Definition.

• Sexual reproduction in animals

involves fertilisation.
• FERTILISATION: Is the fusion of
haploid male gamete the sperm
and the haploid female gamete
the ovum to form diploid zygote.
• Fertilisation can be external or
internal.
•CAUTION
• Some explanations, diagrams and
images in this Reproduction topic
notes may be offensive and
disturbing depending on your own
personal beliefs, life experiences,
religion, age and culture. Please
adjust accordingly.
 External fertilisation.
• Occurs in animals like fish,
amphibians…
• Process: -Male mounts female
– female lays eggs in a slippery
jelly-like substance as male sheds
sperms on the eggs where
fertilization occurs externally.
• Qn – Why is mounting necessary?
• – To maximize chances of
fertilisation.
Eggs in jelly
 Importance of jelly:
• Separates eggs from each other
to create room for air circulation.
• Enables embryos to float on water
after fertilization.
• Protects embryos from drying and
from predators.
• Attaches embryos to water plants
thus prevent them from being
carried downstream by water.
Eggs in jelly
 Advantages of external
fertilisation
• Many offspring produced at ago.
• Injuries, diseases and dangers
that come as a result of sexual
intercourse and pregnancy don’t
occur.
 Disadvantages of external
fertilisation.
• Danger of eggs and newly hatched
offspring being eaten by predators
due to lack of parental care.
• Eggs may dry if exposed.
• Wastage of sperms.
• Low chances of fertilisation.
• Can only occur in water not on dry
land.
• Competitions for air, space and food
may occur due to overcrowding of
young ones and thus lead to deaths.
 INTERNAL FERTILISATION.
• Is where Sperms are deposited in
mature female’s reproductive
system where fertilisation occurs
within the body of the female.
• ADVANTAGES: -
a) High chances of fertilisation.
b) Less wastage of sperms and eggs
c) Embryo and foetus is protected in
the female reproductive system.
d) Foetus/embryo get nourished well.
 Different forms of embryo/foetus
development in internal fertilisation.
• Oviparous – Embryo gets enclosed in
a shelled egg then the animal lays
the egg which hatches into young
one outside the body eg birds,
reptiles, insects, platypus mammal.
• Viviparity/viviparous – Foetus
develops fully in the uterus and
animal gives birth to young one eg
most mammals.
• Ovoviviparous – Embryo develop in
an egg but the egg is retained in the
animal where it hatches into young
one eg some snakes.
Crocodile
Ovoviviparous
 Note:
• Marsupial mammals: eg Kangaroo
and Wallabyand.
• -They give birth to immature
foetus which is retained in a
pouch where it completes its
development.
Wallabyand
Kangaroo
Kangaroo
Task:- Explain the functions of any 10 parts of
the male reproductive system using the
diagram below.
 THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM.
• ADAPTATIONS OF HUMAN MALE
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM. (Functions
of parts of male reproductive system)
1) Scrotum:
- Scrotum is skin sac like structure
that encases, protects and hangs the
testis outside the body cavity.
(Testis hang out of body cavity since
sperm formation process occur at
temperatures lower than that of
body)
(QN Why does scrotum coil and relax
when cold and hot respectively)
• 2. Testis:
• -Testis have interstitial cells that
secrete the male sex hormones
called androgens eg testosterone.
• – Testis has seminiferous tubules
whose cells form sperms.
• 3. Seminiferous tubule has sertoli
cells which nourish sperms.
• 4. Vas efferentia is a short tube for
passage of sperms from
seminiferous tubule to epididymis.
• 5. Epididymis is a highly coiled
tube for maturation and temporary
storage of sperms.
– Epididymis is muscular tube that
contracts to push sperms to vas
deferens during ejaculation.
• 6. Vas deferens (sperm duct) is
tube for passage of sperms from
epididymis to urethra.
• 7. Urethra is a tube for passage of
semen from sperm duct to the
female reproductive system
during mating.
- (Urethra is also a tube for
passage of urine from bladder).
–(The junction of sperm duct and
urethra has a valve that regulate
passage of urine and semen so
that they don’t pass out at ago)
• 8. Penis has muscular spongy
erectile tissue that fills with blood
during sexual excitement to erect
and so act as a copulation/coitus
organ.
• 9. Glans penis is tip/head of penis
that is sensitive and is stimulated
during sexual excitement to cause
erection of penis.
• 10. Fore skin/ prepuce is a fold of
skin covering and protecting the
glans penis.
• 11. Prostate gland has secretory
cells that secrete alkaline fluid for
neutralising the acidity of vaginal
fluids and activate sperms.
• 12. Seminal vescicle has
secretory cells that secrete an
alkaline fluid for nourishment of
sperms.
• 13. Cowper’s gland has secretory
cells that secrete alkaline fluid
that neutralises acidity along
urethra caused by urine.
• NOTE:
• Acidity kills sperms.
• These fluids also lubricate vagina
during mating.
• These fluids mix with sperms to
form semen
• These fluids also nourish sperms.
Side view
Front view
Front view
Snake 2 penises( Hemipenes)
Task:- Explain the functions of the parts of female
reproductive system using the diagram below.
 THE FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM.
• Adaptation of parts of female
reproductive system.
(Functions of parts of female
reproductive system).
1. Ovary forms graafian follicle that
secrets oestrogen hormone.
-Ovary forms corpus luteum which
secretes progesterone hormone.
–Ovary has ovarian vein and artery
which transports substances from
and to ovary respectively.
Graafian
follicle
 2) Ovarian ligaments are tough to
hold ovaries in position.
 3. Fallopian tube is funnel shaped for
effective receiving of ovum from
ovary.
 –Fallopian tube is tube that provides
space for fertilisation.
 –Fallopian tube is a tube for passage
of ovum from ovary to uterus.
 – Fallopian tube has cilia whose
beating action propels the
ovum/blastocyst to uterus.
 Fallopian tube wall has smooth
muscles whose contractions aids in
propelling ovum/blastocyst to
uterus.
• 4. Uterus has endometrium where
implantation and nourishment of
embryo occurs.
• – Uterus has muscular elastic
myometrium wall which can expand
500 times during pregnancy to
accommodate foetus
• Uterus has elastic muscular
myometrium wall that contracts to
expel foetus at birth.
Note:
- Uterus normal size without
pregnancy is 5cm wide and 8cm long.
- Blastocyst gets implanted then
develops into embryo then foetus in
the uterus.
• 5. Uterus ligaments are tough to
hold uterus in position.
• 6. Cervix is made of a ring of
muscles that contract during
pregnancy to hold foetus in uterus
and relax to let out the foetus at
birth.
• -Cervix has secretory cells that
secrete mucus plug that blocks
entrance to uterus during
pregnancy.
• 7. Vagina is muscular tube that can
enlarge during birth process to
allow passage of foetus.
• - Vagina is muscular tube that
receives penis during mating and is
where sperms are deposited during
ejaculation.
• – Vagina has vestibular gland which
secretes mucus during sexual
excitement for lubricating vagina
during mating.
• (Vagina is the organ of copulation in
females)
• 8. Vulva are valve like which
closes entrance to vagina and
opens entrance to vagina during
mating.
• - Vulva has vestibular glands
which secrete mucus during
sexual excitement for lubricating
penis and entrance to vagina
during mating.
• - Vulva has urethra opening for
passage of urine.
Some details and labels not neccessary
Front view
GAMETES: (Sperm and Ovum.)
• SPERM:
• Is male gamete
• Forms in gonad called testis.
• There are 100-300 millions of
sperms in one ejaculation.
• Parts of sperm include: head,
neck, middle piece, tail and end
piece.
• Draw sperm pg 112 F4 klb
 Adaptation of sperm.
(Functions of parts of sperm).
i. Head of sperm has acrosome
which contains lytic enzymes
that digest part of viteline
membrane of ovum to enable
sperm to penetrate into ovum
during fertilisation.
ii. Head has nucleus with
chromosomes and genes that are
passed to determine crt of
offspring after fertilisation.
• iii. Neck has centrioles that form
axial filaments.
• iv. Middle piece has axial filaments
which contract and relax to cause
movement of tail.
• v. Middle piece has mitochondria
that produce energy for swimming
of sperm.
• vi. Tail has axial filaments that
contracts and relax to cause tail
movements and so propel sperm
forward.
 OVUM: Adaptations
i. Has nucleus with chromosomes
and genes that determine crts of
offspring after fertilisation.
ii. Has cytoplasm with yolk that has
nutrients to nourish blastocyst
and young embryo.
iii.Follicle cells surround ovum for
protection and nourishment.
Draw ovum pg 112 klb
Do humans produce an egg?
Ovum
• iv. Ovum has Viteline and plasma
membrane for protection.
• Note: Ovum size is 0.1-0.2mm in
diameter. (Sperm is smaller than
ovum in size).
• Formation of ovum.
• About 70,000 potential eggs form
in ovary of female foetus before
birth.
• These eggs are surrounded by
follicle cells and are referred to as
primary follicle.
• 500 0f them survive to puberty.
• At puberty, one of this primary
follicles develops into graafian
follicle in each month then gets
released for possible fertilisation.
• These processes are controlled
by sex hormones such as
oestrogen, luteinising hormone,
follicle stimulating hormone and
progesterone hormone in a cycle
called menstrual cycle.
Ovum Vs Sperm
Plasma membrane
 TERMS.
Mating- Is male and female
coming together sexually.
Copulation- Sexual intercourse.
Ejaculation- Release of semen by
male reproductive system during
mating.
Courtship- Animal behaviour prior
to mating.
Ovulation- Release of ovum from
ovary.
Copulation
Copulation
Copulation
 Orgasm- Is the climax of sexual
intercourse. In male it is ejaculation
while in females it involves a series
of processes that cause uterus to
undergo a series of contractions
aimed at sucking in sperms.
 Note: In ovulation, ovum is released
into fallopian tube.
• The sperms released in ejaculation,
swim to uterus then swim to
fallopian tube where only one of
them fertilise the ovum.
 FERTILISATION.
• Is the fusion of sperm nucleus
with ovum nucleus to form zygote.
• It occurs in upper part of fallopian
tube.
 Process of fertilisation.
Sperms swim towards ovum by
chemotaxis.
The first sperms to meet ovum
remove the follicle cells.
One of the sperms come in
contact with ovum and its
acrosome busts to release lytic
enzymes.
 The lytic enzymes – i) Neutralises
the chemicals produced by ovum.
ii) Digests the viteline and plasma
membrane of ovum.
 The acrosome after bursting turns
inside out to form a filament that
enables sperm to penetrate into
ovum.
 The sperm head and middle piece
enters into ovum.
 Viteline membrane hardens to form
fertilisation membrane to hinder
other sperms from getting into
ovum.
The tail and end piece get cut and
remain out of ovum.
The haploid nucleus of sperm
emerge from head of sperm and
fuse with the haploid nucleus of
ovum to form diploid zygote.
 NOTE: - Life span of sperms in
fallopian tube is 12-48 hrs while
life span of ovum in fallopian tube
after ovulation is 8-24 hrs.
 After fertilisation.
• The zygote divides by mitosis to
form a ball like structure of cells
called blastocyst.
• The contractions of fallopian tube
muscles and the beating action of
cilia in fallopian tube propels the
blastocyst towards the uterus.
• Blastocyst takes 7 days in
fallopian tube to reach uterus.
• In uterus implantation occurs.
• Implantation is the process where
blastocyst lands on uterus
endometrium and develops
projections called villi (trophoblastic
villi) by which it gets firmly
attached to uterus endometrium to
form embryo.
• The point where villi attaches to
uterus wall forms PLACENTA.
• Role of villi: - a) Firmly attach
blastocyst to uterus wall.
–b) Formation of placenta
-c) Obtain nutrients for development
of embryo into foetus.
• After implantation the blastocyst
develops into embryo. Embryo
then develops into foetus.
• PREGNANCY/conception
• Starts at implantation.
• Ectopic pregnancy- Occur when
pregnancy occur in fallopian tube.
It is painful and can be fatal.
• Gestation period – Is period
between implantation to birth.
(It is 9mts in humans, 21mts in
elephant, 20 days in mouse etc)
Foetus in uterus
Foetus in uterus – What are you thinking about?
Malpresentation
Ectopic pregnancy
Ectopic pregnancy
Formation of membranes and
placenta after implantation.
• After implantation, the blastocyst outer
layer of cells forms 3 layers of
membranes that enclose the developing
embryo and foetus.
• The 3 membranes are – Amnion
(innermost), Chorion (outer most),
Allantois (middle).
• Amnion secretes amniotic fluid.
• Chorion –i)protects foetus and also
-ii) forms placenta at the point where
chorion villi, blastocyst/embryo villi,
endometrium and allantois meet.
 Role of amniotic fluid.
I. Supports foetus by keeping it
suspended.
II. Acts as shock absorber.
III.Prevents drying of foetus
IV.Allows for free growth and
movement of foetus.
Placenta
 Role of placenta
1) Gaseous exchange where CO2
from foetus diffuses into mothers
blood and oxygen in mothers
blood diffuse into foetus
circulation.
2) Act as excretory organ where
nitrogenous wastes from foetus
diffuse into mothers circulation.
• 3) Prevents mother’s and foetus
blood from mixing this protects
foetus from mothers high blood
pressure, and pathogens.
• 4) Secretes progesterone
hormone that maintain pregnancy.
• 5. Diffusion of nutrients from
mother’s circulation to foetus
circulation.
 Note:
• Some unwanted materials can
pass across placenta into foetus
circulation - like some medicine,
nicotine (in cigarette smoke),
syphilis causing bacteria, alcohol.
(Such materials harm the foetus)
• At the placenta the mother’s
blood circulation in uterus, forms
a sinus (Haemocoel) where
exchange of materials with foetus
circulation occur.
Umbilical artery and vein.
• Umbilical artery transports
deoxygenated blood rich in wastes
from foetus to placenta.
• Umbilical vein transports
oxygenated blood rich in nutrients
from placenta to foetus.
• These two blood vessels are
located in umbilical cord.
• (Draw the 3 diagram on pg 118 F3 klb)
Placenta
Placenta
 Birth. (parturition).
• Process of natural expulsion of
foetus from uterus as a baby at
end of gestation period.
• It is controlled by sex hormones.
Eg. Oxytocin hormone.
 Process of birth.
• Placenta reduces progesterone
secretion.
• Drop in progesterone level in blood
stimulates the posterior pituitary
gland of brain to secrete oxytocin
hormone.
• Oxytocin hormone stimulates a
series of contractions of
myometrium muscles of uterus-
(Labour pains) and dilation of cervix.
• Oxytocin stimulates further
intensified contractions of uterus
muscles, dilation of cervix.
• These leads to busting of amnion
and chorion membranes and
release of amniotic fluid.
• Uterus muscles contract from up
downward thus causing foetus to
be pushed downward and baby to
come out head first through the
vagina.
• Immediately pulsations in umbilical
cord stops, the umbilical cord is tied
at two points and cut.
• This induces breathing in baby and
air enters lungs for the first time.
The baby cries. Blood starts
circulating through pulmonary
artery to lungs then to heart via
pulmonary vein.
• The hole in the septum of heart
closes (If it doesn’t it leads to blue
baby defect)
• After giving birth, further
contractions of the uterus occurs
thus causing the placenta (after-
birth) to be expelled from uterus.
Normal heart
Normal heart
• (Not necessary)
• FONTANELL – Is membranous soft
gap between the bones of the upper
skull in an infant, foetus, baby.
• It enables the head of foetus to
squeeze through the birth canal at
birth.
• It heals/fills up within 3 – 5 months
after birth.
After birth - Placenta
Milk secretion and let down.
• The pituitary gland secretes
prolactin hormone which
stimulates mammary glands to
secrete milk.
• Milk let-down for baby to suckle is
a reflex action which is
determined by environmental
stimulants like suckling by baby,
smell of baby, crying of baby,
relaxed stress free conditions.
• These cause hypothalamus to
send message to pituitary gland
which secretes oxytocin hormone
into blood where it is transported
to breast and stimulates the
alveolus in lobules to contract and
release milk into lacteferous
sinus, where it is then suckled by
the baby. (Draw fig 3.48a pg 120
F3 Klb).
 Parental care.
• Provide protection & food to baby.
• Suckle the child with her breast
milk. It has colostrum which has
antibodies that help baby to fight
infection. It also has all nutrients
that the baby requires for proper
growth and development.
• Protect child from child labour.
 Terms:
• Caesarean delivery – Is surgical
removal of foetus at birth time.
• Abortion – Is artificial, premature
termination of pregnancy.
Caesarean delivery
• Miscarriage – Is birth before
completion of 6 mts of pregnancy
– Is usually fatal.
• Premature birth – Is birth after 7
months but before 9 mts. Baby Can
survive if raised in incubator.
Caesarean delivery
People carry out illegal abortion at different stages
 Types of twins:
1) Identical twins – Form when a
zygote divide into two and
separates to develop into different
embryos.
2) Non-identical twins – Occur when
the 2 ovaries release uvum at ago
which get fertilised.
3) Siamese twins – Zygote divides into
two and starts to separate but fail
to separate fully, thus develop into
2 but joined embryos.
Twins in the womb
Malpresentation of twins in womb
Siemese twins
Siemese twins
Siemese twins
Siemese twins
Siemese twins
Siemese twins
Siemese twins
 ROLE OF HORMONES IN
REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
• The hormones include Follicle
stimulating hormone, Oestrogen,
Luteinising, progesterone, Oxytocin,
prolactin.
• These are secreted by pituitary
gland in brain and ovary also by
placenta.
• These hormones are secreted
directly into blood where they are
transported to target organ. (they
are not transported in ducts).
1. Follicle stimulating hormone.(FSH)
(secreted by pituitary gland).

a) Stimulates development of
graafian follicle in the ovary.
b) Stimulate ovary’s graafian follicle
to secrete oestrogen hormone.
c) In males it stimulates sperm
formation in testis.
 2. Oestrogen hormone
(secreted by ovary)
a) Stimulates healing and repair of
uterus endometrium after
menstruation.
b) Stimulate secretion of luteinising
hormone by the pituitary gland.
c) Stimulates formation of
secondary sexual characteristics
in females.
3. Luteinising hormone (LH).
(Secreted by pituitary gland)
a) Causes maturation of graafian
follicle and ovum.
b) Causes ovulation to occur.
c) Stimulates graafian follicle to
develop into corpus luteum in ovary
after ovulation.
d) Stimulate corpus luteum in ovary to
secrete progesterone hormone.
e) In males it stimulates the
interstitial cells of testis to secrete
testosterone hormone (Androgen).
4. Progesterone hormone
• (Secreted by corpus luteum of
ovary but after 4 mts of
pregnancy, it is secreted by
placenta).
a) Inhibits secretion of FSH by
pituitary.
b) Stimulate further development of
uterus endometrium in
preparation for pregnancy.
• c) Maintains pregnancy by
preventing contraction of uterus
muscles.
• d) Inhibit secretion of oxytocin but
when its level decreases at end of
pregnancy, oxytocin hormone gets
secreted by pituitary gland.
• e) Promotes implantation.
• f) Stimulate development of
placenta and breast enlargement.
• (Qn – Explain if pregnancy will
continue incase ovaries of a lady are
removed 5 months after pregnancy)
• 5. Oxytocin hormone. (secreted by
pituitary gland of brain).
- Stimulate contraction of uterus
myometrium muscles to contract
during parturition.
- Stimulate milk let down.
• 6. Prolactin hormone. (secreted
by pituitary gland of brain).
- Stimulate milk secretion in
mammary glands.
• 7. Testosterone hormone.
-in males
• - Secreted by interstitial cells of
testis.
• - Stimulate development of
secondary sexual characteristics in
males.
• - Stimulate sperm formation in testis
at puberty.
• (Testosterone secretion in males
start at foetus stage in womb. This
enables the male foetus to survive
as male in the mother-female).
 Note

1. Gonadotrophic hormones are

those secreted by pituitary gland
eg FSH and LH.
2. Sex hormones in females are
secreted periodically according
to stages of menstrual cycle
while in males the hormones are
secreted continuously.
 Secondary sexual
characteristic in males.
a) Body becomes more muscular
b) Deepening of voice.
c) Pubic and arm pit hair growth.
d) Broadening of shoulders.
e) Enlargement of testis.
f) Enlargement of penis.
g) Ejaculation starts.
h) (Start at age 12-14)
 Secondary sexual
characteristics in females.
a) Development of mammary glands
b) Broadening of pelvic girdle and
hips.
c) Pubic and arm pit hair growth.
d) Menstruation starts.
(Starts at age 10-12 years).
• Qn:
• What will happen to development
of secondary sexual
characteristics if the sperm ducts
or the fallopian tubes are blocked.
• Give an explanation of your
answer above.
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE.
• Occurs in human females as from
puberty to menopause.
• It is controlled by 4 hormones namely:
- FSH, LH, oestrogen, progesterone.
• Takes 28 days.
• Involves 4 main events:
i. Menstruation
ii. Healing, repair of endometrium.
iii. Ovulation.
iv. Preparation of endometrium for
implantation
Task: In groups of 5’s, using your text book and
graph below, discuss how hormones regulate
the various activities that occur during
menstruation in ovary and endometrium
• DAY 1-7:
• Day one of the cycle is the day on
which menstruation starts which
indicates there was no
fertilisation and no implantation.
• (Menses flow takes 3-4 days).
• Level of progesterone hormone
drops. This stimulates pituitary
gland to secrete FSH.
• FSH stimulates ovary to form
graafian follicle.
• DAY 7-14:
• FSH stimulates graafian follicle of
ovary to secrete oestrogen
hormone.
• Oestrogen hormone stimulates
healing and repair of uterus
endometrium.
• Oestrogen stimulates anterior
pituitary gland to secrete LH.
• LH stimulates maturation of
graafian follicle (which has ovum).
• DAY 14:
• LH stimulates ovulation to occur
ie release of mature ovum from
graafian follicle and out of ovary
to fallopian tube.
• DAY 14-21:
• (Preparing endometrium of uterus
for implantation)
• LH stimulates graafian follicle to
develop into corpus luteum in
ovary after ovulation.
• LH stimulates corpus luteum of
ovary to secrete progesterone
hormone.
• Progesterone stimulates further
thickening of endometrium in
preparation for implantation.
• Progesterone hormone inhibits
the pituitary gland from secreting
LH and FSH no graafian follicle
forms nor ovulation occurs.
• DAY 21-28:
• High level of progesterone keeps
uterus wall thick.
• Later due to no pregnancy, corpus
luteum degenerates thus causing
decrease in level of progesterone
hormone. This stimulates uterus
muscles to start contractions
thus on 28th day thus causing
start of menstruation ie day 1 of
the next menstrual cycle.
• Decrease in level of progesterone
also stimulates pituitary gland to
secrete FSH.
• (NOTE – in exams better write the
names of hormones in full and not
initials like FSH, LH…)
• Asignment
• Write notes on menopause (pg
123 F3 KLB)
• Use the calendar below to answer
these questions:
• 1. If menstruation starts on 19th Jan,
determine the day on which.
• i) ovulation will occur.
• ii) next periods will start
• iii) Unsafe days
• 2. Which hormone will be at high
level on 22nd , 31st and 10th Feb. Give
reason for their high levels on those
dates.
*Answer the above Qns using 30th may
as date of start of periods.
 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED
INFECTIONS (STIs).
• Include:
1) Syphilis
2) Gonorrhea
3) Trichomoniasis
4) Candidiasis
5) Hepatitis
6) Herpes
7) HIV and AIDS
 1. Syphilis.
• Cause: Spirochaete bacteria called
Trepanoma pallidum (Ensure you
underline scientific names
separately if handwritten)
• Incubation period: 7-90 days.
• Transmission: -Sexual intercourse
with infected person.
–Blood transfusion from infected
person.
–Infected mother to foetus across
placenta. (Such baby is born blind
with heart defects and mental
diseases).
• Symptoms: Appear in 3 phases.
• Stage 1-Primary(acute) stage:
• -Occur in the 1st 21 days.
• -Painless sore/ulcer appear on
genitals (tip of penis, at vulva,
vagina).
• -The sore heals on its own.
• Stage 2-Secondary stage:
• -Occur after 6 mts (2 mts) after
stage 1 if stage 1 is untreated.
• -Slight fever, sore throat.
• Rashes, macules (discoloured
spots), papules (pimples), appear
on hands, feet, oral cavity, lips
and genital areas.
• Stage 3 – Tertiary phase:
• -Occur 1 or more years after stage
2 if stage 2 is untreated.
• -Heart defects occur.
• -Brain meninges membranes get
damaged thus affecting brain
function and causing insanity.
• -Blindness.
 Control of syphilis
• Avoid sexual intercourse with
infected person.
• Have protected sex (condom use).
• TREATEMENT:
• -Treated using antibiotics
especially in the first stages of
infection.
• -Specialised treatment necessary
for stage 2 & 3 stages
• Checkups every after 6 mts after
treatment to ensure total healing.
Babies – Infected in womb
Babies – Infected in womb
 2. Gonorrhea
• Cause: Gonococcus bacteria
called Neisseria gonorrhea
–attacks vagina and urethra in
penis.
• Incubation period: 2-14 days.
• Transmission:
• -Sex with infected person.
• -Mother to baby during birth.
• Symptoms:
• -In males- i) Itching of urethra
• ii) Yellowish discharge from
urethra.
• iii) Pain when urinating.
• -In females- Unusual vaginal
ordour.
• Control: -Avoid sex with infected
person.
• - Protected sex (condom use).
• - Educate public on dangers of
STDs and how to control and treat
• Treatment: -Effectively treated
using appropriate antibiotics.
• -If untreated it leads to spinal
cord problems, urinary bladder
prb, and sterility.
Details not necessary

Neisserie gonorrhea
 3. Herpes.
• Cause:
• -Virus called Herpes simplex.
• Transmission:
• -Sexual intercourse with infected
person.
• -Kissing infected person.
• -Contaminated needles and
syringes.
• Symptoms:
• -Painless sores/lesions on skin
and mucous membranes of
vagina, head of penis, mouth,
vulva and conjunctiva of eye.
• Control:
• -Avoid sex and kissing with
infected person.
• -Sterilize needles and syringes.
• - Seek medical attention.
(antibiotics cant be used to treat).
Details not necessary
 4. Trichomoniasis
• Cause: -Protozoa called
Trichomonas vaginalis
• Transmission:
• -Sex with infected person.
• -Contaminated linen.
• Symptoms:
• -Itch in male urethra and vagina.
• Inflammation when urinating.
• -Smelly yellow discharge from
vagina. In male the discharge is
unnoticeable.
• Control:
• -Avoid sharing contaminated linen.
• -Protected sex.
• -Avoid sex with infected person.
• -High hygiene in genital areas.
• Treatment:
• -Cured by appropriate antibiotics.
Details not necessary

Trichomonas vaginalis
 5. Hepatitis
• Cause: (causative agent).
• -Hepatitis virus type A and type B.
• Incubation period:
• -2-6 months.
• Transmission:
• -Blood transfusion from infected
person.
• -Unsterilized needles and syringes
• -Sex with infected person.
• -Kissing infected person.
• -Using contaminated razors,
surgical tools.
• Effect of the virus – Damages liver
• Symptoms :
• -Flu -Diarrhoea -Jaundice
• -Nausea -Severe appetite loss.
• Control:
• - Vaccination.
• - Protected sex.
• - Use sterilised shaving, needles,
surgical instruments…
• - Observe high std of hygiene.
Details not necessary
 6. Candidiasis
• Cause:
• -Yeast called Candida albicans.
• - Affects genitals of both male and
females.
 Vaginal Candidiasis
• Transmission:
• - Sex with infected man.
• - This yeast can be in vagina but
remain harmless. But if vagina pH
changes or the bacteria that
keeps the level of this yeast at
low level is destroyed by
antibiotics usage, then this yeast
will increase and become harmful.
• Symptoms:
• - Ordourless vaginal white
discharge.
• - Itching feeling at genitals.
• Control:
• - Avoid strongly scented soap,
disinfectants since they can change
vaginal pH.
• - Use loose cotton pants for aeration
of genitals
• - Wipe front backwards after call to
prevent spread of the yeast from
anus to vagina.
• Treatment:
• - Administer ant-fungal drugs.
• Note: - Diabetic patients are more
likely to suffer from this disease
since their conditions favour this
yeast to thrive.
 7. HIV and AIDS
• AIDS – Acquired immune
deficiency syndrome
• HIV – Human immunodeficiency
virus.
• AIDS :
• Cause: AIDS is caused by Human
Immuno Defficiency Virus-HIV
• - This virus has RNA covered with
a protein coat.
Details not necessary
• -HIV is a virus referred to as
A retrovirus since for it to
reproduce its RNA has to be
converted to DNA and this can
only occur in a living cell.
• (The drug used to reduce HIV is
called Anti-Retro Virals (ARVs)
since it prevents the RNA in HIV
from being converted to DNA (ie
prevent retro process) thus
making HIV unable to reproduce).
• -HIV attacks, reproduces in, and
destroys white blood cells
(lymphocytes) thus making them
unable to defend the body against
infections. This makes body’s
immune system to be deficient in
defense ie suffer from AIDS.
• Transmission:
a) Sex with infected person.
(Heterosexual or homosexual
union).
b) Blood transfusion from infected
person.
c) In accidents where infected
blood gets in contact with
wounds of healthy person.
• d) Kissing infected person if one
has wounds on mouth.
• e) Sharing use of surgical tools,
razors, needles… with infected
person.
• f) From infected mother to babies
at birth and breast milk.
• Organ transplant using grafts
from infected person.
• Note: - HIV is in body fluids like in
lymph, blood, and in fluids of
reproductive parts eg semen and
vaginal fluids and is transmitted
through this fluids by infected
person.
• -HIV can pass across mucus
membranes of reproductive
parts.
• -HIV can’t be transmitted by
contact.
• Symptoms: Occur in stages:
1) Stage 1- Persistent fever.
- Swelling of lymph nodes.
- Skin rashes.
- Persistent headache and cough.
– (This symptoms disappear after
1-3 months)
• 2) Stage 2:
- Person appear normal.
- Slight increase in swelling of
lymph nodes occurs.
- (This stage may take 3 months
to several years).
• 3) Stage 3:
• - Several infections start due to
reduced immunity such as:
• - Persistent diarrhoea.
• - Lesions/wounds on mucous
membranes of mouth and
genitals.
• - Persistent pneumonia.
• - Tuberculosis etc.
• Also the following signs:
i. Skin cancer.
ii. Elongation of the sensory hairs
on tongue.
iii.Fatigue.
iv. Further swelling of lymph nodes.
v. Pale skin appearance.
vi. Loss of memory.
Horrifying AIDS symptoms when ARVs are not used
Control and management of
HIV AIDS.
1) Take anti retro viral (ARVs)
drugs.
2) Eat balanced diet and foods that
boost body immunity.
3) Treat well the opportunistic
infections eg pneumonia, TB,
skin diseases, diarrhoea…
4) Positive living.
• 5. Positive behaviour change.
-By avoiding indiscriminate sex.
-Avoid alcoholism and drug
addiction since they expose one
to high risk of being infected.
-Avoid cultural practices like wife
inheritance, FGM, traditional
circumcision…
• 6. Blood screening for HIV before
transfusion.
• 7. Avoid sharing tooth brush,
razors, surgical tools
contaminated with blood and body
fluids from infected person.
• 8. Male circumcision.
• 9. Visit VCT center to know your
status and avoid spread if
positive.
• Note: There is no vaccine against
AIDS because The HIV virus
keeps changing its structure.
• - Testing for HIV is done by
detecting presence of antibodies
that white blood cells form to
fight HIV in the blood.
• There is no treatment for AIDS
(ARVs only helps in managing its
adverse effects) A person using
ARVs appears fine but can spread
HIV)
Social and Economic effects
of HIV/AIDS
a) Death of economically productive
people lowers economic growth of
the country.
b) Reduces labour force in the
country.
c) Loss of parents leaves orphans
who may drop out of school.
d) Burden to society trying to bring up
orphans.
e) Expensive in acquiring drugs and
special diet for victims.
 Other defects of reproductive
system:
(These details not necessary)
• Endometriosis – Abnormal
formation of endometrium tissue
(of uterus) in other parts of body
other than uterus and which
undergo menstruation just as in
uterus!
ENDOMETRIOSIS
 CERVICAL CANCER

Controlled by vaccination of girls at puberty

FIBROID IMAGES
Fibroid together with uterus removed surgically
Fibroids removed surgically
 Advantages of asexual
reproduction.
1. The good characteristics of
parent are retained over many
generations.
2. A sure means of reproduction
since it doesn’t depend on
processes like pollination,
fertilisation, and dispersal which
may fail to occur.
3. Offsprings mature faster.
• 4. High survival rate since
offspring depends on parent food
reserves to survive.
• 5. Less wastage of offspring since
it doesn’t involve dispersal.
 Disadvantages of asexual
reproduction
a) Offspring can inherit the bad
characteristics of parent.
b) Low survival chances of species
due to lack of variation.
c) Overcrowding and competition
due to lack of dispersal.
d) Reduction of vigour/productivity
from generation to the next.
 Advantages of sexual
reproduction
1) There is variation due to mixing
of male and female genes which
promotes survival of species.
2) Lead to hybrid vigour.
3) Less overcrowding due to
dispersal esp in plants.
 Disadvantages of sexual
reproduction.
A. May fail due to failure of
processes like pollination,
fertilisation and dispersal.
B. May produce offsprings with bad
characteristics if one of the
parents has bad crts.
• NOTE: Ensure you study your
text books and add more
information to these notes
from the text books and from
your teacher.
• Strictly follow your biology
teacher’s notes and guidelines
alongside these notes
• Also study your text book
diagrams. Physically answer
many questions on these form
three topics and carry out
practicals so as to get well
grounded in biology.