
agriculture and irrigation.
c. Concurrent list- It includes subjects of common interest to both state as well as centre
such as
education, trade unions, marriage, adoption and succession

12. How is a federal government different from the unitary form of government? Why
are federations preferred these days?

Ans. a. Unitary government has only one level of government whereas federal government
has two or more levels of levels of government.
b. In unitary government, the sub-units are subordinate to the centre, whereas in the
federation, the central government cannot encroach on the rights of state governments.
c. In unitary system, centre can order the sub-units which cannot happen in federation.

A federation is preferred because:

i. It helps in making administration effective and efficient.

ii. It helps to accommodate all diverse groups.

13. Explain the features of federalism.

Ans. a. There are two or more levels of government. India has three levels.

b. Each level of government has its own jurisdiction in matters of legislation, taxation and
administration even though they govern the same citizens.

c. Power and functions of each tier of government is specified and guaranteed by

Constitution.

25
d. The Supreme Court has been given power to settle disputes between different levels of
governments.

e. Fundamental provisions of the Constitution cannot be altered by any one level of

government.

f. Sources of revenue between different levels are specified by the Constitution.

g. There is a mutual trust and agreement between the governments at different levels.

14. Why did the makers of our Constitution declare India to be a ‘Union of States’?
Why were some sub-political units of India given a special status?

Ans. a. India became a union of states because it consisted of both British-ruled territories
as well as many princely states. Some sub-political units of India have

b. French and Portuguese-ruled territories were given the status of Union territory.

c. Some units were too small to become independent states. They were made Union
territories.

d. States in the north-east have been given a special status as they have a large tribal
population with a distinct history and culture.
15. What is Panchayati raj? What is its importance?

Ans. The rural local government is known as the panchayati raj.

Its importance-

a. Its helps the people to directly participate in decision-making.

b. It reduces the burden of the central government.

c. It helps in decentralisation of power.

16. State any two difficulties faced by the local self-government.

Ans. a. There is shortage of resources.

b. Elections are not held regularly.

17. Describe in brief the language policy of India.

Ans. a. No national language- Our Constitution did not give the status of national language to
any one language.

b. Scheduled languages- Besides Hindi, there are 21 other languages recognized as

scheduled languages by the Constitution.

c. According to the Constitution, the use of English for official purposes was to stop in 1965.
But later the central government responded by agreeing to continue the use of English for
official purposes.

18. How have the centre-state relations been restructured to strengthen federalism?

26
 Ans. Challenges before 1990:

a. Political scene was dominated by one party both at the centre and in the states.

b. As and when the ruling party at the state level was different the parties that ruled at the
centre tried to undermine the power of the states.

c. The central government would often misuse the Constitution to dismiss the state
governments that were controlled by rival parties.

After 1990:

a. Now the centre and majority of State governments belong to different political parties in
coalition.

b. A number of regional parties have become powerful and play a crucial role at the centre
and states.

c. The era of coalition government at the centre has inculcated respect for federal autonomy.

19. How has the third tier of government in our country been made more effective and
powerful by the Constitutional amendment of 1992?

Ans. a. Now it is mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies.

b. Seats are reserved in elected bodies and the executive heads of these institutions for
SCs, STs and OBCs.

c. At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.

d. An independent institution called State Election Commission has been created in each
state to conduct panchayat and municipal elections.

e. The State governments are required to share some powers and revenue with local
government bodies.

20. Describe any four functions of a Gram Sabha.

Ans. a. It elects the members of the Gram Panchayat.

b. The Gram sabha supervises the work of the village panchayat.

c. It approves the annual budget of the panchayat.

d. It reviews the performance of the Gram panchayat.

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