SECTION 2

Atomic Structure
and
Interaction Bonding
 Learning Outcomes

o LO1: Describe the fundamental atomic structures.

o LO2: Explain the electron structure and configurations.
o LO3: Describe primary and secondary bonding forces and energy.
 Content

Atomic structure
Fundamental concepts
Electrons in atoms
The periodic table
Atomic bonding in solids
Bonding forces and energies
Primary interatomic bonds
Secondary bonding
Atomic Structure: Fundamental Concepts
Atoms have a small central nucleus made up of protons and neutrons,
around which there are electrons that move in their orbits.
Atomic Particle Charge (Coulombs) Mass (kg)
Neutron Neutral 1.67 x 10-27
Proton 1.6 x 10-19 1.67 x 10-27
Can be neglected in
Electron -1.6 x 10-19 9.11 x 10-31 atomic mass
calculations
 Cont…

A chemical element has

Atomic number (Z) = the number of protons in the nucleus,
Atomic mass (A) = mass of protons + mass of neutrons

Neutron number (N): the number of neutron may vary for a given
elements.
Neutrons defines isotope number

Protons defines the chemical identification of the element

 Atomic mass units, Atomic weight
Atomic mass unit (amu) is often used to express atomic weight.

E.g. 1 amu is defined as 1/12 of the atomic mass of Carbon (which has 6 protons
Z=6 and 6 neutrons N=6).

Mproton ≈ Mneutron = 1.66 x 10-24 g = 1 amu

Thus, the atomic mass of 12C is 12 amu

Atomic weight is also often specified in mass per mole

A mole is the amount of matter that has a mass in grams equal to the atomic
mass in amu of the atoms ( e.g. a mole of carbon has a mass of 12 grams)

In one mole of a substance, there are 6.022 x 1023 (Avogadro number, Nav) atoms,
Nav = 6.022 x 1023.

The atomic weights are related through this equation: 1 amu/atom = 1g/mol

Example:

Atomic weight of iron = 55.85 amu/atom = 55.85 g/mol

 Cont…: Isotopes
o Isotopes : elements with two or more different atomic masses (e.g.
Carbon has 3 isotopes; C-12, C-13, C-14).
o Isotopes are atoms of the same element but with different number
of neutrons. This gives rise to different mass numbers.
o Atoms of the same element always have the same number of
protons.

Atomic weight (amu)

AZ+N

Gonzalez, J.T. and King, A.J., 2022. For Flux Sake: Isotopic Tracer Methods of
Monitoring Human Carbohydrate Metabolism During Exercise. International
journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism, 1(aop), pp.1-11.
 Exercise/Example 2.1 (pg21)
Average Atomic Weight Calculation

Cerium has four naturally occurring isotopes: 0.185% of 136Ce, with an atomic weight
of 135.907 amu; 0.251% of 138Ce with an atomic weight of 137.906 amu; 88.450% of
140Ce with an atomic weight of 139.905; and 11.114% of 142Ce with an atomic weight

of 141.909 amu. Calculate the average atomic weight of Ce.

Solution: pg21

Equation

ᾹCe = f136CeA136Ce + f138CeA138Ce + f140CeA140Ce + f142CeA142Ce

 Electrons in Atoms

Atomic Model
Quantum Mechanics: Relates to the principles and laws that govern systems of
atomic and subatomic entities.

o Bohr atomic model

Electron is a particle

Electrons revolve around an atomic nucleus in discrete orbitals

o Wave-mechanical atom model

Electron is considered to exhibit both wave-like and particle-like characteristics

Electron position is probability distribution or electron cloud

Comparison between Bohr & Wave-mechanical atom models
Wave-mechanical
Bohr atomic model
model
Structure: assume
Structure: Assume
electrons as particles
electron as
Position: Electrons are
particle-like &
in fixed positions
wave-like
Limitation: inability to
Position: Electrons’
explain several
position is
phenomena involving
considered
electrons
to be the
probability of an
electron’s being at
various locations
around the
nucleus.

Refined from Bohr

model
 Quantum Numbers

In quantum mechanics: Every electron in an atom is characterized by four parameters called

quantum numbers.

Principal quantum number, n

n = 1 → K; n = 2 → L; and so on

Second quantum number, l ; l = 0 to l = (n-1)

s, p, d, f

Third quantum number, ml (number of energy states, orbitals)

s → ml = 1; p → ml = 3 ; d → ml = 5 ; f → ml = 7 (-1 to +1)

Fourth quantum number, ms (spin orientation when a magnetic field is applied)

ms = + ½ and – ½
Relationship among the Quantum Numbers (n, l, ml) and
Number of Orbitals and Electrons

(Subshell)
 Electron Energy States

Electrons…
o have discrete energy states
o tend to occupy the lowest
available energy state
o may change energy by
making a quantum jump
o can absorb energy to move
to higher energy level
o can emit energy to move to
lower energy level
Emit Absorb
energy energy

Energy levels
 Electron Configuration
o Electron state: values of energy that are permitted for electrons.

o Apply Pauli exclusion principle: Each electron state can hold no more than two
electrons, which must have opposite spins.

o Ground state is a level where electrons occupy the lowest possible energy
according to Pauli exclusion principle

o Electron configurations represent the manner in which these states are occupied.

Examples: Hydrogen (H) 1s1

Helium (He) 1s2

Sodium (Na) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

Calcium (Ca) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

Valence electron: occupy the outermost shell

participate in bonding Courtesy of Socratic

 Arrangement of Electrons
o How we write electron configurations
Electrons fill the lowest energy level first this means it is generally easy
to predict how the electrons will fill the orbitals.
Electrons are stable when orbitals are all filled.

Element Electron Element Electron configuration

configuration
H 1s Ne 1s22s22p6
He 1s2 Na 1s22s22p63s1
Li 1s22s Mg 1s22s22p63s2
Be 1s22s2 Al 1s22s22p63s23p3
B 1s22s22p1 Si 1s22s22p63s23p3
C 1s22s22p2 P 1s22s22p63s23p3
N 1s22s22p3 S 1s22s22p63s23p4
O 1s22s22p4 Cl 1s22s22p63s23p5
F 1s22s22p5 Ar 1s22s22p63s23p6
 The Periodic Table
The periodic table consists of all elements that have been classified
according to electron configuration.

Groups IA and IIA (alkali and alkaline earth metals)

Elements with, respectively, one and two electrons in excess of stable
structures.

Groups IIIA, IVA, and VA

Elements between metals and nonmetals by virtue of their valence
electron structures.

Groups VIA and VIIA

Elements with, respectively, two and one electron in deficient, of stable
structures.
(Group VIIA is called the halogens. Halogens are very reactive & they
don’t occur naturally in their elemental form).

Group O (Inert gases)

Elements which have filled electron shells and stable configurations.
 Cont…

IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII VIII VIII IB IIB IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA O

Electropositive elements Electronegative elements

Courtesy of Wikipedia

Electronegative elements: accept electrons to become negatively charged ions

Electropositive: gives up electrons to be positively charged ions

 Atomic Bonding in Solids
o Interatomic forces determine the physical properties of materials.
o There are two types of forces:
the attractive (FA) and the repulsive (FR) forces
o The magnitude of the each depends on the interatomic distance (r).
o FN = FA+FR
o FA+FR = 0 (in equilibrium state)
o The equilibrium distance, ro
For many atoms, ro = 0.3 nm (3Å )
o Most of time, it is more convenient to work with potential energies, which are
attractive and the repulsive energies.
EN = EA + ER
o Bonding energy (E0): energy required to separate the two atoms to an infinite
separation
Cont…
The net force, FN
FN = FA + FR

In equilibrium:
FA + FR = 0

The potential energy

between two atoms
E =  Fdr

The net energy, EN

EN = EA + ER
 Types of Bonding

Types of bonding:

A. Primary bonding or chemical bonding

This bonding is found in solids and involves the valence electrons.
This type of bonding is strong (» 100 kJ/mol)
Examples: ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds

B. Secondary bonding or physical bonding or van der Waals

This bonding is found in most solids and arises from atomic or
molecular dipoles.
This type of bonding is weak (  10kJ/mol)
Examples: fluctuating induced dipole bonds, polar molecule-
Induced dipole bonds, and pemanent dipole bonds
 Primary Bonding (Chemical Bonding)
Ionic bonding
It is always found in compounds that are composed of both metallic and nonmetallic
elements. Atoms of a metallic element easily give up their valence electrons to the
nonmetallic atoms. This bonding is a nondirectional bonding, the magnitude of the bond is
equal in all directions around an ion.

Coulombic bonding force: positive and negative ions attract each other, because of their net
electrical charge. A Permittivity, ε0, = 8.85x10-12 F/m
Attractive energy: E = −
1
A A= 𝑍1 𝑒 𝑍2 𝑒 Electronic charge, e, = 1.602x10-19 C
4𝜋𝜀0
r 𝑍1 𝑒 𝑍2 𝑒 = absolute valence
A, B, n = constants, values for the 2 ion types
Repulsive energy: 𝐸 = 𝐵
𝑅
𝑟𝑛 n~8

B
E B = n
r

Courtesy of MyEdugateway
 Exercise/Example 2.2 (pg34)
Calculation of attractive and repulsive forces between two ions

The atomic radii of K+ and Br- ions are 0.138 and 0.196 nm, respectively.

(a) Using eq. 2.9 and 2.10, calc the force of attraction between these two ions at
their equilibrium interionic separation (i.e. when the ions just touch one
another)
(b) What is the force of repulsion at the same separation distance?

Solution: pg34
 Cont…
Covalent bonding
o It is usually found in many nonmetallic elemental molecules (H2, Cl2, F2) and
molecules containing dissimilar atoms (CH4, H20, HNO3, HF).
o This bonding is formed on stable electron configurations by the sharing of electrons
between adjacent atoms.
o The bonding is directional; it is between specific atoms and may exist only in the
direction between one atom and the other that participates in the electron sharing.

o A very strong covalent bond

Diamond with a very high melting
temperature (713 kJ/mol; 3550 ºC)

o A very weak covalent bond

Bismuth with very low melting
temperature (270 ºC)
 Cont…
Metallic bonding
It is found in many metals and their alloys (group IA and IIA). Metallic materials have
1, 2, or at most 3 valence electrons. These valence electrons are not bound to any
particular atom in the solid and are free to drift throughout the entire metal.

“sea of electrons”
or “electron cloud”
Net negative charge

Ion cores, Net positive charge

Weak metallic bond Hg (68 kJ/mol; -39 °C)

Strong metallic bond W (850 kJ/mol; 3410 °C)

 Secondary Bonding
(Physical Bonding or Van De Waals)
Secondary (physical/van der Waals) bonds are weak in comparison to
the primary (chemical) bonds, with a bonding energy range of 4-30
kJ/mol.

Dipole: exists whenever there’s a separation of positive and negative

portions of an atom or molecule.

Hydrogen bond: a type of secondary bond between some molecules

with hydrogen as one of the constituents. (Strongest secondary
bonding type, 51 kJ/mol).
 Secondary Bonding Mechanisms
1. Fluctuating induced dipole bonds
o All atoms have constant vibrational motion, which causes
temporary distortion of electrical symmetry and creates small
electric dipoles.
o The dipole can then induce the second atom to also become a
dipole, and be weakly bonded to the first.
o Liquefication/solidification of inert gases are possible due to this
type of bonding.
 Cont..
2. Polar molecule-induced dipole bonds
o Exist in some molecules by virtue of an asymmetrical arrangement of
positively and negatively charged regions.
o Weak electric dipole bonds due to molecule-inducement.
o Polar molecule induces electrically symmetric atom/molecule to become a
dipole. The dipoles are then held together by weak van der Waals bonds.
 Cont…
3. Permanent dipole bonds
o It exists between adjacent polar molecules.
o Hydrogen bonding is a special case of polar molecular bonding,
where hydrogen is covalently bonded to fluorine, oxygen or
nitrogen.
o Highly positively charged end of the molecule can attract negative
end of neighbouring molecule.
o The hydrogen bond is the strongest secondary bonding type.