CHAPTER 3

MEETING LIFE CHALLENGES

Differentiate Eustress and distress.
Eustress is the term used to describe the level of stress that is good for you and is one of a
person’s best assets for achieving peak performance and managing minor crisis. Eustress,
however, has the potential of turning into ‘distress’ which causes both physical and
psychological damage.
What is stress?
 Stress is the pattern of responses an organism makes to stimulus event that disturbs
the equilibrium and exceeds a person’s ability to cope.
 The word stress originates from the Latin words ‘strictus’, meaning tight or narrow
and ‘stringere’, the verb meaning to tighten.
 The reaction to external stressors is called ‘strain’
Cognitive theory of stress - Lazarus
The perception of stress is dependent upon the individual’s cognitive appraisal of events
and the resources available to deal with them – Discuss
 Lazarus has distinguished between two types of appraisal, i.e. primary and
secondary.
 Primary appraisal refers to the perception of a new or changing environment as
positive, neutral or negative
 Negative events are appraised for their possible harm, threat or challenge.
 Harm is the assessment of the damage that has already been done by an event.
 Threat is the assessment of possible future damage that may be brought about by the
event.
 A challenge appraisal is the expectations of the ability to cope with the stressful
event.
Secondary appraisal –
 assessment of one’s coping abilities and resources
 These resources may be mental, physical, personal or social.
 If one has a positive attitude, health, skills and social support to deal with the crises
s/he will feel less stressed.
 These appraisals are very subjective and will depend on many factors.
 Past experience - If one has handled similar situations very successfully in the
past, they would be less threatening for her/him.
 Controllability - A person who believes that s/he can control a negative
situation will experience less amount of stress than those who have no such
sense of personal control.
Reaction to stress:
Physiological reaction:
 The hypothalamus initiates action along two pathways.
 First, in the autonomic nervous system, the adrenal gland releases large amount of
catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) into the blood stream.
 This leads to fight-or-flight response.
 Second - the pituitary gland, secretes the corticosteroid (cortisol) which provides
energy.
Emotional reactions
 negative emotions such as fear, anxiety, embarrassment, anger, depression or even
denial.
Behavioural reactions – fight or flight
Cognitive reactions - include responses such as inability to concentrate, and intrusive,
repetitive thoughts.
How does stress vary from one person to another?
 intensity (low intensity vs. high intensity),
 duration (short-term vs. long term),
 complexity ( less complex vs. more complex) and
 predictability (unexpected vs. predictable).
 Usually more intense, prolonged or chronic, complex and unanticipated stresses
have more negative consequences than less intense, short-term, less complex and
expected stresses.
 Physiological strength - individuals with poor physical health and weak constitution
would be more vulnerable than would be those who enjoy good health and strong
constitution.
 Psychological characteristics - mental health, temperament, and selfconcept are
relevant to the experience of stress.
 Stress experience will be determined by the resources of the person, such as money,
social skills, coping style, support networks, etc
TYPES OF STRESS
Physical and Environmental Stress
 Physical stresses are demands that change the state of our body.
 We feel strained when we overexert ourselves physically, lack a nutritious diet, suffer
an injury, or fail to get enough sleep.
Environmental stresses
 Aspects of our surroundings those are often unavoidable such as air pollution,
crowding, noise, heat of the summer, winter cold, etc.
 Another group of environmental stresses are catastrophic events or disasters such as
fire, earthquake, floods, etc.
Psychological stress
 Frustration - results from the blocking of needs and motives by something or
someone that hinders us from achieving a desired goal. Ex: social discrimination,
interpersonal hurt, low grades in school, etc.
 Conflicts – confusion between two or more incompatible needs or motives, e.g.
whether to study dance or psychology.
 Internal pressures - stem from beliefs based upon expectations from inside us to
ourselves such as, ‘I must do everything perfectly’.
 Social pressures – comes from people who make excessive demands on us which can
cause even greater pressure when we have to work with them
Social Stress
 Result from our interaction with other people
 Social events like death or illness in the family, strained relationships, trouble with
neighbours are some examples of social stresses.
 It varies from person to person. Ex: Attending parties may be stressful for a person
who likes to spend quiet evenings at home while an outgoing person may find staying
at home in the evenings stressful.
Sources of stress
Life Events
 Changes, both big and small, sudden and gradual affect our life
 We can cope with small, everyday changes but major life events can be stressful,
because they disturb our routine
  If these life events that are planned (e.g. moving into a new house) or unpredicted
(e.g. break-up of a long-term relationship) occur within a short period of time, we find
it difficult to cope with them
Hassles
 The happenings in our daily life, such as noisy surroundings, commuting, quarrelsome
neighbours, electricity and water shortage are examples of daily hassles.
 Attending to various emergencies are daily hassles experienced by a housewife.
 These daily hassles may sometimes have devastating consequences for the individual
who is often the one coping alone with them
 These hassles results in stress, thereby reduce a person’s psychological well-being.
Traumatic Events
 Events such as a fire, train or road accident, robbery, earthquake, tsunami, etc are
examples of traumatic events
 The effects of these events may occur after some time and the person might
experience symptoms of anxiety, flashbacks, dreams and disturbing thoughts, etc.
 Professional help will be needed to cope with them especially if they persist for many
months
EFFECTS OF STRESS ON PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING AND HEALTH
Emotional Effects:
 People with stress are likely to experience mood swings, and show aggressive
behaviour that may alienate them from family and friends.
 In some cases this can start a vicious circle of decreasing confidence, leading to more
serious emotional problems.
 Some examples are feelings of anxiety and depression, increased physical tension,
increased psychological tension and mood swings.
Physiological Effects :
 When the human body is placed under stress, it increases the production of certain
hormones, such as adrenaline and cortisol that produce changes in heart rate, blood
pressure levels, metabolism and physical activity.
 Although, this physical reaction will help us to function more effectively, it can be
extremely damaging to the body in the long-term effects.
 Examples of physiological effects are release of epinephrine and norepinephrine,
slowing down of the digestive system, expansion of air passages in the lungs,
increased heart rate, and
constriction of blood vessels.
Cognitive Effects :
 Too much of stress leads to mental overload and cause individuals to lose their ability
to make sound decisions.
 Faulty decisions made at home, in career, or at workplace may lead to arguments,
failure, financial loss or even loss of job.
 Cognitive effects of stress are poor concentration, and reduced short-term memory
capacity.
Behavioural Effects:
 Stress affects our behaviour in the form of eating less nutritional food, increasing
intake of stimulants such as caffeine, excessive consumption of cigarettes, alcohol and
other drugs such as tranquillisers etc.
 Tranquillisers can be addictive and have side effects such as loss of concentration,
poor coordination, and dizziness.
  Some of the typical behavioural effects of stress seen are disrupted sleep patterns,
increased absenteeism, and reduced work performance.
Stress and Health
 People who are unhappy in their personal lives fall sick more often than those who are
happy
 People with chronic daily stress do not care for herself or himself.
 When stress is prolonged, it affects physical health and impairs psychological
functioning.
 People get exhausted when stress from the environment is too high and little support
is available from family and friends.
 Physical exhaustion – chronic fatigue, weakness and low energy.
 Mental exhaustion - irritability, anxiety, feelings of helplessness and hopelessness.
 The state of physical, emotional and psychological exhaustion is known as burnout.
 Stress can produce changes in the immune system and increase the chances of
becoming ill. Stress leads to development of cardiovascular disorders, high blood
pressure, as well as psychosomatic disorders including ulcers, asthma, allergies and
headaches
GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME - Selye
What happens to the body when stress is prolonged?
 Selye exposed animals to a variety of stressors such as high temperature, X-rays and
insulin injections, in the laboratory and also observed patients with various injuries
and illnesses
in hospitals.
 Selye noticed a similar pattern of bodily response in all of them which he called the
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS).
 GAS involves three stages:
 Alarm reaction stage :
 The presence of stressor leads to activation of the adrenal pituitary-cortex
system.
 This releases hormones producing stress response that prepares the individual
for fight or flight.
 Resistance stage :
 If stress is prolonged, the resistance stage begins.
 The parasympathetic nervous system makes use of the body’s resources.
 The organism makes efforts to cope with the threat

 Exhaustion stage :
 Continued exposure to the same stressor drains the body’s resources and leads
to the exhaustion.
 The physiological systems involved in alarm reaction and resistance become
ineffective and the person develops stress-related diseases such as high blood
pressure
Why was Selye’s model criticized?
 Selye’s model has been criticised for assigning a very limited role to psychological
factors in stress.
 Researchers have reported that the psychological appraisal of events is important for
the
determination of stress.
  How people respond to stress is substantially influenced by their perceptions,
personalities and biological constitutions.
Stress and the Immune System
What is Psychoneuroimmunology?
 Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on the links between the mind, the brain and the
immune system.
 It studies the effects of stress on the immune system.
How does the immune system work?
 The white blood cells (leucocytes), within the immune system, identify and destroy
the foreign bodies (antigens) such as viruses and also produce antibodies.
 The different kinds of white blood cells or leucocytes are T cells, B cells and natural
killer cells.
 T cells destroy invaders, and T-helper cells increase immunological activity.
 It is these T-helper cells that are attacked by the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus
(HIV), the virus causing Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
 B cells produce antibodies and natural killer cells are involved in the fight against
both viruses and tumours.
How can stress affect natural killer cell cytotoxicity?
 Natural killer cell cytotoxicity, plays a major role in the defence against various
infections and cancer.
 Reduced levels of natural killer cell cytotoxicity have been found in people who are
highly stressed, including students facing important examinations, bereaved persons,
and those who are severely depressed
How can negative emotions affect the immune system?
 Psychological stress is accompanied by negative emotions
 The incidence of psychological disorders, such as panic attacks and obsessive
behaviour increases with the build-up of long-term stress.
 People under prolonged stress are more prone to irrational fears, mood swings and
phobias, and may experience fits of depression, anger and irritability.
 These negative emotions appear to be related to the function of the immune system
 Negative moods have been associated with poorer health outcomes.
 Feelings of hopelessness are related to worsening of disease, increased risk of injury
and death due to various causes.

Lifestyle
 Lifestyle is the overall pattern of decisions and behaviours that determine a person’s
health and quality of life.
 Stressed individuals expose themselves to pathogens, which are agents causing
physical illness.
 People who are stressed have poor nutritional habits, sleep less and are likely to
engage in other health risking behaviours like smoking and alcohol abuse.
 Though these behaviours are temporarily rewarding, they have long-term negative
effects
 Promoting behaviour like balanced diet, regular exercise, family support, etc. play an
important role in good health.
 Practicing a lifestyle that includes balanced low fat diet, regular exercise and
continued activity along with positive thinking enhances health and longevity.
COPING WITH STRESS
Coping is a dynamic situation-specific reaction to stress.
The three coping strategies given by Endler and Parker are:
 Task-oriented Strategy :
 This involves obtaining information about the stressful situation, its alternative
courses of action and the outcome
 It also decides on priorities and acting so as to deal directly with the stress
 For example, schedule my time better, or think about how I have solved
similar problems.
 Emotion-oriented Strategy :
 This involves efforts to control one’s emotions by either venting feelings of
anger and frustration, or deciding that nothing can be done to change things.
 For example, tell myself that it is not really happening to me, or worry about
what I am going to do.
 Avoidance-oriented Strategy :
 This involves minimising the seriousness of the situation by conscious
suppression of stressful thoughts and their replacement by self-protective
thoughts.
 Example: watching TV, phone up a friend, or try to be with other people.
According to Lazarus and Folkman coping responses can be divided into two types:
 Problem-focused strategies attack the problem itself, with behaviours designed to
gain information, to alter the event, belief and commitments.
 They increase the person’s awareness, level of knowledge, and range of behavioural
and cognitive coping options.
 For example “I made a plan of action and followed it”.
 Emotion-focused strategies call for psychological changes designed primarily to limit
the degree of emotional disruption caused by an event, with minimal effort to alter the
event .
 For example “I did some things to let it out of my system”.
Stress Management Techniques
Relaxation Techniques :
 Relaxation starts from the lower part of the body and progresses up to the facial
muscles in such a way that the whole body is relaxed.
 Deep breathing is used along with muscle relaxation to calm the mind and relax the
body.
Meditation Procedures :
 The yogic method of meditation consists of a sequence of learned techniques for
refocusing of attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness.
 It involves such a thorough concentration that the meditator becomes unaware of any
outside stimulation and reaches a different state of consciousness.
Biofeedback :
 It is a procedure to monitor and reduce the physiological aspects of stress by
providing feedback about current physiological activity and is often accompanied by
relaxation training.
 Biofeedback training involves three stages :
 developing an awareness of the particular physiological response, e.g. heart
rate,
 learning ways of controlling that response in quiet conditions;
 Transferring that learning of control to everyday life.
Creative Visualisation :
 Creative visualisation is a subjective experience that uses imagery and imagination.
 Before visualising one must set oneself a realistic goal, as it helps build confidence.
  It is easier to visualise if one’s mind is quiet and eyes are closed because it reduces
the interference of negative thoughts and gives energy to turn out the imagination to
reality.
Cognitive Behavioural Techniques :
 Stress inoculation training is one effective method developed by Meichenbaum.
 The essence of this approach is to replace negative and irrational thoughts with
positive ones.
 There are three main phases in this :
 Assessment - involves discussing the nature of the problem and seeing it from
the client’s point of view.
 Stress reduction - involves learning the techniques of reducing stress such as
relaxation and self-instruction.
 Follow through – to check whether the techniques have worked well
Exercise:
 Regular exercise improves the efficiency of the heart, enhances the function of the
lungs, maintains good circulation, lowers blood pressure, reduces fat in the blood and
improves the body’s immune system.
 Swimming, walking, running, cycling, skipping, etc. help to reduce stress.
 One must practice these exercises at least four times a week for 30 minutes at a time.
PROMOTING POSITIVE HEALTH AND WELL-BEING
Stress Resistant Personality : Kobasa
 People with high levels of stress but low levels of illness share three
characteristics, which are referred to as the personality traits of hardiness.
 It consists of ‘the three Cs’, i.e. commitment, control, and challenge.
 Hardiness is a set of beliefs about oneself, the world, and how they interact.
 People with SRP have personal commitment to what you are doing, a sense of
control over your life, and a feeling of challenge.
 Stress resistant personalities have control which is a sense of purpose and direction
in life; commitment to work, family, hobbies and social life; and challenge, that
is, they see changes in life as normal and positive rather than as a threat.
Life Skills
Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to
deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life
Assertiveness :
 Assertiveness is a behaviour or skill that helps to communicate, clearly and
confidently, our feelings, needs, wants, and thoughts.
 It is the ability to say no to a request, to state an opinion without being self-
conscious, or to express emotions such as love, anger, etc. openly.
Time Management :
 Learning how to plan time and delegate can help to relieve the pressure.
 The central principle of time management is to spend your time doing the things that
you value, or that help you to achieve your goals.
 It depends on being realistic about what you know and doing it within time period and
knowing what you want to do, and organising your life according to that.
Rational Thinking :
 Many stress-related problems occur because of faulty thinking.
 When we are stressed, we attend to negative thoughts and images from the past,
which affect our perception of the present and the future.
  Some of the ways to develop positive thinking are challenging your irrational beliefs,
driving out negative anxiety-provoking thoughts, and making positive statements.
Improving Relationships :
 The key to a sound lasting relationship is communication.
 This consists of three essential skills:
 listening to what the other person is saying,
 expressing how you feel and what you think, and
 accepting the other person’s opinions and feelings, even if they are different
from your own
Self-care :
 If we keep ourselves healthy, we will be able to tackle the stresses of everyday life.
 Our breathing patterns reflect our state of mind andemotions.
 When we are stressed or anxious, we may have rapid breathing
 The most relaxed breathing is slow, stomach-centred breathing from the diaphragm,
i.e. a dome like muscle between the chest and the abdominal cavity.
 Environmental stresses like noise, pollution etc. can influence on mood and may
affect our ability to cope with stress, and well-being.
Overcoming Unhelpful Habits :
 Perfectionists are persons who have difficulty in factors such as time available,
consequences of not being able to stop work, and the effort needed.
 They are more likely to feel tense and find it difficult to relax, are critical of self and
others, and may become inclined to avoid challenges.
 Avoidance is to put the issue under the carpet and refuse to accept or face it.
 Procrastination means putting off what we know we need to do.
 People who procrastinate are deliberately avoiding confronting their fears of failure or
rejection.
Promoting positive health:
 Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social and spiritual well-being, and
not merely the absence of disease or infirmity
What are the factors that act as stress buffers and facilitate positive health?
Diet :
 A balanced diet strengthen the immune system and make one feel better to cope with
stress
 The key to healthy living is to eat a varied well-balanced diet.
 How much nutrition one needs depends on one’s activity level, genetic make-up,
climate, and health history.
 What people eat, and how much do they weigh involve behavioural processes.
 When we are stressed, we seek ‘comfort foods’ which are high in fats, salt and sugar.
Exercise :
 Regular exercise plays an important role in managing weight and stress, and is shown
to have a positive effect on reducing tension, anxiety and depression.
 stretching exercises such as yogic asanas gives a calming effect and aerobic exercises
such as jogging, swimming, cycling, etc increase the arousal level of the body
 fitness permits individuals to maintain general mental and physical wellbeing even in
the face of negative life events.
Positive Attitude :
 Some of the factors leading to a positive attitude are:
 having a fairly accurate perception of reality;
 a sense of purpose in life and responsibility;
  acceptance and tolerance for different viewpoints of others;
 and taking credit for success and accepting blame for failure.
 Finally, being open to new ideas and having a sense of humour with the ability
to laugh at oneself help us to remain centered, and see things in a proper
perspective.
Positive Thinking :
 Optimism has always been linked to psychological and physical wellbeing.
 Optimists tend to assume that problems can be handled successfully whereas
pessimists expect disasters.
 Optimists use more problem-focused coping strategies, and seek advice and help from
others.
 Pessimists ignore the problem and use strategies such as giving up the goal or deny
that the stress exists
Social Support :
Social support is defined as the existence and availability of people on whom we can rely
upon, people who let us know that they care about, value, and love us.
Perceived support, - the quality of social support is positively related to health and
wellbeing, Social network, - the quantity of social support is unrelated to well-being
What are the types of social support?
 Tangible support - assistance involving material aid, such as money, goods, services,
etc.
For example, a child gives notes to her/his friend, since s/he was absent from school
due to sickness.
 Family and friends also provide informational support about stressful events. For
example, a student facing a board examination, if provided information by a friend
who has faced a similar one, will help him identify the exact procedures and also
about resources and coping strategies to pass the exam.
 Supportive friends and family provide emotional support by reassuring the
individual that she/he is loved, valued, and cared for.