Unit-3

MANET

• MANET stands for Mobile Adhoc Network also called a wireless Adhoc
network or Adhoc wireless network that usually has a routable
networking environment on top of a Link Layer ad hoc network..
• They consist of a set of mobile nodes connected wirelessly in a self-
configured, self-healing network without having a fixed infrastructure.
• MANET nodes are free to move randomly as the network topology
changes frequently.
• Each node behaves as a router as they forward traffic to other specified
nodes in the network.
• MANETs are basically peer-to-peer, multi-hop wireless networks in
which information packets are transmitted in a store and forward
manner from a source to an arbitrary destination, via intermediate
nodes as given in the figure:
• As nodes move, the connectivity may change based on relative
locations of other nodes. The resulting change in the network topology
known at the local level must be passed on to other nodes so that old
topology information can be updated.
Characteristics of MANET –

• Dynamic Topologies:
Network topology which is typically multihop may change randomly and
rapidly with time, it can form unidirectional or bi-directional links.
• Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links:
Wireless links usually have lower reliability, efficiency, stability, and
capacity as compared to a wired network
• Autonomous Behavior:
Each node can act as a host and router, which shows its autonomous
behavior.
• Energy Constrained Operation:
As some or all the nodes rely on batteries or other exhaustible means for
their energy. Mobile nodes are characterized by less memory, power, and
lightweight features.
• Limited Security:
Wireless networks are more prone to security threats. A centralized
firewall is absent due to the distributed nature of the operation for
security, routing, and host configuration.
• Less Human Intervention:
They require minimum human intervention to configure the network,
therefore they are dynamically autonomous in nature.
Pros:

• Separation from central network administration.

• Each node can play both the roles ie. of router and host showing
autonomous nature.
• Self-configuring and self-healing nodes do not require human
intervention.
• Highly scalable and suits the expansion of more network hub.
Cons:
 • Resources are limited due to various constraints like noise, interference
conditions, etc.
• Lack of authorization facilities.
• More prone to attacks due to limited physical security.
• High latency i.e. There is a huge delay in the transfer of data between
two sleeping nodes.

Uses of MANETs :

• Military Operations: MANETs can be used for secure communication and

coordination between soldiers in the field.
• Emergency Response: MANETs can be set up quickly in disaster or
emergency situations to provide communication networks for rescue and
relief operations.
• Conferences and Events: MANETs can be used to provide temporary
network connectivity for attendees at conferences, trade shows, and other
events.
• Rural and Remote Areas: MANETs can be used to provide connectivity in
rural and remote areas where traditional communication infrastructure is
scarce.
• Transportation: MANETs can be used in transportation systems, such as
buses, trains, and airplanes, to provide passengers with network
connectivity while in transit.
• Healthcare: MANETs can be used in healthcare facilities, such as
hospitals and clinics, to provide secure and reliable communication
between medical staff.

Mobile IP
Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet
Protocol, IP) that allows the users to move from one network to another with
the same IP address. It ensures that the communication will continue without
the user’s sessions or connections being dropped.

The architecture of Mobile IP Technology

The components of the Mobile IP and the relationship among them are specified in the
following image:

This is the architecture of Mobile IP technology. It consists of the following components:

• Mobile Node (MN) is the hand-held communication device that the

user carries e.g. Cell phone.
• Home Network(HN) is a network to which the mobile node originally
belongs as per its assigned IP address (home address).
 • Home Agent (HA) is a router in-home network to which the mobile
node was originally connected

• Foreign Network(FN) is the current network to which the mobile node is

visiting (away from its home network).
• Foreign Agent (FA) is a router in a foreign network to which the mobile
node is currently connected. The packets from the home agent are sent to
the foreign agent which delivers them to the mobile node.
• Correspondent Node (CN) is a device on the internet communicating to
the mobile node.
• Care-of Address (COA) is the temporary address used by a mobile node
while it is moving away from its home network.

Working of Mobile IP

The working of Mobile IP can be described in 3 phases:

Agent Discovery

In the Agent Discovery phase, the mobile nodes discover their Foreign and Home Agents. The
Home Agent and Foreign Agent advertise their services on the network using the ICMP
Router Discovery Protocol (IRDP).
Registration

The registration phase is responsible for informing the current location of the home agent
and foreign agent for the correct forwarding of packets.

Tunneling

This phase is used to establish a virtual connection as a pipe for moving the data packets
between a tunnel entry and a tunnel endpoint.

Classification of Multicast Routing Protocols

• Multicasting is considered as the special case of broadcasting as.it

works in similar to Broadcasting, but in Multicasting, the information is
sent to the targeted or specific members of the network.
• This task can be accomplished by transmitting individual copies to each
user or node present in the network, but sending individual copies to
each user is inefficient and might increase the network latency.
• To overcome these shortcomings, multicasting allows a single
transmission that can be split up among the multiple users,
consequently, this reduces the bandwidth of the signal.

Applications :

• Internet protocol (IP)

• Streaming Media
• It also supports video conferencing applications and webcasts.
Principle:
The principal purpose Multicasting sends only one copy of a data packet to selective
destinations so that only devices that request the information receive it. Before getting
there, routing tables identify endpoints to ensure they have the correct address.
multicast routing protocols
Dense mode

• In dense mode, the source will distribute the data to every subnet included in
the multicast network.
• This is also called flooding because it sends packets with less discretion than
other protocol variants.
• Not every router has to accept the package, though. Prune messages can notify
the sending nodes to exclude them from receiving information, which helps trim
unnecessary data emissions.
• PIM protocol can work in a dense mode multicast routing type because it creates
as many short pathways to recipients as possible.

Sparse mode

• Whereas dense mode mass-releases data to connected networks, sparse mode

only takes the time to do so if there’s a request.
• Protocols like this reduce bandwidth usage and allow nodes joining the
multicast group to receive data over time when they initiate a specific request.
• Like dense mode, there is also a PIM sparse model.

Reverse Path Forwarding

• Reverse path forwarding implements a self-check so nodes can’t receive the

same information they sent, because the sender won’t look at that interface.
 • Though multicast routing optimizes for short paths, it can sometimes lead to
loops when packets continually find other connected nodes.
• In such cases it can unintentionally waste resources by sending data back to the
original sender.
• Reverse path forwarding allows for more intentional sending and receiving of
data.

Examples:
• Streaming
• Videoconferencing
• File distribution
• IOT devices

DSDV
• Destination sequenced distance vector routing (DSDV) is a table driven routing
protocol for MANET based on Bellman-Ford algorithm.
• DSDV was developed by C. Perkins and P. Bhagwat in 1994. The main contribution
of the algorithm was that the algorithm works correctly, even in the presence of the
loops in the routing table.
• As we know, each mobile node maintains a routing table with a route to every
possible destination in the network and the number of hops to the destination.
• Each entry in the table contains a sequence number assigned by the destination node.
• The sequence numbers allow the node to distinguish stale routes from new ones, and
help avoid formation of routing loops.
• A new route broadcast contains:
o The destination address.
o The number of hops required to reach the destination.
o The sequence number of the information received about the destination and a
new sequence number unique to the broadcast.
 • If there multiple routes are available for the same destination, the route with the most
recent sequence number is used. If two updates have the same sequence number, the
route with smaller metric is used to optimize the routing.

Advantages

• Destination sequenced distance vector routing was one of the early algorithms
available. It is suitable for creating ad-hoc networks with small no. of nodes.

Disadvantages

• Destination sequenced distance vector routing requires a regular update of its

routing tables, which uses more battery power and a small amount of bandwidth even
when the network is idle.
• This algorithm is not suitable for highly dynamic networks.

DSR
• Dynamic source routing is an on-demand routing protocol which is based on source
routing.
• It is very similar to AODV in that it forms a route on demand when a transmitting
computer requests one. But, it uses source routing instead of relying on the routing
table at each intermediate device. Many successive refinements have been made to
dynamic source routing.
• This protocol works in two main phases:
o Route discovery
o Route maintenance

Route Discovery: This phase determines the most optimal path for the
transmission of data packets between the source and the destination
mobile nodes.
Route Maintenance: This phase performs the maintenance work of the
route as the topology in the mobile ad-hoc network is dynamic in nature
 and hence, there are many cases of link breakage resulting in the network
failure between the mobile nodes.
• When a node has a message to send, it contacts to the route cache to determine
whether is it has a route to the destination. If an active route to the destination exists,
it is used to send a message.
• Otherwise a node initiates a route discovery by broadcasting a route request packet.
The route request stores the destination address, the source address, and a unique
identification number.
• Each device that receives the route request checks whether it has a route to the
destination. If it does not, it adds its own address to the route record of the packet
and then rebroadcasts the packet on its outgoing links.
• To minimize the no. of broadcasts, a mobile rebroadcasts a packet only if it has not
seen the packet before and its own address was not already in the route record.

AODV

• Ad hoc on demand distance vector routing is a routing protocol for MANETs (mobile ad
hoc networks) and other wireless ad hoc networks.

• It is a reactive routing protocol; it means it establishes a route to a destination only

on demand.
• AODV routing is built over the DSDV algorithm. It is a significant improvement over
DSDV.
• The devices that are not on a particular path do not maintain routing information, nor
do they participate in the routing table exchanges.
• When a source requires sending a message to a destination and does not have a valid
route to the latter, the source initiates a route discovery process.
• Source sends a route request (RREQ) packet to all its neighbors, the latter forward
the request to all their neighbors, and so on, until either the destination or an
intermediate mobile (node) with a "fresh enough" route to the destination is reached.
 •

• The above figure illustrates the propagation of the broadcast request (RREQs) across
the network. Since in DSDV, destination sequence numbers are used to ensure that all
routes are loop free and contain the most recent route information. Each node has a
unique sequence number and a broadcast ID, which is incremented each time the
node, initiates RREQ.
• The broadcast ID, together with the IP address of node, uniquely identifies every
RREQ.
• Intermediate mobile reply only if they have a route to the destination with a sequence
number greater than or at least equal to that contained in the RREQ. To optimize the
route performance, intermediate nodes record the address.

• From the above figure, since RREP (route reply packet) travels back on the reverse
path, the nodes on this path set up their forward route entries to point to the node
from which RREP had just been received. These forward route records indicate the
active forward route. The RREP continues traveling back along the reverse path till it
reaches the initiator of the route discovery. Thus, AODV can support only the use of
symmetric links.

ZRP
 • It basically combines the advantages of both, reactive and pro-active
routing protocols.
• These protocols are adaptive in nature and adapts according to the
zone and position of the source and destination mobile nodes.
• One of the most popular hybrid routing protocol is Zone Routing
Protocol (ZRP).
• The whole network is divided into different zones and then the position
of source and destination mobile node is observed.
• If the source and destination mobile nodes are present in the same
zone, then proactive routing is used for the transmission of the data
packets between them.
• And if the source and destination mobile nodes are present in different
zones, then reactive routing is used for the transmission of the data
packets between them.

DHCP

• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, is a network protocol used to

automate the process of assigning IP addresses and other network
configuration parameters to devices (such as computers, smartphones,
and printers) on a network.
• It is the critical feature on which the users of an enterprise network
communicate.
 • DHCP helps enterprises to smoothly manage the allocation of IP
addresses to the end-user clients’ devices such as desktops, laptops,
cellphones, etc.
• DHCP helps in managing the entire process automatically and
centrally.
• DHCP helps in maintaining a unique IP Address for a host using the
server.
• DHCP servers maintain information on TCP/IP configuration and
provide configuration of address to DHCP-enabled clients in the form
of a lease offer.

The main components of DHCP include:

• DHCP Server: DHCP Server is a server that holds IP Addresses and other
information related to configuration.
• DHCP Client: It is a device that receives configuration information from
the server. It can be a mobile, laptop, computer, or any other electronic
device that requires a connection.
• DHCP Relay: DHCP relays basically work as a communication channel
between DHCP Client and Server.
• IP Address Pool: It is the pool or container of IP Addresses possessed by
the DHCP Server. It has a range of addresses that can be allocated to
devices.
• Subnets: Subnets are smaller portions of the IP network partitioned to
keep networks under control.
• Lease: It is simply the time that how long the information received from
the server is valid, in case of expiration of the lease, the tenant must have
to re-assign the lease.
• DNS Servers: DHCP servers can also provide DNS (Domain Name
System) server information to DHCP clients, allowing them to resolve
domain names to IP addresses.
Difference between AODV and DSR
Featur AODV DSR
e

Proto
col Proactive Reactive
type

Routi
It uses source routing algorithm to
ng It uses distance vector algorithm
determine the entire path of a
algori to discover and maintain routes
packet before it is sent
thm

Routi
ng Smaller routing table size due to Larger routing table size due to the
table the reactive nature proactive nature
size

It maintains efficient
It may lead to reduced network
Efficie communication between nodes
efficiency due to unnecessary
ncy in Mobile and Pervasive
consumption of network resources
Computing

Securi It is less secure than DSR due to It is more secure than AODV due to
ty the use of broadcast messages the use of source routing

Netw
Lower network load due to Higher network load due to the
ork
reactive nature proactive nature
Load
 It reduces overhead, as it does not
It only establishes routes when
Adva need to constantly update the
required so the network
ntage routing tables
resources are used effieciently

Security issues in MANETs

mobile communication,mobile hardware,mobile software from unit 1
SDN

• Software-defined networking (SDN) is a way to control the network

using software to guide data where to go instead of having everything
set it provide super flexibility and adaptability for dynamic situations
like VANETs where cars are required to move around constantly, it is a
network management approach designed to decouples the control
plane from the data plane of a network because earlier network
architectures require coupling of the control plane and the data plane
within the networking devices such as switches and routers but in
present scenario it allows the network administrators to
programmatically control the network and hence making it more agile
and flexible it can also be introduced as a layer of abstraction between
the applications that interact within the network and the physical
network infrastructure responsible for interaction.

Vanet
VANET is similar to MANET in terms, that is also do not need any
infrastructure for data transmission. VANET play important role in aspect of
safe driving, intelligent navigation, emergency and entertainment
applications .It can be defined as an intelligent component of transport
system as vehicle are able to communicate with each other as well as
roadside base station, which are located at critical points of the road.
Example :-Intersection and Construction Sites.

Uses of VANETs :

• Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS): VANETs can be used to

enhance traffic flow, reduce congestion, and improve road safety by
enabling communication between vehicles and with road-side
infrastructure.
• Navigation and Location-Based Services: VANETs can provide real-time
traffic and navigation information to drivers, allowing them to make
informed decisions and avoid congestion.
• Emergency Services: VANETs can be used to quickly and efficiently relay
emergency messages, such as accidents and road closures, to other
vehicles and to emergency services.
• Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I)
Communication: VANETs can facilitate communication between vehicles
and with road-side infrastructure, allowing for a wide range of
applications, such as cooperative driving and platooning.
• Entertainment and Infotainment Services: VANETs can provide
entertainment and information services, such as streaming music and
video, to passengers in vehicles.
Advantages:

• Improves traffic flow and reduces congestion.

• Enhances road safety by providing real-time information about road
conditions, potential hazards, and the location of other vehicles.
• Enables in-vehicle entertainment and internet access to passengers.
• Supports emergency services by providing real-time information about
accidents or other incidents on the road.
• Provides location-based advertising and other services to the driver or
passengers.
Disadvantages:

• Vulnerable to attacks and security breaches.

• Requires a large number of vehicles to form an effective network.
• Limited coverage area, as VANETs rely on wireless communication
technologies such as Wi-Fi or cellular.

Difference between MANET and VANET :

S.No. MANET VANET

Production cost of MANET is cheap as

1 Much Expensive
compared to VANET

High Mobility, as
Mobility of MANET is low as it make bit serving networks to
2 difficult for network enables the serving locate a mobile
networks to locate a mobile subscriber’s point. subscriber’s point is
easy.

Frequent and very fast

Change in network topology orientation is
3 change of network
slow.
topology,

Node density is
4 Sparse node density.
frequent variables.

VANET bandwidth is
5 MANET HAVE 100 Kps bandwidth available.
1000 Kps.
 500 m range available
6 It ranges Upto 100 m.
in VANET.

MANET node lifetime depends on power Depend on lifetime

7
resources. vehicle.

High reliability of
8 MANET have medium reliability.
VANET.

Movement of the nodes affects the operation of

a MANET as node movement MANETs need to Regular, moving pattern
9
rely on robust routing protocols.And this of nodes.
MANET have random node movement.

Location Bases
10 Attribute Based addressing scheme.
addressing scheme.

VANET maintain
Position acquisition is obtained using
11 position acquisition by
Ultrasonic.
using GPS, RADAR.

Weakly available Multi-

12 Availability of Multi-hop Routing
hop Routing.