SR-PHYSICS WAVES

WAVES
FORMULAS a  amplitude, f  frequency
v  wave velocity ,
1. EQUATION OF PLANE PROGRESSIVE
WAVE:   density of the medium
i) The equation for a simple harmonic plane progres- 6. STATIONARY WAVES PRODUCED ON
sive wave propagating along the positive direction of REFLECTION FROM THE FREE END :
x - axis is yi = A sin (wt – kx) yr = A sin (wt + kx)
Y
y = yi + yr y  2 A Cos kx Sinwt
O A y 7. STATIONARY WAVE PRODUCED ON
X
(x,0) REFLECTION FROM FIXED END :
yi = A sin (wt – kx) yr = – A sin (wt + kx)
y  A sin  t  kx  , y  A sink  vt  x  y = yi + yr y = – 2A sin kx cos wt
8. TRANSVERSE WAVE ALONG
 t x STRETCHED STRING:
y  A sin2   
 T  i) Velocity of transverse wave along stretched string:
ii) The equation for a plane progressive wave propagat- T
V (T is tension in the string and
ing along the negative direction of x- axis is 
 is linear density or mass per unit length)
y  A sin  t  kx 
m as s A d
2. PARTICLE VELOCITY :     A d  r 2d
le ng th 
i) v particle   A 2  y 2 Where r is radius of the string, d is the density of the
material of the wire.
ii) It will be maximum when y = 0 , v max  A ii) When the tension in the string arise due to a load of
mass M
It will be minimum when y = A, vmin = 0
3. WAVE VELOCITY (V) : Mg
V [ T = Mg]

l w
Wave velocity V   fl  iii) If the load in the above case is completely immersed
T k in liquid then
4. PHASE :  d 
Mg 1     d 
 db  T  Mg  1  
The phase change at a given point in time interval t V

 db 
Where d is the density of liquid
2
is   t db is the density of material of the load.
T
The phase change at a given time for a change in iv) When tension in the string arises due to elastic strain
position x is YAe  YAe 
V   T
2    
   x  YAe Ye

 
5. INTENSITY OF A WAVE : m d
1 Where m is mass of the string.
i)   w2a2rv ,   2p2 f2a2rv
2 v) When tension in the string arises due to thermal stress.
( by contraction)

NARAYANA GROUP 1
 WAVES SR-PHYSICS

YA  YA   Y
T = YA   , V = 

Ad

d
(or) (P-1)th overtone.

vi) A uniform rope of length 'L' and mass 'm' hangs P T

nPth harmonic  n(P1)th overtone 
vertically from a rigid support. A block of mass 'M' is 2 m
attached to the free end of rope.
NOTE :When the string is subjected to a stretching
A transverse pulse of wavelength  B is produced at force producing an elongation then
the lower end of the rope, the wavelength of the pulse
1 T 1 T 1 T
when it reaches the top of the rope T then n  
2 Ad 2  Ad   2 mass of the string x

VT M m  M m 1
  T  In this case n
VB M B M 
vii) A uniform rope of mass 'm' and length '  ' hangs 10. VELOCITY OF SOUND :
from a ceiling then i) Velocity of sound in a medium of elasticity E and
a) The speed of transverse wave in the rope at a E
density '  ' is given by V 
point which is at a distance x from the lower end is 
Vsolid  Vliquid  Vgas
gx

b) The time taken by a transverse wave to travel the ii) In case of propagation of sound in solids (rods) E = Y
 Y
full length of the rope is t  2 and Vsolid 
g 
9. FORMATION OF A STATIONARY WAVE ON B
While for liquids and gases E = B V fluid 
A STRETCHED STRING :  (B is
the bulk modulus)
i) Fundamental mode or first harmonic:
iii) NEWTON'S FORMULA :
The string vibrates in fundamental mode when the
string is plucked at mid point
P
B = isothermal elasticity = Pressure (P) then V 

The string vibrates in one loop
vi) LAPLACE CORRECTION :
1 T
n
2  In this case B = Adiabatic elasticity   P
where n is fundamental frequency P
V
ii) Second harmonic or first overtone:– 
a) The string vibrates in 2nd harmonic when it is v) IN CASE OF GASES :
plucked at l/4.
b) The string vibrates in 2 loops P  PV  nRT  RT
V   
 mass mass M
2 T 1/ 2
1   , n 1 
2  
, n1 = 2n  RT 3RT V  
V ; Vrms  ;  
l M M Vrms  3 
iii) If the string is plucked at length then the 11. Loudness (Refers to Intensity)
2P
String vibrates in 'P' loops and we have Pth harmonic
Our perception of loudness is better co-related with
the sound level measured in decible (dB) and

2 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS WAVES

 3 
 I  1  e  , 2  e    2  1  
defined as follows   10 log10  I  ; 4 4 2
 10 
   2  2  1 
where I 0 = The minimum intensity that can be heard ii) Speed of sound in air at room temperature is
called thresh old of hearing = 10-12 W/m2 V  2 n   2   1  Where n be the frequency of the
12. Organ pipes tuning fork.

Open pipe  2  31

iii) e
2
V
(i) Fundamental frequency (or) first harmonic n1  14. BEATS :
2L
i) If n1 and n2 are the frequencies of the two sound
2V waves combined to produce beats, the combined
(ii) Second harmonic or first overtone is n2 
2L n1  n2
wave has a frequency
3V 2
(iii) Third harmonic or second overtone is n 3  ii) The frequency with which the amplitude of combined
2L
n1  n2
(iv) n1 : n2 : n3 .....  1: 2 : 3 : ...... wave changes is
2
Closed pipe: iii) Beat frequency = n1 ~ n2.
(i) fundamental mode of vibration or I harmonic is
1
V iv) Beat period = = Time interval between two
n1  n1 ~ n 2
4L consecutive maxima (or) minima.
3V
(ii) third harmonic or first overtone is n 2  v) Time interval between maxima and next minima is
4L
1
5V 2  n1 ~ n2 
(iii) fifth harmonic or second overtone is n3 
4L
vi) If amplitudes of waves are not equal,
(iv) n1 : n2 : n3 .....  1: 3 : 5 : ...... amax = a1+a2 ; amin = a1 ~ a2
Note: When the end correction is considered, then vii) Intensity ratio:–
2
i)the fundamental frequency of open pipe I max  a  a2  
 1
2
 I1  I2 
2 2
V V
I min  a1 ~ a 2   I1 ~ I2 
n n
2  l  2e   2  l  1.2 r 
15. DOPPLER EFFECT :
ii) The fundamental frequency of closed pipe  v  v0 
apparent frequency n1 =  v  v  n
V V
 s 
n  n a) Source moving towards a stationary observer
4 l  e 4  l  0.6r 
 V 
n |  n ;
13. RESONANCE TUBE :
 V  VS 
i) In a resonating air column experiment, if 1 ,  2 are b) Source moving away from a stationary observer
the first and second resonating lengths then  V 
n |  n
 V  VS 

NARAYANA GROUP 3
 WAVES SR-PHYSICS

c) Observer moving towards a stationary source j) Observer is crossing a stationary source

 V  V0   V  V0 
n |  n  V  V0 
n app   n ; n re c d   V n
 V  V   
 
d) Observer moving away from a stationary source napp. V  V0

 V  V0 
n | 
nrecd . V  V0
n
 V  Drop in frequency heard by the observer
e) Source moving towards a receding observer 2 v0 n
napp .  nrecd . = Dn
n 
v
 V  V0 
n |  n k) Source crossing a stationary observer :-
 V  VS   V   V 
f) Observer moving towards a receding source n app    n ; n recd   n
 V  Vs   V  Vs 
 V  V0  n app .
n |  n v  vs
 V  VS  
n recd . v – vs
g) When observer is at rest, source is moving as
Drop in frequency heard by the observer :
shown in the below figure. Then
2v n
napp .  nrecd . =  n _ s
v
l) If source is moving towards a wall with speed vs
and the observer is standing behind the source
as shown in the figure then
 v 
n| =  v – v cos   n
 s 
h) When observer is at rest and source moves as Vs Vs
shown in the given figure. Then image of
source
wall

 v   v 
n direct   n
 v  vs 
;
nreflected   n
 v – vs 
2 nv s
No. of beats = nd–nr 
v
 v   v  m) If the source is moving towards wall and observer
nA =  v – v cos   n; nB = n; nC =  n standing between source and wall as shown in
 s   v  vs cos  
the figure then
i) When source is at rest and observer moves
perpendicular to the line of sight or vice-versa,
there is no Doppler effect. Vs Vs
image of
source
wall

 v 
In both cases, shown above there is no Doppler
nd  
 v – vs
n

; nnr   v –v v  n

s
effect because one is moving at right angles to
the line of sight and the other is at rest. Dn = No. of beats heard =
difference in frequencies = 0

4 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS WAVES

n) If both source and observer are moving towards

a wall with same speed u then

u
observer
u image of
source source
wall

vu
nd = n ; nr   n
v–u
2un
 n  nd  nr =
v–u

NARAYANA GROUP 5
 SR-PHYSICS RAY OPTICS
RAY OPTICS
FORMULAS of mirrors. n  m  1 , if the object is on the
bisector of mirrors.
1. Accroding to Maxwell, speed of light in a medium is 360
c) If is a fraction (say m). The number of
1 
V images formed will be equal to its integer part i.e.,

n   m .
1 Ex: If m=4.3, the total number of images
and in vacuum C 
0 0
n   4.3  4
2. REFLECTION OF LIGHT :–
i) Angle of incidance (i)=Angle of reflection (r). v) By keeping the incident ray fixed, the mirror is rotated
ii) Angle of deviation (d) = 180 – 2i
by an angle ‘  ’, about an axis in the plane of mirror,,
Incident
Normal
Reflected the reflected ray is rotated through an angle ‘ 2 ’.
ray ray
M
medium-I
Glancing i r M
angle q 
reflecting
d Incident ray Incident ray
surface O O

medium-II Reflected ray 
1
M

3. Reflection from Plane Surface Reflected ray

i) If an object moves towards (or away from) a plane 4. Reflection from Curved Surface
mirror at speed v, the image will also approach (or
recede) at the same speed v, and the relative velocity
i) Sign Convertion
of image with respect to object will be 2v +ve
ii) A person of height ‘h’ can see his full image in a mirror +ve light
light
+ve
h +ve
of minimum length l  C F P P F C
2 ve
iii)A person standing at the centre of room looking ve
ve ve
towards a plane mirror hung on a wall, can see the
Concave mirror Convex mirror
whole height of the wall behind him if the length of (a) (b)
the mirror is equal to one-third the height of the wall.
iv) If two plane mirrors inclined to each other at an angle ii) Focal Length of Spherical Mirror
 , the number of images of a point object formed f 
R
are determined as follows 2
360 1 1 1
a) If

is even number (say m) Number of images iii) Mirror Equation  
u v f
formed n  m  1 , for all positions of objectes iv) Lateral magnification:
in between the mirrors. A

360 h
b) If is odd integer (say m) number of images
 B1 
formed n  m , if the object is not on the bisector
P
B 1 F 
h
A1

NARAYANA GROUP 6
 SR-PHYSICS RAY OPTICS

ix) Motion of the object Transverse to the

A1B1 h1
Lateral magnification m   Principal Axis
AB h
h1 v
m 
h u
Here negative magnification implies that image is
inverted with respect to object, while positive
magnification means that image is erect with respect
to object.
v) Longitudianl magnification V1  mV0
dv  v 
2

mL       m2 5. ABSOLUTE REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A

du  u  MEDIUM:
vi) Areal magnification:
area of image  ma  mb speed of light in vacuum  c 
mA    m2 
area of object ab speed of light in a medium  v 
mb
1
b
C e0 m0 em
m    er mr
ma a principal
axis
V 1 e0 m0
O

I
em

vii) Newton’s Formula f  x1x 2 c  vacuum

 vacuum  medium = 
Here object distance  x1  and image distance v  medium

x 2  are measured from focus instead of the pole of Absolute refractive index of medium varies with
the mirror Wavelength of light or colour of light.
viii) Motion of Object in front of Mirror mviolet  mred as lviolet  lred 
Along the Principal Axis 6. REFRACTION OF LIGHT :–
(a) When a ray of light goes from a rarer medium to a
denser medium, it bends towards the normal and r <i.
incident ray rarer medium
i

deviation d=(i-r)
r d
denser medium

refracted ray

v
2
(b) When a ray of light goes from a denser medium to
V1    .V0 a rarer medium, it bends away from the normal and
 u 
r > i.
Where v1 velocity of image with respect to mirror
incident ray denser medium
and v 0 is the velocity of object with respect to mirror i
along the principal axis.
deviation d=(r-i) r d refracted ray
rarer medium

NARAYANA GROUP 7
 SR-PHYSICS RAY OPTICS

7. SNELL'S LAW :– mg and mw are the refractive indicies of glass and water
Normal
respectively.
vii) OPTICAL PATH :– It is defined as the distance
1
Medium  1 1 
travelled by light in vacuum in the same time in which
1 sin 1=  2 sin 2 it travels a given path length in a medium.
Medium-2  2 
If 'x' is the geometrical path length of a ray in a medium
2
of refractive index m then its optical path length in
Snell's law in vector form vacuum is  x .
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ viii) LATERAL SHIFT :– The perpendicular distance
 1  i n    2  r n 
where i, r & n are the unit
    between incident and emergent rays is called Lateral
vectors along the direction of incident ray, refracted shift (x).
ray and the normal into the incident medium i
respectively. A

8. RELATIVE REFRACTIVE INDEX :– r

t r C
i) When a ray of light travels from medium (1) to medium x
(2), then the refractive index of medium (2) with B
respect to medium (1) is i

 2 v1  1 (a) the distance traveled by light ray inside the glass

i.e. 1 2   
1 v 2  2 t
plate is AB  ,
ii) If a ray of light travels a distance 'x' in time 't' in a cos r

medium of refractive index  then r = angle of refraction in the glass plate.

ct t sin(i-r)
 b) the lateral shift x 
x cos r
iii) If x1 and x2 are the distances traveled by light in two
media of absolute refractive indicies m1 and m2 c) the time taken to cover the distance AB inside the
respectively in a given time, then 1 x 1   2 x 2 path length AB
slab is = 
iv) If a ray of light takes t1 and t2 times in two media of speed Cg
absolute refractive indices 1 and  2 respectively (Cg  speed of light in the glass slab)
to travel the same distance then 1t2   2 t1
ix) As the light ray enters from one medium to another
v) Number of waves in a thickness ‘t’ of a medium of refractive medium, if reflected and refracted rays are
index m is perpendicular to each other, then
thickness t (i = angle of incidence)
number of waves = 
wavelength lm a)   tan i , if light enters from rarer to denser
medium
l0
But lm  b)   cot i , if light enters from denser to rarer
m medium
tm where  is the refractive index of denser medium
 number of waves = l with respect to rarer medium.
0
Where l0 is the wavelength of light in vacuum. 9. Real and apparent depths–Apparent shift :
t
vi) Difference in number of waves =
l0
mg  mw  where Case (1) : Object in denser medium and observer
in rarer medium

NARAYANA GROUP 8
 SR-PHYSICS RAY OPTICS

 Observer rarer medium   r 

Rarer medium
r 90 0
x Denser medium
t
 i C C

 Object denser m edium  d  

TIR

a) Apparent depth < Real depth

i) The critical angle for a given pair of media varies with
Re al depth t
b) r md  apparent depth x the colour of light and temperature .
 
 CRe d  CViolet
 1 
c) Apparent shift = s = t – x  s  t 1   ii) Field of vision of fish : - A fish at a depth 'h' from
 r md 

the surface of water of refractive index m can see
d) Three liquids of refractive indices  1,  2,  3 the outer world through an inverted cone with
are filled in a vessel. Their thicknesses are d1, d2 & a) Vertex angle = 2C
d3 respectively. The apparent depth of an object placed
b) Radius of the circular base of the cone formed on
at the bottom when seen from the top of the vessel surface of water is given by
will be
N N
d1 d2 d3 r
x=    c c
1 2 3 h
h c c 
r  h tanC 
Total apparent shift 'S' is given by m2  1 .
fish
 1  1  1
S = d1 1    d2 1    d3 1   11. OPTICAL FIBRE :
 1  2  3

Case (2) : Object in rarer medium and observer in If m1 and m2 are the refractive indices of core and
cladding, the launching angle of incidence for which
denser medium
light will be confined in the core is

 Object
x
t
iL  Sin  1  2
1   2
2
.
Rarer medium
Denser medium
a ir c la d d in g  2 
 Observer
c c o re  1 
a) Apparent depth > Real depth
i
Apparent depth x 
b) r md  Re al depth t
12. PRISM :
c) Apparent shift = s = x – t  s  t  r m d  1 i) AB , AC are refracting faces,
A
10. CRITICAL ANGLE AND TIR: BC is the base.
d
1
md sinC  mr sin900  r md  i1 = angle of incidence i1 r1 r2 i2
sinC
i2 = angle of emergence
B C

m V l
sinC  rarer  denser  denser r1, r2 are angles of refraction inside the prism.
mdenser Vrarer lrarer

NARAYANA GROUP 9
 SR-PHYSICS RAY OPTICS

a) Angle of prism A  r1  r2
i )

b) Angle of deviation d  i1  i2  A

 
i max  Sin1  2  1 SinA  CosA


c) Refractive index of material of prism in air is vii) For a small angled prism (A < 100) placed in air
sini1 sini2 a) i1  mr1 , i2  mr2
 
sinr1 sinr2 b) Angle of deviation = d =(  1)A
viii) For a small angled prism of refractive index  g placed
d
in a medium of refractive index  m , then the angle of
Dm
deviation is given by
ii) The i - d graph is parabola.
 g 
i dm    1 A
 m 
iii) Under minimum deviation condition,
13. DISPERSION :
a) i1=i2=i, r1=r2=r, d = Dm
eg : – For violet and red
b) ray passes symmetrically w.r.to the faces of the prism
or parallel to the base of the prism. angular dispersion = q  d V  d R 
i) The ratio between angular dispersion and mean angle
A  Dm
c) Dm=2i-A or i  , and r= A/2 of deviation of a pair of colours is called the dispersive
2 power of the medium (  ) for that pair of colours.
 A  Dm 
sin   , 
Refractive index of prism q d  dR
d)  2  w.r.to the surroundings w  v
d y  d v  d R 

sin  A / 2 
 
 2 
iv) Normal incidence – grazing emergence :
If the incident ray falls normally on the prism and ii) The deviation of yellow ray is taken as mean deviation
grazes from the second surface, then
dv  dR
a) i1 = r1 = 0, i2 = 900 and r2 = C = A
of violet and red.
w
1  1 dy
b) A = C = sin  
 C   V  R  V   R   r
   ,y  v
c) Deviation d = 90 – C y y y  1 2
v) Grazing incidence – grazing emergence : iii) Deviation without dispersion :
If the incident ray falls on the prism with grazing i,e    |  0 (or) wd  w |d |  0 (or)
incidence and grazes from the second surface, then
(i) i1 = i2 = 90

m V  m R  A  m|V  m|R A|  0 
and net deviation =    | =    1 A   |  1 A |
(ii) r1 = r2 = C C C

(iii) Angle of prism A = 2C A wΙ

(iv) Deviation d = 180 – 2C w
R
vi) The maximum angle of incidence at first face of the A1
V
prism of angle A and refractive index  for which the
ray just undergoes total internal reflection at second
face of the prism is
iv) Dispersion with out deviation:
| |
  |  0 (or)    1 A    1 A  0  

NARAYANA GROUP 10
 SR-PHYSICS RAY OPTICS

q q| A w Ι R 1     1 2
(or)  0 w
 (for equi concave lens R1 = R2 = R)
w w| f R
R
A
1 1     1
V  (for plano concave lens)
f R
vii) If a lens made of material of refractive index  g is
and net dispersion =    | =    | | placed in air, its focal length is fa and if immersed in a
  liquid of refractive index   then its focal length
w | 

 q 1 
 w 
|
 d   d    g 
14. REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACE :    1
f a
Normal 
 2 1  2  1 f f
becomes  then a   g 
     1
v u R   
I
O R C
1 1 1 u v
  viii) The focal power (p)of a lens is numerically equal to
i) Lens formula 1 2
f v u the reciprocal of its focal length in meters.
where 'f' is focal length, 'u' is object distance and 'v' is a) when f is measured in meters,
1
image distance. then p  f dioptre.
ii) Lens maker's formula for thin lens. b) when f is measured in centimeters,
1  2  1 1 
  1   100
f   1   R 1 R 2  p
f dioptre.
 2 = refractive index of material of lens.
1 = refractive index of surrounding medium. ix) If two lenses are separated by a distance 'd' then the
iii) For diverging meniscus
effective focal length of the combination is given by
1  1 1 
     1  
f  R R  , (if R1 < R2) 1 1 1
  
d
 1 2 
f f1 f2 f1f2 .
iv) For converging meniscus x) If two lenses of focal powers P1 , P2 are separated by
a distance 'd' (in meters) then effective focal power
1  1 1 of the combination is given by (proper sign must be
    1    ,(if R1 < R2)
f  R1 R2  given to P1 and P2)

v) Convex lens (Converging lens) P = P1 + P2 - dP1 P2

1  1 1  xi) If two convex lenses of focal lengths f1 , f2 are
    1    separated by a distance 'd' such that the combination
f  R1 R2  will act as parallel sided glass slab, then d = f1 + f2
1 2 15. SIMPLE MICROSCOPE :
    1 (for equi convex R1 = R2 = R)
f R Magnification when final image is formed at D and
1    1  (i.e. mD and m )
 (for plano convex)
f R  D  D
mD  1   and m    
vi) Concave lens (diverging lens)  f  max  f  min
1  1 1 
     1   
f  R1 R2 
NARAYANA GROUP 11
 SR-PHYSICS RAY OPTICS

16. COMPOUND MICROSCOPE :

i) Final image formed at D : Magnification
0  D
mD    1  f  and length of the microscope tube
u0  e

(distance between two lenses) is L D   0  ue .

Generally object is placed very near to the
principal focus of the objective hence u0  f0 . The
eye piece is also of small focal length and the image
formed by the objective is also very near to the eye
piece.
So 0  LD , the length of the tube.
L D
Hence, we can write mD  f 1 f 
0  e

ii) Final image formed at 

u0 D LD
m   .  and length of tube
u0 fe f0 fe

L    0  fe

iii)The magnifying power of the compound microscope

may be expressed as m  m0  me ; where m0 is
the magnification of the objective and m e is
magnification of eye piece.
17. ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE
(REFRACTING TYPE)

f0  fe 
i) Magnification : m D    1   and
fe  D

f0
m   for normal adjustment
fe

ii) Length : LD = f0 + ue and L  = f0 + fe

18. TERRESTRIAL TELESCOPE :

i) Magnification :

f0  fe 
mD   1   and
fe  D
f0
m  (for normal adjustment)
fe

ii) Length : L = f0 + 4f + fe, LD = f0 + 4f + ue and

L   f 0  4 f  fe (f = focal length of erecting lens)

NARAYANA GROUP 12
 SR-PHYSICS PHYSICAL OPTICS
PHYSICAL OPTICS
FORMULAS 2
Imax  Amax  ( I1  I2 )
2
(A1  A2 )2
d)      
1. The condition for applicability of geometrical optics Imin  Amin  ( I1  I2 )2 (A1  A2 )2
b2 4. Relation between path difference and phase
is  1
l difference:
The condition for applicability of wave optics is 2p
f x
b2 b2 l
 1 or  1 5. INTERFERENCE
l l
2. Relation between width of incident beam and width i) Young’s double slit experiment
of refracted beam.
P
S1
1
B y
i
 
A D d O
r
2 N
C 
S2 in
ds
D T
AB is width of incident beam
CD is width of refracted beam Fig (C)
width of incident beam cos i path difference at ‘P’ is given by

width of refracted beam cos r
y
3. PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF x  S2 P  S1P  S2 N  d sin   d   -------(1)
WAVES : D
2
(a) Superposition of coherent waves : Let the two and phase difference   x ,

waves arrive at some point O simultaneously. Let
ii) Expression for intensity of interference
y1 and y2 represent the displacements of the two
pattern :
waves at this point O.
Suppose the equations for the waves reaching at
 y1  A1 sin w t  f1  & point P coming from S1 and S2 are given by
y1 = A sin wt
y 2  A 2 sin w t  f2 
and y2 = A sin  wt  f 
The resultant displacement at the point O is given resultant amplitude is,
by.
f
y = y1 + y2  R  2A cos
2
 A sin w t  f 
f
or I  4 I 0 cos
2
b) A  A12  A22  2A1A 2 cos f1  f2  2
iii) Bright fringes:
 A12  A 22  2A1A2 cos f ..... (3)
Thus the condition for finding a bright fringe
c) Since the intensity of a wave is proportional to
square of the amplitude, the resultant intensity I of at ‘P’ is that S2P-S1P = nλ ,
the wave from equation (3) may be written as d sin   n (from equation (1))
I  I1  I 2  2 I1I 2 cos f ........ (5) y  n D
 d  n   nl  yn  ,
where I1 and I2 be the intensities of the two waves.  D  d

NARAYANA GROUP 13
 PHYSICAL OPTICS SR-PHYSICS

Where yn is the position of nth maximum from O. qair

In a medium of refractive index m , qm 
(or) Phase difference between the waves m
   2  n with n = 0, 1, 2, 3 -------- vi) To know maximum number of possible maxima
Hence Imax = 4I0 on the screen
iv) Dark fringes: nl
d sin q  nl (or) s in q  d
Thus the condition for finding dark fringe at
 nl
P is that S2P - S1P = (2n -1) As sin q  1 , 1
2 d
 d
d sin   (2n  1)  n
2 
y  l  2n  1  D Therefore the maximum number of complete
d n  (2n 1)  yn   
 D  2  2  d maxima on the screen will be 2[n] + 1
Where yn is the position of nth minima from O. I max  I min
vii) Fringe visibility, V  I  I
(or)   (2n  1) with n = 1, 2, 3 -------- max min

Hence Imin = O where Imax  I1  I 2  2 I1I2

v) Fringe width (  )
and Imin  I1  I 2  2 I1I 2
D
 Fringe width,   4 I1I 2 2 I1I 2
d V 
2 I1  I 2  I1  I 2 
a) Since    , bRed  bvoilet , as lRe d  lvoilet
viii) Missing wavelengths in front of one slit in YDSE:
b) If YDSE apparatus is immersed in a liquid of
refractive index  , then wavelength of light
 b
1   b ' S1 P
 m y
d O
c) In certain field of view on the screen, if n1 fringes S2
are formed when light of wavelength l1 is used
and n2 fringes are formed when light of wavelength D
l2 is used, then
d2
 nl  cons tan t  Missing wavelength, l  2n 1 D
 n1l1  n 2l2 (or) n1b1  n 2 b2
By putting n=1, 2, 3, ......., the missing wavelengths
d) The linear position ‘y’ is related to the angular at P are
y
position  by, tan and angular fringe
D
y  
width    
D D d

14 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS PHYSICAL OPTICS

d2 d2 d2 y D
l , , , .......... a   ( sin   tan  )  y 
D 3D 5D D a
2 D
Width of central maxima w  2 y 
ix) Lateral displacement of fringes a
Note: If lens is placed close to the slit, then D = f.
D b Hence ‘f’ be the focal length of lens, then width of
 Lateral shift (y)  d (m 1)t  l m 1 t
2f
the central maximum w  .
lateral shift a
The number of fringes shifted = fringe width
a2
 Fresnel distance Z F 

y (m 1)t
 n  where a = size of the slit
b l 7. Resolving power of microscope:
(or) nl  m 1 t 1.22 
x) When two different transperant sheets of thickness  Resolving limit ( x m )  2  sin 
t1, t2 and refractive index m1 , m2 are placed in the
Where  is the wavelength of light in vacuum and
paths of two interfering waves in YDSE, if the
central bright fringe position is not shifted, then  is the refractive index of the medium between
m1 1 t1  m2 1 t 2 the object and the objective.
6. Diffraction Due to Single Slit 1 2 sin 
i) Condition for minimum intensity is  Resolving power = x  1.22
m
a sin   n  n  1, 2,3,.....
where  sin  is called numerical aperture of
Where ‘a’ is the width of the slit,  is the angle of the objective.
diffraction
8. Resolving power of telescope:
ii) Condition for maximum intensity
1.22 
 Resolving limit ( m ) =
a sin   2n 1  n  1, 2,3,..... a
2
The intensity decreases as we go to successive 1 a
Re solving power  
maxima away from the centre, on either side. The  m 1.22
width of central maxima is twice as that of
secondary maxima. where a is the diameter of the objective of
telescope and  is the wavelength of light.
9. POLARIZATION
i) Polarisation by Reflection:
y   tan  p This is called Brewster’s law
O 
P When angle of incidence i   p (Polarising angle)
iii)
D r +  p = 900

r + R = 900   p  R 
T
For first minia a sin   
NARAYANA GROUP 15
 PHYSICAL OPTICS SR-PHYSICS

Unpolarised i  P Plane polarised

light A
R < B
<
O
<
r
C
Partially polarised

1 3
For glass p  tan   57.5
0
2

1 4
For water p  tan    53
0
3
ii) Malus Law
Transmission axis of polarizer Transmission axis of Analyser
Io I0
U PL  I0
 2 I= C os 2θ
2
Ao
polarizer Ao
Analyser Ao
2 A cos 
2

The intensity of polarized light after passing through

I0
analyser is I= Cos 2θ
2
Where I0 is the intensity of unpolarized light. The
amplitude of polarized light after passing through
Ao
analyser A  cos 
2
Note: In case of three polarizers P1, P2 and P3: If
1 is the angle between transmission axes of P1
and P2, 2 is the angle between transmission axes
of P2 and P3. Then the intensity of emerging light
from P3 is
I
I  0 cos 2 1 cos 2  2 .
2

16 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS ELECTROSTATICS

ELECTRIC CHARGES, FIELDS & POTENTIAL

FORMULAS The force acting on it, F = Eq

1. Quantization of charge: + E -
+ -
i.e. q   n e where n is an integer.. + -
+ q -
-
2. If a dielectric is charged by induction then induced + -
+ -
charge q1 is less than inducing charge q. Induced b) The body travels in straight line path with
 1
F Eq
uniform acceleration, a   , initial
charge, q  q 1  K 
1

 
m m
velocity, u= 0.
where K is dielectric constant.
At an instant of time t ,
3. COULOMB’S INVERSE SQUARE LAW
 Eq 
a) In free space, c) Its final velocity, v  u  at  
t
 m 
1 Q1Q 2 1 2 1  Eq  2
Fair  d) Displacement s  ut  at   t
4 0 r 2 2 2 m 
where 0 is permittivity of free space or air and e) Momentum, P  mv  ( Eq)t

0  8.85  1012 C2 / N  m2 . 1 2 1  E 2 q2  2
f) Kinetic energy, K.E = mv   t
2 2 m 
b) In vector form,
 1 Q1Q2  1 Q1Q2 ^ u
F r r q
3
40 r 40 r 2 
y
r^ is the unit vector along the direction of force 
x P
c) In a medium,
E
1 Q1Q2 1 Q1Q2 Along the horizontal direction, there is no
Fmedium  2

4 r 40K r 2 acceleration and hence x = ut.
Where  is the absolute permittivity of medium Along the vertical direction, acceleration,
and K is dielectric constant or relative permit- F Eq
a  (here gravitational force is not
tivity or specific inductive capacity(  r or K) m m
considered)
 Fair
K  r  and also K 
0 Fmedium 1  Eq  2
g) Hence vertical displacement, y   t
2 m 
4. Intensity of electric field :
F 1 q 1  qE   x 
2
 qE  2
E   (Due to point charge)
q0 4 0 r 2 y      2mu 2  x
2  m  u   
i) Motion of a charged particle in uniform
electric field : h) At any instant of time t,

a) A charged body of mass ‘m’ and charge ‘q’ is horizontal component of velocity , vx  u
initially at rest in a uniform electric field of intensity i) vertical componet of velocity
E.

NARAYANA GROUP 17
ELECTROSTATICS SR-PHYSICS

 Eq 
vy  at   t  
 m  
E 2 q2t 2 T T
2 2 2
 v v  v v  u 
x y F F
m2
x
5. Null point (or) Neutral Point :
W W
2
q1 N q2 1 q
F
 4 o x 2 ,
x (d-x)
d F W T
x  
q2  sin   cos  
 1, d) If the arrangement is immersed in a non conducting
q1
liquid of dielectric constant K if the distance
d N + q1 - q2 between the bobs remains same then  is constant.
x 
q2 d F W
1 x  1
q1 (d+x) F1
W
6. Different cases of equilibrium of charges: mg dB
a) Freely floating charge in air K  
 d  dB  d
F  QE mg  1  
 dB 
In equilibrium  7. TIME PERIOD OF OSCILLATION OF A
E CHARGED BODY :
Q Simple pendulum:
QE = mg
a) A charge q is given to the bob of a simple pendulum
mg
E and an electric field is applied in the downward
Q direction then.
mg
E
b) Suspension of charge from string 
T  2 
Tcos  Eq  q
T g  m 
 E  
 mg  Eq
 F=Eq
b) If electric field is applied horizontally then
Tsin

W=mg
 E
T  2
2 2 
g a q
T cos   mg and T sin   Eq Eq
 Eq 
Eq where a   
Tan   mg
and T  Eq2  mg2 m
mg c) If a charge is placed at the point of suspension
c) Two identical charged spheres of same mass are and no electric field is applied then time period
suspended by strings of same length from same does not change.
point .
q

T  2
g 
q
q

mg
18 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS ELECTROSTATICS

8. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A p cos q

UNIFORMLY CHARGED RING : ii) Potential due to a dipoleV 
A
4pe0r 2
dx

a dE2 P
If θ = 0° , Vaxial =
(x, 0)

O x
 p X
dE1
4πε 0 r 2

dx B If θ = 90° , Vequatorial = 0
Consider an element dx of the ring at point A. iii) Potential difference :
The charge on this element is given by
q E VB Vc
q qdx
dq  dx  charge density dq  dx 
2 a 2 a A B C
1 qx If a positive charge q0 is moving from B to C
E
4 0  a 2  x 2 3/ 2 itself in uniform electric field then work is done
by the electric field and
9. DIPOLE
i) ELECTRIC FIELD AT ANY POINT DUE W = VC  VB  q 0  V BC q 0

p iv) Relation between electric field strength and

 2 
TO A DIPOLE E  4pe r 3 1  3cos q  potential difference :
0
a) Intensity of electric field is the negative potential
a) Field at a point on the axial line : (   00 )
dV
2p gradient, E  
Eaxial  dr
4pe0 r3
b) Field at a point on the equitorial line (   90 0 ) b) Also, dV   E . dr
B
p
E eq u ito ria l  VB  VA    E . d
4 p e0 r 3 A
ii) Electric dipole placed in an uniform electric field 11. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
experiences torque is given by i) If two charges q1 and q2 are separated by a dis-
tance d, the P.E. of the system is
  pE sin  in vector form   p  E
1 q1q 2
iii) The potential energy of dipole in an electric field U = 4 
o d
is U= – pE cos θ .
iv) Workdone in rotating a dipole in uniform electric ii) If three charges q1, q2 and q3 are situated at the
vertices of a triangle (as shown in the figure), the
field is W = PE  cosθ1 - cosθ 2  P.E. of the system is
10. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL : q1
V=W/q0
i) Electric potential due to a point charge : d1 d3
a) In air or free space,

1 q. q2 d2 q3
V
4  o d U = U12 + U23 + U31
1 q
b) In a medium, V1  .  q1q2 q2 q3 q3q1 
4o K d =
1
   
4 0
 d1 d2 d3 

NARAYANA GROUP 19
ELECTROSTATICS SR-PHYSICS

iii) Two charged bodies q1 and q2 are separated by

a distance ‘ d1 ’. The work to be done inorder to
decrease the distance to d2 is given by
work done = change in PE
1 q1 q2 1 q1 q2
W 
4 o d2 4 o d1
iv) A charge Q is held fixed. Another charged body
of charge q and mass m is at a distance ‘d’ and
left free from rest. When it goes to infinity its KE
is given by

1 2 1 Qq
mv 
2 4 o d
v) Similarly, A charge Q is fixed and another small
charge q is coming from infinity with velocity v
then distance of closest approach is given by
1 2 1 Qq
mv 
2 4 o d
where d is the distance of closest approach.

20 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS GAUSS'S LAW

GAUSS'S LAW
FORMULAS Flux associated due to charges outside the closed
surface is 2  0
1. Relation between electric field intensity and
electric flux: q  q 
 Total flux  1  2  1 2
0
b) If a closed surface does not enclose any charge,
S  then
dS   1
Area = dS
q

E  E . ds  o q  0

Sphere

E  0
Electric flux crossing the area element dS in a E  0
direction along the normal to it is given by c) A hemispherical body is placed in a uniform electric
field E. The flux linked with the curved surface, if
df  E n dS  E cos q  dS
  field is (i) parallel to the base (ii) perpendicular
or df  E.dS to base and (iii) if a charge q is placed at its centre
Therefore, total electric flux through the surface can be calculated as follows
S is given by E E E
 
f   E.dS
S R
R R q
n n
2. Gauss's Law n
(A) (B) (C)
"The total electric flux through any closed
1
surface is equal to  times the net charge (i) As field is parallel to base, the flux linked with
0
base
enclosed by that surface."
CS  0
  q
 E.dS 
0
(ii) As field is perpendicular to base, the flux linked
S with base
a) Charges inside and outside a closed surface.  CS  R 2 E
Consider a system of point charges as shown. (iii) Total flux through the Gaussian surface
q
q1 (sphere) =
0 q
 q4
 q2  Flux through hemisphere = 2 
0

q3 d) A point charge 'q' is placed at a height "a/2"

In this case flux associated with charges inside exactly above the centre of a horizontal square
q q
the closed surface is 1  1  2 . plate of side 'a'. Then flux linked with the plat is
0 0

NARAYANA GROUP 21
 GAUSS'S LAW SR-PHYSICS

q
given by 6 
0
+q

a/2

a (A)
(B)

a
e) A point charge 'q' is placed at the open end of a Q
 Flux through the given cube fcube  8  .
cylinder as shown in figure. Then flux linked with 0
q
it is given by & Flux through one face opposite to the charge,
2 0 of the given cube is
+q
Q /8 0 Q
ffoce  
 3 24 0 (Because only three
r faces are seen).
f) If a point charge is kept at the centre of a cube, 3. Charge densities
then the total flux linked with the cube is
i) Linear charge density ( l ):
It is defined as the charge per unit length
dq
l
Q d
ii) Surface charge density ( s ):
1 It is defined as the charge per unit area.
ftotal  (Q) ; dq
0 s
Flux linked with each face of the cube is ds
1 iii) Volume charge density ( r ):
fface  (Q)
6 0 It is defined as the charge per unit volume.
g) If a point charge is kept at the centre of a face
of the cube, the first we should enclose the dq
r
charge dv
4. Electric intensity and electric potential due
to a linear charge distribution :
Q
l
E
(A) (B)
2p 0 r
Total flux emerges from the system (Two cubes)
 l 
V(r)   log r  C
2p 0 e 
Q 
is ftotal 
0
Q 5. Electric field due to long uniformly charged
Flux through the given cube is fcube 
2 0 cylinder:
h) If a point charge is kept at the corner of a cube

22 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS GAUSS'S LAW

7. Electric Intensity and electric potential due

 to infinite plane sheet of charge
(nonconducting):
L
r s
E
2e0

R    
sR V  r   dr   r  C
 E 2 0  2 0 
0 r
E 8. Electirc field due to two infinite plane parallel
sheets of charge
1
E
r + +
+ +
+ + + +
+ + + + +
r=R r + sA + + sB
+ +
I +
+ + II + + + III
+ +
+A + +
6. Electric field due to uniformly charged non- + + B+
+ + + + +
conducting cylinder: + + + + +
+ +

i) In region I:
1
E sA  sB 
L 2e0
r
ii) In region II:
1
E = 2e s A  sB 
0

R iii) In region III:

Case (i): If r > R, then from Gauss's law 1
E sA  sB 
2e0
R 2
E 9. Electric intensity and electric potential due
2 0 r
rR to infinite sheet (conducting):
Case (ii): If r = R, then E   
2 0
Case (iii): If r < R, P 
P1 3 P2
r  
E
2 0  
 
E
Er Now resultant field at P1:
1
E   
r E1   
r=R
2 0 2 0 0
r
Now resultant field at P2:

NARAYANA GROUP 23
 GAUSS'S LAW SR-PHYSICS

  
E2   
2 0 2 0 0 r  R 
Now resultant field at P3 :
1 qr
   E
E3   0 so, E1  E2  . 4 0 R3
2 0 2 0 0 1 q  3 r2 
10. Electric field and Electric potential due to a V   
4 0 R  2 2R 2 
charged spherical shell (or conducting
sphere): At the centre r = 0 then
Case (i): When point P lies outside the
spherical shell: 1 3q 3 1 q
Potential VC  
4  0 2R 2 4 0 R
1 q
E . 2 12. Electric pressure on a charged surface
4 pe0 r
1 q The force per unit area of the surface is
V r  
4p 0 r 1 2
0 E2 or
Case (ii): When point P lies on the surface 2 2 0
of spherical shell:
1 q
E . 2
4p 0 R
1 q
V
4p 0 R
Case (iii): For points inside the charged
spherical shell (r <R)
 E  0 inside the charged shell.

1 q
V
4p 0 R
11. Electric intensity and Electric potential due
to a uniformly charged non-conducting solid
sphere :
Case (i) : For Points Outside the Sphere
r  R 
1 q
E
4 p 0 r 2

1 q
V
40 r

Case (ii) : For Points Inside the Sphere

24 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS CAPACITORS

CAPACITORS
FORMULAS
1. ELECTRIC CAPACITY (OR) CAPACI-
TANCE :
i) Capacity of a conductor:
Q
C
V
ii) Electric capacity of a spherical conductor is given
by C   4 o  R
+ + + Q
+ +
+ R +
+ + 4. Capacity of a parallel plate condenser
O
+ +
+ + 0 A
+ + + C0 
where R is the radius of the sphere. d
i) The space between the plates is filled with a mate-
2. Common potential and loss of energy  0A
rial of dielectric constant K then C = K d
and
Q1 Q2
+++ C
++ + + + +
++
+ K=
+ +
+
C1 + A
+ +
B
+ C0
+C
+ + + + 2
+
+++ + + +
+ +
+ ++ + + +
+ ii) Electric field between the plates is uniform and
V1 V2

Electric intensity, E = 


i) Common potential,
iii) Potential difference between the plates
Q1  Q 2 C1V1  C2 V2
V  
C1  C2 C1  C2 V = E.d =  d


ii) Effective capacity, 1

iv) Force on each plate is F = 2
EQ
Q Q11  Q12 Q11 Q12 Where E is the electric field between the plates.
C     C1  C2
V V V V
v) Energy stored in a capacitor,
iii) In case of spherical conductors then 1 1 1 Q2
U= QV = CV2 =
r1V1  r2V2 2 2 2 C
V vi) Energy stored per unit volume of the medium =
r1  r2
iv) Loss in energy of the system 1
e0 E2
2
1  C1C2  2
=   V1  V2  1
2  C1  C2  vii) The energy stored in the capacitor is QV. But
2
3. If n identical charged liquid drops are combined
to form a big drop then the energy drawn from the battery is QV.
viii) When a dielectric slab of thickness ‘t’ is introduced
between the plates

NARAYANA GROUP 25
 CAPACITORS SR-PHYSICS

t b) Equivalent capacity of a combination,

e0 A e0 A 1 1 1 1
C|    
t  1
d t  d  t 1  C C1 C 2 C 3
k  k 

d
7. Parallel grouping of condensers :
ix) If a metal slab of thickness ‘t’ is introduced be- a) Total charge, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
b) P.D. across each condenser is same
tween the plates, then c) Charge of each condenser is different
0 A Q1 : Q2 : Q3 = C1 : C2 : C3
C because for metals K is infinity..
dt d) Equivalent capacity of the combination
x) If a number of dielectric slabs of thickness t1, t2, C = C1 + C2 + C3
t3......tn and dielectric constant K1, K2......Kn are 8. If N identical plates are arranged as shown in
inserted between the plates, each parallel to plate figure. Then (N–1) capacitors will be formed
surface, then equivalent capacity. and they will be in parallel grouping.
0 A
‘C’=   
1 1   1 
d  t1  1    t2  1   ....  t n  1  
 K1   K2   Kn 

5. DIELECTRIC MATERIALS :
i) A dielectric material is placed in an electric field
E0 in between the charged plates of a capacitor
as shown in figure.
Equivalent capacitance C1 = (N–1) C
 Ei 0 A
+ - + - + -+ - Where C is the capacitance of a capacitor =
d
+ - + -+ - + - 9. When the space between the plates of a parallel
+ - + -+ -+ - plate condenser is completely filled with two slabs
+ - + -+ - + - of dielectric constants K1 and K2 and each slab
 E0 A
having area 2
and thickness equal to distance of
Net electric field between the plates
seperation d as shown in the figure.
E  E0  E i
E0
Also we know that E 
K
 1
 Ei  E0 1  K 
   0A
ii) The induced charge on each surface, a) Capacity of the left half C1= K1
2d
 1  0A
qi   q0 1 
 K b) Capacity of the right half C2 = K2
2d
Where q0 is the charge on each plate. c) C1 and C2 may be supposed to be connected
in parallel then effective
6. Series grouping of condensers:
e0 A  K1  K2 
a) Potential differences between the plates are capacity C = C1 + C2   
different, d  2 
10. When the space between the plates of a parallel
plate condenser is completely filled with two slabs
1 1 1
V1 : V2 : V3 = : : of dielectric constants K1 and K2 and each slab
C1 C2 C3 d
having area A and thickness equal to 2
as shown
and V = V1 + V2 + V3
in the figure

26 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS CAPACITORS

b) Capacitance : C  4   . ab
0
ba
c) In the presence of a dielectric medium(dielectric
2K1 o A constant K) between the shells.
a) Capacity of the upper half C1 
d ab
C|  4 0K.
ba
2K2 o A
b) Capacity of the lower half C2  ii) If outer shell is given a charge + Q while in-
d ner shell is earthed
c) C1 and C2 may be supposed to be connected
a) The potential at the surface of inner shell is
in series.
zero, so if Q| is the charge induced on inner shell
d) Effective capacity
C1C2 e A  2K K   2K K 
C  0  1 2   c0  1 2  a
C1  C2 d  K1  K2   K1  K2 
then b
Here C0 is the capacity of the condenser with air
medium.
1 Q | Q 
11. Effect of introducing a dielectric slab between V1   0
the two plates of a parallel plate charged ca- 4   0  a b 
pacitor. b) Induced charge on the inner shell.
a
Quantity When the When the When the Q|  .Q
to be condenser is dielectric slab dielectric slab b
compared fully charged is introduced is introduced
with air without the with the
between
c) Capacitance of the system,
battery battery
the two plates ab
Charge Qo Qo KQo  4  0  4   0b
ba
Capacity Co KCo KCo
13. Cylindrical capacitor :
P.D. between Vo V o Vo
the two plates K b
a Q
Intensity of
the electric Eo
Eo Eo
field between K 2  0
the two plates C
Energy Uo  b
stored in Uo KUo loge  
condenser
K  a
12. SPHERICAL CAPACITOR
i) Inner shell is given a charge + Q, while outer
shell is earthed.
a) Potential difference between the shells is

-Q
Q Q a
V 
4   0 a 4   0b b
+Q

NARAYANA GROUP 27
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY SR-PHYSICS

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
FORMULAS R
i  V and i = V/R i
1. Electric current : V V
a) If q charge passes through a cross-section in R=
i
time ‘t’ then average current ‘i’ is given by
q 9. Ohmic substances:
i
t
b) instantaneous current ‘i’ is given by I 1
dq i) tan q   G
V R
i
dt 
 q  idt
c) Due to translatory motion of charges: ii) For two wires M 1 and M 2 at constant
temperature
nq
i slope of M1>slope of M2
t
d) Due to rotatory motion of charge: tan 1  tan  2
v M1

q qv q G1>G2 M2
i   qf  r 
T 2p r S
R1 <R2 2 1
2. Drift Velocity : (Vd) = i/neA V
The drift velocity (vd) is the order of 10–4m/sec. 10. Conductance (G):
Vd
3. Mobility ( m ) = . 1
E G=
 R
4. Current density ( j ):
D.F =M–1L–2T3I2
dq i
j  
Adt A 11. Specific resistance or Resistivity r  :
5. Relation between electric current and drift
velocity : 
R= (  =speciffic resistance)
i = neAVd A
Where n = no. of free electrons per unit volume. 12. Conductivity:
A = Area of cross section. 1 l
 =   RA
e = Electronic charge. Vd = Drift velocity.
13. Factors effecting the resistance of a
6. Relation between current density and drift conductor of length(l), cross section(A), mass
velocity : (m), volume(V) and density(d)
 
j neVd ρl ρl ρl 2 ρl 2d
  R=  2, R=  ,
In a metallic conductor j  neVd A πr V m

7. Relation between current density and electric ρV ρm

R= 
field : A 2 A 2d
 
j  E Where  is conductivity.. 14. Change of resistivity and resistance with
temperature :
8. Ohm’s law :
i) The temperature coefficient of resistivity (  ) is
Potential difference ‘V’ applied across it defined as the fractional change in resistivity per
unit rise of temperature.
28 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS CURRENT ELECTRICITY

d t  0 number of combinations they can be made to give

 (or)    t different resistances is (2n –1) (if n > 2).
dt 0
where  t = Resistivity at tºC iii) If ‘n’ wires of unequal resistances are given, then
 0 = Resistivity at 0ºC number of combinations they can be made to give
different resistances is (2n ) (if n > 2).
ii) Similarly, temperature coefficient of resistance 
Rt  R0 R2  R1 iv) If two wires of resistivities 1, 2 , lengths l1, l2
= R t  R t  R t / 0C and of same area of cross-section are connected
0 1 2 2 1
Rt = Resistance at tºC in series.
R0 = Resistance at 0ºC 1l1  2l2
Equivalent resistivity   l1  l2
R1 = Resistance of conductor at t10c
R2= Resistance of conductor at t20c v) If two wires of resistivities 1, 2 , area of cross
t1 , t2 are in degree centrigrade. sections A1, A2 and of same length are connected
iii) Two wires are connected in series.If the resistance in parallel.Equivalent resistivity
of the combination does not change with
1 2 (A 1  A 2 )
temperature, then increase in resistance of one 
wire is equal to decrease in resistance of other 1A 2   2 A 1
wire. vi) Ratio of maximum to minimum resistance of a
R1 1 = R2  2 block of conducting material of dimensions lxbxh
(l>b>h)
15. Resistances in series :
i) current ‘i’ is same through all resistances Rmin
ii) total potential difference V=V1+V2+V3 h
iii) V1:V2:V3=R1:R2:R3 (V=iR,V  R) 
Rmax b
iv) Reff = R1 + R2 + R3
v) If n wires each having resistance R are connected Rmax  / bh  2
 
in series, equivalent or effective resistance Reff = Rmin h / b h 2
nR vii) A wire of resistance ‘R’ is bent in the form of
16. Resistances in Parallel : circle, effective resistance across diameter is R/4
R/2
i) Potential difference ‘V’ is same across the ends
of any wire. A B
ii) In parallel combination, current is devided in the
inverse ratio of their resistaces. R/2
1 1 1  V 1
iii) i1 : i2 : i3 = R : R : R  i  R  i  R  viii) A wire of resistance ‘R’ is bent in the form of
1 2 3  
circle, effictive resistance between two points
iv) total current i = i1 + i2+i3
which makes an angle ' q ' at the centre is
1 1 1 1
c) R  R  R  R
eff 1 2 3
Rq 2p  q 
v) If n wires each having resistance R are connected q
R 4p 2 A B
in Parallel, Reff = . ix) A hollow cylinder of inner radius ‘r’ and outer
n
radius ‘R’ has specific resistance ‘  ’. If its length
17. SPECIAL CASES ON resistances :
i) A wire of resistance ‘R’ is cut into ‘n’ equal parts r
and all of them are connected in parallel the

is ‘  ’ then its resistance = p R 2  r 2

effective resistance is R/n2.
ii) If ’ n’ wires of equal resistances are given, then

NARAYANA GROUP 29
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY SR-PHYSICS

nE
I
R  nr
r
R v) Also if two cells of different emf’s are in series
Eequivalent = E1 + E2,
requivalent = r1 + r2

x) 12 wires each of resistance ‘r’ are connected in E1  E 2

the form of 12 sides of a cube. Effective resistance i=
r1  r2  R
across
a) Diagonally opposite corners = 5r/6
b) Face diagonal = 3r/4 T.P.D. across the first cell V1 = E1 – ir1
c) two adjacent corners = 7r/12 T.P.D. across the second cell V2 = E2–ir2
18. Electric Cell : vi) If one cell is in reverse connection (E1 > E2)
Relation among E,V and r then
a) When current is drawn from a cell, Eequivalent = E1–E2
V = E - ir. requivalent = r1 + r2
b) When cell is charging
Then terminal p.d is V=E+ir E1  E 2
Note : A cell of emf E and internal resistance r i=
R  r1  r2
are connected to external resistance R then
First cell is discharging then V1 = E1 – ir1
E Eeffective Second cell is charging then V2 = E2 + ir2
i=
Rr
= Reffective
vii) Wrongly connected cells in series :
c) In case of a closed circuit the power N cells each of emf ‘E’ are to be connected in
transfered to external resistance ‘R’ is series. If ‘n’ cells of them are wrongly connected,
then net emf = (N – 2n)E and
E2R
2 net internal resistance = Nr
P=i R=
(R  r )2
20. CELLS IN PARALLEL:
d) power transferred to the load by a cell is
.
E2
maximum when R=r ,(P)max=
4r
19. Cells in Series :
i) Since all the cells are in series,
i) Since all the cells are in parallel, the net e.m.f equals
net e.m.f = nE
to e.m.f due to a single cell.
Net e.m.f = E
ii) similarly all resistances are in parallel, so
r
Net internal resistance =
m
r
iii) Total resistance of circuit = R 
ii) As all the internal resistances are in series, so net m
internal resistance = nr E
iv) Current I =
iii) Total resistance of circuit = R + nr  r 
R  
Net e.m.f m
iv) Current I = v) If two cells of different emf are connected in
Net resis tan ce

30 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS CURRENT ELECTRICITY

parallel then 23. Metre Bridge :

 E1 E 2 
  
 E / r  r1 r2   E1 r2  E 2 r1 
E eq    
 1/ r 1 1  r1  r2 
  
 r1 r2 
1 1 1 1  rr 
   , req   1 2 
req r r1 r2  r1  r2 
Eeq E1r2  E2 r1
i  In balanced bridge,
req  R r1r2  R  r1  r2 
21. MIXED GROUPING :
resistance in the left gap 
=
resistance in the right gap 100-
Where l = balancing length from left end.
24. Potentiometer :

nE mnE

i) Current I = R  nr mR  nr
m
ii) Thus for maximum current through external
resistance, cells should be connected in mixed
grouping such that external resistance is equal to iR  E R
net internal resistance i.e. a) Potential gradient= = R R r  L
L  S 0 

m R = nr and emf of the cell in secondary circuit,

 E R
mE nE  
E1  (i) l and E 1   R  R  r  L l
 max  
2r 2R  S 0 

iii) Power transferfed to the load will be maximum Where E = emf of the cell in primary circuit
when external resistance is equal to internal R = Resistance of the potentiometer wire
resistance. (mR = nr)
RS = Series resistance in primary circuit
22. Wheatstone’s Bridge : r0 = Internal resistance of primary cell
L = Total length of potentiometer wire
l = Balancing length
b) If ‘  ’ is the specific resistance of the wire, A is
the area of cross section of the potentiometer wire,
i
then potential gradient is respresented by ‘ ’.
A
where ‘i’ is the current in the primary circuit.
i) Bridge is balanced when galvanometer current c) Without changing the cells in primary and
is zero. secondary circuit, the balancing length is directly
P R proportional to total length of the potentiometer
ii) condition for balance is  (or) PS = QR.
Q S wire.( No series resistance in primary and cell in
l L
primary is ideal) l L  1  1
l2 L2

NARAYANA GROUP 31
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY SR-PHYSICS

E1  l
d) If l1 and l2 are the balancing lengths of two cells
of emf’s E1 and E2 used in the secondary circuit
then
E1 l1

E2 l2
e) Sum and difference method : Let l1 and l2 are the
balancing lengths corresponding to two cells which
are connected in secondary circuit first support
each other and then oppose each other. Then
E1  E2 l1 E1 l1 l2
 , 
E1  E2 l2 E 2 l1 l2
f) l1 is the balancing length of the cell in the secondary
circuit. If a known resistance ‘R’ is connected
across the cell then the balancing length becomes
‘l2’. Then internal resistance of the cell in the
secondary circuit is
l l 
r  1 2 R ; l < l
 l2  2 1

25. JOULE’S HEATING EFFECT :

R
i

V
heat produced in the resistor and is denotes by H.
V2
H  i2 Rt  t  V it (in joules)
R
i 2 Rt V 2t V it
H   (in calories)
J RJ J
26. ELECTRICAL POWER :
Power consumed by the resistor due to Joule heat-
2 V2
ing effect. P  V i  i R 
R

32 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS MAGNETISM

MAGNETISM
FORMULAS c) Magnetic moment of each part M1  M / n
1. Coulomb’s inverse square law : ii) When a bar magnet is cut into ‘n’ equal parts normal
 o m1 m 2 to its axis
a) F  when the poles are in air or a) Pole strength of each part m1 = m
4  d2
b) Length of each part (2l)1 = 2l/n
vacuum .
Where  0 is the permeability of free space c) Magnetic moment of each part M1  M / n
 m1 m2 iii) When a bar magnet is cut into ‘xy’ equal parts x parts
b) In any other medium F  (SI system) parallel to its axis and y parts normal to the axis.
4 d2
Where  is the absolute permeability of the medium m
a) Pole strength of each part m1 =
between the poles.  =  0  r x
 r is relative permeability of the medium b) Length of each part (2  )1 = 2  /y
2. Resultant force in different cases :
1
i) Two magnetic poles of same strength (m) are placed c) Magnetic moment of each part M  M / xy
at two vertices of an equilateral triangle of side 'a' the
5 Resultant magnetic moment:
force on a similar magnetic pole on third corner is
i) When two magnets of magnetic moments M1 and
0 m 2 M2 are kept at an angle ‘  ’ with like poles touching
1
given by F  3 each other, then the resultant magnetic moment
4 a 2
ii) Two unlike magnetic poles of same strength (m) are M1  M12  M 22  2 M1M 2 Cos
placed at two vertices of an equilateral triangle of
ii) When two magnets of magnetic moments M1
side 'a'. If a north pole of same strength is placed at
and M2 are kept at an angle ‘  ’ with unlike
the thirdvertex, it experiences a force of magnitude
poles touching each other, then the resultant magnetic
0 m 2
1
moment
which is given by F 
4 a 2
M1  M12  M 22  2 M1M 2 Cos
iii) Four like poles each of pole strength 'm' are kept at
the four cornes of a square of side 'a'. The net mag- 6. Bending of magnets:
netic force on the pole at any one corner is given by i) When a thin bar magnet of magnetic moment ‘M’
and length ‘2  ’ is bent at its mid point with an angle
1 m2  1 ‘  ’ between the two parts (a) its effective length
F  0 2  2 
4 a  2 
becomes 2 sin (b)its new magnetic
3. Magnetic moment (M) : 2
i) It is measured as the product of magnetic length and
moment M  Msin   / 2
1

pole strength M  2  m .
ii) In case of bar magnet, ii) When a Magnetised wire of length ‘2  ’ and mag-
netic moment ‘M’ is bent in to an arc of a circle, that
Magnetic length = 5/6 x geometric length.
makes an angle ‘  ’ at the centre of the circle
4. Magnet divided into parts:
i) When a bar magnet is cut into ‘n’ equal parts parallel Its magnetic moment decreases and becomes
to its axis  2 MSin  / 2  
M1    where  is in radian
a) Pole strength of each part = m1 = m/n   
b) Length of each part = (2l)1 = 2l
7. Force between two co-axial magnetic dipoles

NARAYANA GROUP 33
 MAGNETISM SR-PHYSICS


M1 M2 i.e. along SN
 0 6M1M 2
F B) Field on equatorial line.
4 d 4
d i) B at a point 'p' on the equatorial line of a bar magnet
8. The force between two parallel magnets at a distance 'd' from centre of the magnet is

0 M
M1 Be 
 3M1M 2 4 3
F 0
4 d 4
d d 2
 l2  2

M2
0 M
9. Magnetic induction or induction field strength(B) ii) In case of short magnet Be  (... d )
4 d 3

 F iii) Direction of B is parallel to the axis and is directed
B
m
from N to S pole i.e NS .
B at a distance ‘d’ in air due to a pole of strength ‘m’ NOTE: Magnetic induction at a point 'p' and whose
0 m position vector from the mid point of the magnet
is B 
4  d2 makes an angle  with magnetic axis is given
Formulae of magnetic induction in diffrent cases: by
i) Three identical magnetic poles each of
strength 'm' placed at the three vertices of an
equilateral triangle. The resultant magnetic induction 0 M
at the centre is equal to zero B 3
1 3cos2 
4 d
ii) The magnetic induction at the centre of the line join-
ing the two poles of a horse shoe magnet of pole 12. Couple acting on a bar magnet in a uniform mag-
strength 'm' and separated by a distance 'd' is
netic field :
0 m i) C  MB sin 
B8 directed from N to S pole
4 d 2   
Vectorially C  M  B
iii) When a pole of pole strength m is placed in a mag-
 ii) Two magnets of magnetic moments M1 and M2 are
netic field of induction B ,the force F
joined in the form of a cross and this arrangement is
 
experienced by it 1is given by F  mB pivoted so that it is free to rotate in a horizontal plane
10. Magnetic Flux : under the influence of earth’s magnetic field. If  is
  the angle made by the magnetic meridian with M1 then
  B.A  BA cos 
BH
11. Magnetic induction due to a bar magnet:
M1 N N M2
A) Field on axial line.

i) B at a point 'p' on the axial line of a bar magnet at a M2
tan  
distance 'd' from the centre of the magnet is M1
0 2M d S S
Ba  2
4 d 2
l 2

13. Potential energy of bar magnet :

0 2M The P.E. of a bar magnet of magnetic moment M
ii) In case of short bar magnet (...l < < d) Ba  
4 d 3 placed in a uniform magnetic field B is given by
  
iii) Direction of B is from S to N along the axial line. U   M.B U   MBcos 

34 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS MAGNETISM

14. Work done by external agent in deflecting a mag tral point is formed then
net:
0 m
BH 
W  MB  cos 1  cos 2  4 d 2
15. Neutral points or Null points : 16. Tangent law :
i) If two poles of pole strengths m1 and m2 (m1<m2) are
seperated by distance d, then the distance of the neu- B1
tral point from the first pole m1 is
B2 
tan  
d B1 B2
x=  + for like poles 
m2
1  - for unlike poles
m1
17. Vibration magenetometer(VMM):
ii) If two short bar magnets of magnetic moments M1and i) The time period of vibrating magnet is
M2 (M1 < M2) are placed along the same line with
like poles facing eachother and ‘d’ is the distance be- I
T  2
tween their centres, the distance of null point from MBH
M1 is

d 1 MBH
x and The frequency of vibrating magnet n 
1/ 3 2 I
 M2 
 M  1
1
 2  b2 
a) + for null point formed between the magnets Where I = m   is the moment of
 12 
b) – for null point formed outside the magnets.
inertia of the bar magnet about the axis of os-
iii) When a short bar magnet is placed in the earth’s
magnetic field with its north pole towards geographic m2
north, then two null points are formed on the equato- cillation and for thin bar magnet I 
12
rial line, one on either side at equal distances from
mid point of the magnet. m = mass of the magnet
 = length of the magnet
  0  M
At the null point B   B H BH  4  d 3 b = breadth of the magnet
b h = horizontal component of earth’ss
BH is the horizontal component of earth’s
magnetic field
magnetic field.
M = Magnetic moment of the magnet.
iv) When a short bar magnet is placed in earth’s field
with south pole pointing geographic north, then two ii) If magnet is cut into 'n' equal parts, parallel to length
null points are formed on axial line one on either side then time period of each part remains same T1 = T
at equal distances from mid point of the magnet.. iii) If magnet is cut into 'n' equal parts perpendicula to
T
   0 2M 1
length then time period of each part is T 
At the null point B   B H BH  4  d 3 n

v) a) If a very long magnet is placed vertically with one iv) Two magnets of magnetic moments M1 and M 2
pole on the table then a single neutral point will M1  M 2  are placed one over the other. If T1 is
be formed time period when like poles touch each other and T
2
b) If ‘m’ is the polestrength and ‘d’ is the is the time period when unlike poles touch each other,
distance from the pole of the magnet where the neu-

NARAYANA GROUP 35
 MAGNETISM SR-PHYSICS

M1 T22  T12
then 
M 2 T22  T12
In terms of frequencies of oscillating magnet

M 1 n12  n22
 
M 2 n12  n22
18. Properties of magnetic materials:
A) Intensity of Magnetising field or magnetising
force (H)

B   0 H in vacuum

B= H   0 r H in any medium
B) Intensity of magnetisation (I) :
It is the magnetic moment per unit volume or
polestrength per unit area
M 2 . m m
I    a = area of cross section
V 2 .a a
C) Magnetic susceptibility (  ) :
The ratio of magnitude of intensity of magnetisation
(I) in a material to that of magnetising field(H) is called
magnetic susceptibility of that mate-

rial(  ).   I / H
D) Relation between  and  :

r  1  
19. Curie's Law:
1 C
 c ;
T T
Where C = curie constant, 'T' absolute temperature.
20. Curie - weiss law:
C

T  TC 
Here TC - Curie temperature

36 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS ELECTRO MAGNETISM

MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

FORMULAS r
x
P
1. Biot-savart's law : i
0i
B=
4 r
R
i

 dB
d x iv) If the point 'P' is at perpendicular distance 'r' at
c r p one end of conductor of finite length l, the magnetic
i
Q
induction at P is given by

x P 0i
r 
dB =  0 i d  sin  B= sin 
4 r2 4 r

i 2  r 2
 
 0 d x r
i) In vector form , dB = i
4 r 3
ii) The magnetic induction due to entire conductor
'QR' is given by  0i l
B
4r l 2  r 2
R
0i d  sin 
B = 4  r 2 v) Magnetic induction due to a straight conductor of
Q finite length at a perpendicular distance 'r' is
2. Ampere's law : (circuital law) :  0i
i a B (sin 1  sin  2 )
4 r
 1 P
x
B
 r 2
d b

  x i1 i2 x
i5
 B .d   m0 i
i3 x i4
(or)
m0i
B (cos a  cos b )
4pr
Where i is the net current enclosed by the closed
vi) An inifinte long conductor carries current 'i'.
path with reference to figure i = i1–i2–i3+i4
If the pole is moved round conductor 'n' times,
3. Applications
work done is W=  0 m ni
i) Magnetic induction at a point due to a straight
conductor of infinite length carrying current 'i', at vii) Solid cylinder
 0i a) The magnetic field induction inside the current
a perpendicular distance 'r' is given by B  carrying very long soild cylinder at a distance
2 r
'r' from the axis is given by,
ii) If the point P is along the length of the
conductor , at that point B = 0  0i( r )
B = where R is the radius of the
2 R 2
i P conductor i.e., B  r (r <R)
b) Magnetic field induction out side the current
iii) If the point 'P' is at one end of infinitely long straight carrying very long soild cylinder at a distance
conductor and lies at a perpendicular distance 'r', 'r' from the axis is geven by
the magnetic induction at P is given by
0i
B= i.e., B  1/r (r >R)
2 r

NARAYANA GROUP 37
 ELECTRO MAGNETISM SR-PHYSICS

viii) Hollow cylinder

0  i1 i2 
a) If current is flowing through a hollow BQ    
cylinder, magnetic induction at any point inside 2  y r  y
it is zero
xiii) Two straight and infinite long parallel wires
b) The magnetic field at distance 'r' from the axis separated by a distance 'r' carry currents i1 and i2
out side the current carrying very long hollow in opposite direction as shown. The resultant
m0 i magnetic field at P and Q is
cylinder is B 
2 pr
i1
ix) Magnetic induction at the centre of current x p
i2
Q
carrying wire bent in the form of a square of side y
'a' is r

i
0  i1 i2 
BP    
 
B= 8 2 0 
i  x 2  x r  x 
 
 4  a
a 0  i1 i2 
BQ   ~ 
x) Magnetic induction at the centroid of current 2  y r  y 
carrying wire bent in the form of equilateral triangle
of side 'a' is 4. Null points due to two current carrying
parallel wires.

x
i
0 i i1
B = 18 r i2
4 a a x
i2 x
1
xi) Magnetic induction at the centre of current i1
r
carrying wire bent in the form of hexagon of side
'a' is given by
i
r i1 i2
x
  i x i2
B  4 3 0    1 x
 4   a  i1
a r

xii) Two straight and infinite long parallel wires 5. Magnetic induction due to circular coil carrying
separated by a distance 'r' carry currents i1 and i2 current
in the same direction as shown. The resultant i) The magnetic field at a point on the axis of coil is
magnetic field at P and Q is

i1 r
i2 m i  0ni r2 P
Q
x p
BP  0  1  i2  Ba  i
 x  r  x 
3/2
y 2p   2 r  x 2 2
 B

r
x

ii) The magnetic moment of the circular coil is given

by M = niA.

38 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS ELECTRO MAGNETISM

iii) The magnetic field at the centre of the coil is

i1 i2 d
 ni  x
Bc  0 x 3
d  x
3
 i2 
13
2r
  1
3/2  i1 
 x2 
iv) Bc  Ba  1  2  '+' sign is used when null point is formed in between
 r 
the coils.
v) If the wire is bent in the form of an arc subtending '–' sign is used when null point is formed outside
an angle ' ' at the centre, magnetic induction at the coils.
centre is 6. Due to revolving charge
If a charge 'q' is moving in a circular orbit of radius
a i b 'r' with uniform speed 'v' making 'f' rotations per
 0i second, with time period 'T' and angular velocity w
r r B   vq q
 4 r a) current i  fq 
q
 
P T 2r 2
x
b) Equivalent magnetic moment
Here  is in radians
qr 2 r 2 q vqr
M = i r   fq r  
vi) If two circular coils are connected in series, then 2 2
= 
the ratio of magnetic induction at their centres is 2 T 2
B1  n1   r2  c) Magnetic induction at the centre is
   
B2  n2   r1   0i 0
B  fq    0 q   0 Vq2 =  0 q
vii) If the two coils are made up of same wire and 2r 2r 2r T 4r 4r
connected in parallel,Then the ratio of the magnetic 7. Tangent Galvanometer :
2
B1  r2  current measured by Tangent galvanometer is
induction at their centres is    The field is
B2  r1   2rB H 
i =   n  Tan  K Tan
independent of number of turns  0 
viii) If two circular loops having same radii (r) and r = Radius of coil, K = reduction factor
same number of turns are arranged coaxially with n = number of turns of coil
a large separation d (d>>r) between their centres
8. Force acting on a charged particle moving in a
have currents i1 and i2 in the opposite direciton, uniform magnetic field :
then null point occurs on the axis at a closer point
  
to the coil carrying small current. 
F q vB 
i1  
i2 i) If this force acts right angles to B and v . It acts
as centripetal force and the path of particle will
B1 B2 be circular.
x
d
At null point B1 = B2

NARAYANA GROUP 39
 ELECTRO MAGNETISM SR-PHYSICS

ix) Distance travelled by the particle along magnetic

field in one complete rotation or Pitch of helix is
given by P =(vcos q) T

2 mv cos
P
qB
9. Lorentz Force :
     
F  Fe  Fm = q  E  V  B  
Then the radius of the circular path is given by
10. Force on a current carrying conductor kept in
mv P mv 2 magnetic field :
r= r (from Bqv = )
Bq Bq r  
F i lxB , F  Bil Sin 
Where p = momentum 11. Force between two parallel current carrying
long straight conductors :
2mK
ii) r where K is kinetic energy of the particle i) Force per unit length on each wire is given by
qB
F  0 i1 i2
iii) If charged particle is accelerated through a 
l 2 r
potential difference of V volts before it enters
ii) A straight and very long wire carries current i1
into the magnetic field normally then
and rectangular loop of wire carrying current i2 is
2mqV placed nearby it. The force on the loop is
r .
qB

2r  0i1i 2l  1 1 
v) The time period of rotation is T  F= 
v 2  a b 
2 m
T  iii) A very long horizontal wire carries a current i1 is
qB
rigidly fixed. Another wire is placed directly above
Bq and parallel to it carries a current i2 . r is the
Angular frequency of rotation is  perpendicular distance of separation between the
m
wires and currents are in opposite directions for
vi) When the particle enters the magnetic field at angle the second wire remains stationary, the condition is

'  ' with B , (such that   00,   900,   1800),
then the path followed by the particle will be helical.
vii) Radius of circular path of the helix is given by
mv sin 
r
qB
0 i1i 2  m  ii
 0 12
F = mg   mg 
2r  2  rg

iv) Three long parallel conductors carry currents as

shown
a) Resultant force per unit

2 m
viii) Time period of rotation is T 
qB

40 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS ELECTRO MAGNETISM

C
Where G is resistance of galvanometer.
A B

14. AMMETER :
i1 i2 i3
length on the wire 'C' is

a i ig G
b
is
S

 0  i1i 2 i 2i3  Ammeter

F= ~
2  a b 
G G
b) If the resultant force on the wire 'C' is zero, S S 
the condition is i  n 1
 i  1
 g 
i1i 2 i 2i3 i i
  1 3
a b a b i new range old divisions / amp
Here n   
12. Torque acting on a current loop kept in i g old range new dividions / amp
uniform magnetic field :
GS
Torque acting on the coil is  = Bin A sin  Equivalent resistance of Ammeter =
GS
Here A = area of coil carrying current i
n = number of turns of the coil 15. VOLTMETER :
B = Magnetic induction of the field.
 P R G Q
a = Angle made by the plane of the coil with B
ig
 = Angle made by the normal to the plane of the V
 volt meter
coil with B .
i) Equivalent resistance of voltmeter = G+R
13. Moving coil Galvanometer :
ii) Resistance to be connected in series to
i) If '  ' is the deflection for passage of current 'i', galvanometer to convert into voltmeter of range
 C  V
then C   BiAN  i    0 - V volt is R  i  G
 BAN  g

 C  iii) To increase the range by n times,

where k    = Galvanometer constant or
BNA  newrange V 2 i g ( G  R ) R
n  1
figure of merit.It is independent of BH. Where 'C' old rangeV1 ig (G ) G
is couple per unit twist. Hence resistance to be connected in series to
ii) a) Current sensitivity of a galvanometer is galvanometer is R = G(n-1)
defined as the deflection produced in the
galvanometer per unit current flowing through
d BAN
it. SI =  .
di C
b) Voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined
as the deflection produced in the galvanometer
per unit voltage applied to it.
   BAN
SV =   
V iG V CG

NARAYANA GROUP 41
 ELECTRO MAGNETIC INDUCTION SR-PHYSICS

ELECTRO MAGNETIC INDUCTION

FORMULAS Where 1 & 2 are the angles made by A with B .
Instantaneous emf is given by
1. Magnetic flux :
 d  cos 
The magnetic flux through a surface  (of area A ) e  BAN
placed ina uniform magnetic field B is defined as dt
 = B. A = BA cos  If the coil is rotated with constant angular velocily
  '  ' then
Where  is the angle between B and A
2. Faraday's laws : d c o s  t 
The magnitude of induced emf is equal to the time e = BAN
dt
= BAN  sin  t
rate of change of magnetic flux
 e = BAN  sin  t
d If  t = 90 , the plane is parallel to magnetic field and
0
Mathematically, e  
dt then induced emf is maximum.
3. Calculation of induced EMF: Then e0 = BAN 
i) As  = BAN cos  ,
The change in flux can be caused by changing B  e  e 0 sin  t
(or) A(or) N (or)  v) Current induced in a coil is given by
ii) Average induced emf when only 'B' is changed is
e 1  q
given by i  But i 
e   A N cos 
B 2  B1  R R t t
 t 2  t1  Induced charge in a coil is,
Where B1& B2 are the magnetic fields at instants t1
& t2 respectively . 
q
If the plane of the coil perpendicular to magnetic R
field,   00
B
2 B
1  4. MOTIONAL EMF
then e   A N t  t
 2 1 i) When a rod of length '  ' is moved with a velocity 'v'
Instantaneous emf is given by perpendicular to its length in a uniform magnetic field
B which is perpendicular to both its length as well as
dB
e   A N cos  its velocity, then emf induced across its ends is given
dt
by e  Bv
iii) Average induced emf when only 'A' is changed is
given by ii) If the rod is moved making angle ' ' with its length,

e  BNcos  2
 A  A1  then e  Bv sin 
 t2  t1    
Where A1 & A2 are the areas of the coils at the
In vector form e = B . l × v 
instants t1 & t2 respectively. Instantaneous emf is given iii) If ends A and B are connected by an external
by resistance R, then current in the rod is given by
dA Bv
e  BNcos  i
dt R
iv) Average induced emf when only '  ' is changed is iv) Now, the force acting on the rod is given by
given by
F  Bi
e  BAN
 cos 2  cos 1 
 t2  t1   Bv  B2  2 v
= B   
 R  R

42 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS ELECTRO MAGNETIC INDUCTION

v) The power applied by external agent in moving the vi) Magnetic energy stored per unit volume
rod with constant velocity is given by 1 2
B22 v 2 Li B2
p  Fv  2 1 Hence u B 
uB   u B  u0 n 2 i 2 2 0
R Al 2
vi) If a rod of length  is rotated with a constant angular
6. Mutual Induction :
velocity ' ' about an axis passing through its end(O)
and perpendicular to its length and if a uniform i) If 'ip' is current flowing in the primary coil, ' s ' is
 magnetic flux linked with secondary coil, then
magnetic field B is present perpendicular to it, then
1 s  i p
emf across its ends is given by e  B w
2

2
vii) In the above case if the rod is rotated about an axis s
 s  M ip , M
ip
passing through its centre (O) and perpendicular to its
length then emf across its ends is zero. Here 'M' is called coefficient of mutual induction or
 mutual inductance.
x x A x
- ii) Induced emf in secondary coil is
x x x
df  di p 
M   (or)
+
O
x x e e
-x B
x
dt  dt  M=
 di p / dt
x x
1
emf across OA is e   B2 iii) Consider two solenoids 1 and 2 with number of turns
8
per unit length n1 and n2, with coil 1 inside coil 2 co -
1 2
emf across OB is e   B  axially placed. Then mutual inductance between the
8 coils is given by
Net emf across AB is zero
end 'A' is –ve with respect to 'O' M  m0n1n2pr12 
end 'B' is –ve with respect to 'O' Where r1 is radius of cross sections of inner coil and
 is the length of inner coil.
5. Self induction :
i) If 'i' is the current flowing through the coil and '' is iv) If a magnetic material of relative permeability r fills
magnetic flux linked with the coil, then   i the space of inside solenoid, then

  Li,  L  i M  mr m0n1n2 pr12 
Here 'L' is called coefficient of self induction of the
coil or self inductance of the coil. 7. RELATION BETWEEN L1, L2 AND M
ii) Self induced e.m.f. is given by
M  K L1 L2
d f di
e  L Where K-coefficient of coupling  K  1
dt dt
For tight coupling (or) if the coils are closely wound,
iii) For a long solenoid, where core consists of a magnetic then K=1.
material of relative permeability r , L  m r m 0 n 2 A 
M max  L1L2
Here A is area of cross section of solenoid,  is the
length and n is the number of turns per unit length 8. INDUCTORS IN SERIES LS  L1  L2
iv) Energy in a current carrying coil is stored in the form 1 1 1
1
INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL L  L  L
of magnetic field, and it is given by U Li 2 where P 1 2
2
'i' is the current in the coil
 di 
v) Induced power P  e  i  Li   .
 dt 
NARAYANA GROUP 43
 AC CIRCUITS SR-PHYSICS

AC CIRCUITS
FORMULAS 3. A.c voltage applied to Inductor :

1. Alternating Current (ac) and alternating voltage i) The instantaneous alternating current is given by

i) i = io sin  t i  i0 sin  t  
L
Where i = instantaneous current
io = maximum (or) peak current 
ii) e = eo sin  t e  e0 sin t
Where e = instantaneous emf ii) The peak or maximum current is given by
e0 = maximum (or) peak emf e0
2 i0 
iii) average value iave = i0 = 0.637 io z

2
similarly eave = e0 = 0.637 eo
iii) The impedence is given by Z = L 

iv) rms value of current is given by iv) The phase difference between emf and current is
i0
irms = = 0.707i0  
2  . Voltage leads current by
Similarly rms value of voltage is 2 2

e0 4. A.c voltage applied to Capacitor:

erms = = 0.707 e0
2 i) The instantaneous alternating current is given by

Form factor 
I rms E
 rms i  i0 sin t  
v) I avg Eavg

vi) Analogous value for resistance for an ideal inductor is

L  . It is called Inductive reactance (XL) ii) The peak or maximum current is given by
vii) Analogous value for resistance for a capacitor is 1/
c  . It is called capacitive reactance (XC)
e0
i0 
z
viii) The total resistance offered by the circuit due to
capacitor and inductor is called reactance. And it is iii) The impedence is given by
equal to XL  XC.
C
ix) The total Resistance a circuit offers is called
2
Impedence (Z). And it is equal to X - XC  + R
2
1
Z

L

2. A.C THROUGH A RESISTOR c

(i) E = E0 sin t e = e0sin wt
E E iv) The phase difference between emf and current is
(ii) I   0  sint   I 0 sin t
R R

E0 
(iii) Peak value of current, I 0  2
R
(iv) emf and current will be in phase    0  
Current leads voltage by
2

44 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS AC CIRCUITS

5. A.c voltage applied across L-R series combination :

i) The instantaneous alternating current is given by

i) The instantaneous alternating current is given by i  i0 sin wt f

R
L ii) The peak or maximum current is given by
i  i0 sin  t 
 e0
e  e0 sin t i0 
z
ii) The peak or maximum current is given by
2
 1 
e iii) The impedence is given by z   L   C   R
2

i0  0  
z L C R

iii) The impedence is given by z  R 2  L2 2


iv) The phase difference between emf and current is e  eo sin wt
iv) The phase difference between emf and current is
1 L
given by   tan
R
 1 
 is positive  L   
given by   tan 1 C 
Voltage leads current by 
R
6. A.c voltage applied across R-C series combination
1
case-i If L   ;  is positive Voltage leads current
C
i) The instantaneous alternating current is given by
by  . Circuit is predominantly Inductive
C R 1
case-ii If  L  ;  is negative
i  i0 sin wt f C
 Current leads voltage by 
e  e0 sin t Circuit is predominantly capacitive
ii) The peak or maximum current is given by 1
case-iii If L  ;  is zero . Voltage and current
e c
i0  0 are inphase. This condition is called Resonance
z 1
1 n0 
1 at resonance  0 
iii) The impedence is given by z  2 2
 R2 LC 2 LC
C  This frequency is called resonant frequency
At resonant frequency, the current amplitude ( i0 )
iv) The phase difference between emf and current is
e0
1  1  is maximum i0 
given by   tan  c  R  R
  VL VC 0 L 1
 is negative v) Q  factor  V or V  R or  CR
R R 0

Current leads voltage by 

1 L
7. A.c voltage applied across L-C-R series  Q  factor 
R C
combination

NARAYANA GROUP 45
 AC CIRCUITS SR-PHYSICS

8. POWER IN ac CIRCUITS :
P = EI cos f , where E and I are r.m.s. values of
voltage and current.
Power factor:The quantity cos f is called power
factor.
Average power (True power) :
Pavg  Erms I rms cos 
Apparent or virtual power :
EI
Papp  E rms I rms  0 0
2
9. Transformer:
a) emf induced in secondary with Ns turns is
d
es  Ns and emf induced in primary with NP
dt
d
turns is eP  NP
dt
VS NS
b)  
VP NP
c) Input power = Out put power
IP VP = IS VS

P VS NS N 
  VS   S  VP
S VP NP  NP 
d) If NS > N P voltage is stepped up, then the
transformer is called step - up transormer.
e) If NS < NP voltage is stepped down, then the
transformer is called step - down transformer.
f) In step - up transformer, VS > VP and IS < IP
g) In step - down transformer, VS < VP and IS > IP.

output power
h) Efficiency =
input power

output power
Percentage of efficiency =  100
Input power

46 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS ATOMIC PHYSICS

DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION

v) Work function in eV:
FORMULAS
1. QUANTUM THEORY OF LIGHT: 12400
W= in e.V
i) A photon is a packet of energy, given by E  hn 0  in AngstromUnits 
where h = 6.62x10-34 Js 4. DeBroglie hypothesis
ii) Charge of a photon is zero, so it can not be deflected h h
by electric and magnetic fields. i) deBroglie wavelength   
p mv
iii) Rest mass of a photon is zero. It is not a material
Where momentum p = mv ; m=mass, v= velocity
particle, it is a bundle of energy. h
ii) deBroglie wavelength  
E hn h 2mK
iv) Effective mass of a photon is m   2 2
C 2
C nl p 2
where kinetic energy, K   p  2mK
v) A photon possesses momentum given by 2m
h hn E iii) If a particle having charge q starting from rest is
p  
l C C accelerated through a potential difference V then gain
in kinetic energy, K=qV
2. INTENSITY h
so, deBroglie wavelength   2 m qV
i) Intensity(I) of radiation at a distance ‘r’ from a
12.27 o 150 o
P iv) For electron   A A
monochromatic source of power ‘P’ is, I  V V
4p r 2
ii) If ‘N’ photons are emitted in time ‘t’ by a 0.286 o 0.082 o
monochromat ic source of power ‘P’then v) For proton   A A
V V
N hn N hC
P   . 0.202
t lt vi) For dueteron   Å
E
3. Photo Electric Effect 0.101
vii) For  particle   Å
i) Work Function (W) : The minimum energy required V
to remove a free electron from the metal is called 0 .2 86
viii) for neutron   Å
Work Function. E
W  h0 
hc where E = kinetic energy in electron volts
0 ix) nth orbit consists of n complete de-Broglie
ii) Maximum K.E. of the electron emitted : It is equal wavelengths 2rn  n n , where n is the
to the product of stopping potential (Vs) and electron charge
principle quantum number.
(e). That is, Kmax = eVs
iii) Einstein’s photoelectric equation : where rn is the radius of nth orbit and  n is the
wavelength of electron in nth orbit
a) h  w  KEmax
5. HEISEN-BERG UNCERTAINITY
1 2
b) h  h 0  mVmax PRINCIPLE
2
c) h  h0  eVs h
xp  .
h = Energy of the incident photon 2
W = work function of the metal
iv) Energy of Photon in eV :

12400
E= in e.V
  in AngstromUnits 

NARAYANA GROUP 47
 ATOMIC PHYSICS SR-PHYSICS

ATOMS
FORMULAS B2q2r 2
c) kinetic energy, KE 
1. Motion of a charged particle in uniform electric 2m
field.
2pm
i) When a charged particle travels parallel to a uniform d) Time period T 
electric field, starting from rest then Bq
a) Force on the charge, F = qE 3. Determination of e/m of electron JJ Thomson’s
method :
qE
b) Acceleration of the charge, a  i) JJ Thomson applied crossed electric and magnetic
m fields and also perpendicular to cathode ray beam.
c) Velocity gained, after travelling through a distance,
2qEd 2qV  =E/B
v  where V is the accelerating
m m e E2
ii) 
potential. m 2VB 2
ii) When a charged particle enters a uniform electric 4. Relation between relativistic mass and rest mass
field (along +y -axis) at right angles with a velocity v
(along x-axis) then m0
m
a) Charged particle travels in a parabolic path with v2
1
a vertical displacement c2
Where m0 = rest mass of electron,
1  qE  2   qE  L2
y   .t  y   . 2 where L is the m = Relativistic mass of electron and
2  m  2  m  v v = Velocity of electron; c = Velocity of light
length of deflecting plates. 5. Determination of the charge of an electron :
qE MILLIKAN’S OIL DROP EXPERIMENT
b) vx = v; vy = 0; a y  ;
m i) When the oil drop falls under gravity, it experiences
three forces
 Velocity after t seconds, v  vx  v y
2 2
4 3
a) Weight Fg  mg   r  g (downwards)
34 3
vy b) Buoyant force FB   r  g (upwards)
qE 3
and tan a  where v y  .t vx  v
vx m F v

velocity after vertical displacement y, F B H 3

V
2qE
v  v  v where v y 
2
x
2
y
.y
m F g

2. Motion of a charged particle in uniform magnetic

c) Viscous force FV  6   r v (always in opposite
field.
direction to the motion of the drop)
When a charged particle enters uniform magnetic field where m - mass of oil drop
at right angles, it travels in a circular path. r - radius of oil drop
mv  - density of oil
a) Radius of the circle, r   - density of air,  - velocity of oil drop
qB
 - Coefficient of Viscosity of air
b) Momentum p = Bqr

48 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS ATOMIC PHYSICS

ii) When the oil drop is at rest in a uniform electric field, (iii) Time period of electron in the orbit:
then
n3
mg T
Eq = mg (neglecting buoyancy); q = Z2
E
mgd  V 1 (iv) Energy of the electron in the orbit:
q  E    q Z2
V  d V E n  13.6 2 eV , n = 1,2,3.....
6. Rutherford’s  -particle Scattering n
Experiment: PE : K.E : T.E = -2 : 1 : -1
(i) Electrostatic potentialenergyofthe  - particle, when
(v) Emission of radiation:
at a distance r0 from the centre of the nucleus, is given
1  1 1 
1 (2e)( Ze)
wave number v   R Z 2 .  2  2  m 1
by U  4 . r l  n 1 n 2 
0 0

(ii) Number of  -particles scattered at an angle  is The numerical value of R is 1.097×107 m-1.

Q n t z 2 e4 (vi) Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen atom:

N=
given by θ
(8πε 0 ) 2 r 2 E 2 sin 4  
 2 Name of Final Initial State Series Maximum
S.No the Region
where series State
(n1) (n2)
Formula
limit wavelength

Q  Total number of  particles striking the foil  1 1  4

 R  2  2 
1 1
1. Lyman n1 = 1 2,3, 4,.... l 1 n 2 
l  911A l UV
n  number of atoms per unit volume of the foil R 3R
r  distance of screen from the foil 2. Balmer n1 = 2 3, 4,5.... 1 1 1 
 R  2  2  l
4
l
36
Visible
l  2 n 2  R 5R
t  thickness of the foil 1 144
1 l
 R  2  2 
1 9
3. Paschen n1 = 3 4, 5, 6.... l Near IR
z  Atomic number of the foil atoms l  3 n 2  R 7R

  angle of scettering 4. Brackett n1 = 4 5, 6, 7.... 1

l
1
 4
1 
 R  2  2 
n 2 
l
16
R
l
400
9R
Middle IR
E  kinetic energy of  particles 1 1  9000
5. Pfund n1 = 5 6 , 7 , 8 .... 1
 R  2  2  l
25 l Far IR
1 l  5 n 2  R 11R
N  t; N z 2
; N

sin4
1 1 2
N 2 or N 
E 4
where  is the velocity of  particles falling on the
foil.

 
Ze 2 cot  
b 2
(iii) Impact Parameter : 1
4 0  mv 2
2
7. Bohr’s model of Hydrogen like atoms :
(i) Radius of Bohr’s orbit :
 n2 
rn  0.53   Å where n  1,2,3,.......
 Z

(ii) Velocity of the Electron in the orbit:

 c  Z
Vn   . m / s
 137  n

NARAYANA GROUP 49
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS SR-PHYSICS

NUCLEI
FORMULAS BE = [ZMP+ (A–Z)Mn-M] 931.5 MeV
Where
1. The total number of protons (Z) and neutrons (N) inside
Mp = Mass of proton, Mn = Mass of neutron and M =
the nucleus is called mass number (A) ; A = Z+N
Mass of nucleus
2. If a particle of charge q, mass m is projected towards
a nucleus of charge Q with velocity v iii) Binding energy of a nucleus is given by
2
(BE) =(  m)c Joules (where ' m ' is in kg)
from infinity, then the distance of closest approach d BE = (  m) 931.5 MeV (where ' m ' is in amu)
1 qQ 1 iv) Average binding energy or binding energy per nucleon
is given by = mv 2
4πε 0 d 2 BE
or binding fraction =
3. The radius R of nucleus of mass number A is given A
by v) Mass defect per nucleon is called packing fraction
1/3
RA R = R0A1/3 M  A m
-15 -15
PF  
R0 = 1.4 x 10 m=1.4fermi (1fermi=10 m) A A
4. The volume 'V" of nucleus is directly proportional to If PF is positive, nucleus is unstable
mass number (V  A) If PF is negative, nucleus is stable
5. The surface area of nucleus S  A 2 / 3 vi) Whenever binding energy of products is more than
6. Density of the nucleus is independent of the binding energy of reactants then energy is released.
mass number d  A  Energy released is given by B.E.prodcuts – B.E. reactants
0

10. Alpha Radiation :

7. If a stationary nucleus splits in to two lighter nuclei
The general form of  - decay can be written as
m1v1 = m2v2
Ratio of velocities of the two nuclei A A 4 4
Z P  Z  2 D  2 He
11. Beta Radiation :
v1 m 2 A 2  R 2 
3

v2

m1
  
A1  R 1 
 m  A  R  3
The general form of  - decay can be written
as AZP  ZA1D  01e .
Ratio of kinetic energy of the two nuclei
12. Gamma Radiation :
KE1 m 2 A 2  R 2 
3

    The emission of  - rays from the nucleus does not

KE 2 m1 A1  R 1  alter either atomic number Z or mass number A.
8. Atomic Mass Unit : (amu) 13. The radioactive decay law :-

1 N  N 0 e t
i) Atomic mass unit (amu) = x mass of one atom of
12 Where N0 is the initial number of atoms.
12
6 C
Number of radioactive nuclei. N

-27 No
1 amu = 1.660565 x 10 kg
ii) Energy equivalent of 1 amu = 931.5 MeV 1
No
2
9. Mass defect and binding energy : 1
No
i) The mass of a nucleus is always less than the 4
1
mass of constituent nucleons in their free state. 8
No

This difference is called mass defect (  m) 0

0 T 2T 3T 4T
ii) If Z and A respectively represent atomic number and Time. t
mass number of a nucleus, the binding energy of the
This shows that the number of atoms of radioactive
nucleus is given by
element decreases exponentially with time.

50 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS NUCLEAR PHYSICS

i) The number of disintegrations per second is called a) The power out put of a nuelear reactor is given by
the activity of a radio active sample. P= nE/t
t t
A  N  N 0 e  A0 e n = number of fissions taking place in time t
0.693 E = Energy released per fission
ii) A  N  A  N
t1/ 2 b) If "x" grams of a nuclear fuel of mass number
 mass in grams  'A' undergo fission in a time of 't' sec, If 'E' is energy
  Avagadro number
Where N = 
 mass number  released per fission then the power out- put of the
nuclear reactor is given by
iii) Half life(t1/2):
nE  x  E
P   N 
0.693 t  A  t N- Avagadro number
t1/ 2 

After n half lives (i.e. t = nt1/2) 17. Nuclear fusion :
n
N 1 The fusion of hydrogen takes place by

N 0  2 
a) Carbon-Nitrogen cycle
iv) Mean life(  ) : - 4 1H1  2He4 + 2+1e0 +energy (26.7 MeV)
1 b) Proton - Proton cycle.
 4 1H1  2He4 + 2+1e0 +energy (26.7 MeV)

   1.44 t 1/ 2 c) In fission of 235 U , the energy released per
nucleon is about 0.85 MeV and in the fusion of
v) In parallel decay   1   2  ........ n hence four protons, the energy per nucleon is about 6
MeV.
1 1 1 1
   ........ , where T is the equivalent 18. PAIR ANNIHILLATION.
T T1 T2 Tn
i) When a particle and antiparticle annihillate then energy
half-life and T1, T2 ...........Tn are the half-lives in is released which is called pair annihillation.
individual decay.
(electron - positron anihillation releases two  photons
14. Discovery of Neutron : each of energy 0.51 MeV.
9 4 13 12 1
4 Be  2 He  6 C  6 C  0 n
0
1 e  1 e0  2 
15. NUCLEAR FISSION ii) When a  - ray photon of energy 1.02 MeV. interacts
235 1 141 92 1
92
U + 0n ----> 56
Ba +36 Kr +30n +Q with matter +1e0 , -1e0 pair will be produced, which is
The energy released is around 200MeV, About 0.1% referred to as pair production.
of mass of reactants is converted into energy.
  1 e
0
 1 e 0
Number of neutrons in present generation
K
Number of neutrons in previous generation.
If K<1 then the reaction is said to be under-critical
If K=1then the reaction is said to be critical and energy
will be produced at a steady rate.
If K>1then the reaction is said to be super-critical i.e.
explosive.(uncontrolled chain reaction)
16. NUCLEAR REACTOR :
Power Reactor : These are used for generation of
electric power.

NARAYANA GROUP 51
 SEMI CONDUCTOR SR-PHYSICS

SEMI CONDUCTOR
FORMULAS I h  neAvh (current due to holes)

c) The total current at any instant in semiconductor

fig (a) fig (b) fig (c)
is

I  I e  I h =neA ue  uh 
C.B. C.B.
C.B.

1. V.B d) Electrical conductivity    e   h

V.B V.B
  ne e e  nh h e
i) Conductors : For intrinsic semi conductor ne  nh  ni so that
a) The conduction band and valence band   e  ne e  nh h 
overlap one over the other. Ex: metals.
b) For conductors, forbidden energy gap is 0 eV. Where  is mobility  is conductavity
c) E g  kT 3. n-type semi-conductor :
K - boltzman constant
T- Absolute temperature C.B.
ii) Semi-conductors : FEL
a) The forbidden energy gap between the conduc-
tion band and valence band is very small (about
1eV). Ex. Si & Ge
b) For silicon forbidden energy gap is 1.1 eV and for V.B
germanium 0.72 eV. a) Electrons are majority charge carriers and holes
c) E g  kT are minority charge carriers.
(n >> n ).
iii) Insulators : e h
b) The fermi-energy level shifts near to the
a) The conduction band and valence band are conduction band.
separated(about 5-9 eV) by large forbidden gap. Ex. 4. p-type semi-conductor
Diamond.
b) For diamond, forbidden energy gap is 6 eV C.B.
c) E g  kT
2. Intrinsic semiconductors :
FEL
C.B.
V.B

FEL a) Holes are majority charge carriers and electrons

are minority charge carriers. (n >> n ).
h e
V.B b) The fermi-energy level shifts near to the
valence band.
a) At any temperature the numbers of holes in V.B Note: i) Conductivity of n-type > p-type > intrinsic semi
and the number of free electrons in C.B. are equal. conductors.
(n = n ). 5. P-N JUNCTION DIODE :
e h
b) The fermi energy level lies exactly at the middle i) If V is the barrier potential and d is the thickness of
of the forbidden band. the depletion layer, then the electric field intensity
across the junction is
 e  neAve (current due to electrons)

52 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS SEMI CONDUCTOR

V D.C power output

E from n side to p side. ( ) 
b) Efficiency A.C power input
d
p V n  0.812  RL 
c) Efficiency ( )    100%
 rf  RL
 
d)  max  81.2% for an ideal diode.
8. ZENER DIODE :
d
ii) The direction of electric field is always from n-side to
p-side.
iii) Circuit symbol of p-n junction diode is
p n

R I Vb a) Output voltage (Vo) = Zener Voltage (Vz) = constant.

E b) For a given load, the current through load resistance
V0 Vz
E  Vb (I ) = 
For an ordinary diode I  L R L R L = constant
R  rf c) Voltage across series resistance (V) =
rf is the forward bias resistance of diode input voltage - zener voltage. V = V - V .
i z
d) Current through series resistance (R) is
a) Power developed across the diode  VB I V Vi  Vz
 
b) Power developed across the resist or R R
e) Current through zener diode (I ) = I - I .
  E  VB  I , z L
9. Transistors :
Note: Dynamic or a.c resistance of the diode is
a) In any transistor circuit IE  I B  IC
V
Ra .c  and for change of currents IE  IB IC
I
6. Half wave Rectifier IB << IE & IC < IE
a) When a half wave rectifier is used to convert ‘n’ b) In common base configuration transistor, the current
Hz A.C. into D.C., then the number of pulses per C I
second present in the rectified voltage is ‘n’ only. gain is  d.c.  ,  a.c  c
E IE
D.C power output
b) Efficiency ( )  c) In common base configuration transistor  value is
A.C power input
less than 1 (  < 1)
 0.406  RL  10. p-n-p Common-emitter transistor charactEristics:
c) Efficiency ( )   r  R   100%
 f L 
a) Input resistance in CE configuration transistor is
d)  max  40.6% for an ideal diode.
7. Full wave Rectifier :  VBE 
Ri   
a) When a full wave rectifier is used to convert ‘n’ Hz  I B 
A.C. into D.C, then the no. of pulses per second present VCE
in the rectified voltage is 2n. b) The output resistance in C-E configuration

NARAYANA GROUP 53
 SEMI CONDUCTOR SR-PHYSICS


transistor is R    VCE  .

0
Input Output
  IC IB A B Y
c) In common - emitter configuration transistor, the cur-
0 0 0
C I A
rent gain is d.c.  , a.c.  C . 1 0 1
B IB Y
0 1 1
d) The value of  is greater than one (  > 1) B

e) Relation between ,  : 1 1 1
  1 1
 ;  ;  1
1  1   
11. Amplifier: truth table
a) The amplifier which is used to rise the voltage level is 13. AND GATE :
called as voltage amplifier.
The Boolean expression is Y=A.B
Voltage gain
( Y equals A and B).
< IC
IB> ac D1
output A
ac RL V
input ~ out
V1 VBE VCE Y
IE
>

B R
D2
VBB VCC
+ 5V
V I R R
A V  CE  C  L    L
VBE IB Ri Ri
Input Output
b) The amplifier which is used to rise the power level is
A B Y
called as power amplifier.
0 0 0
2V R A
CE
Power gain (AP )   A V   V    R
L
Y
1 0 0
BE i
0 1 0
c) In C-B amplifier, the phase difference between the B
input and output signals is zero. 1 1 1
d) In C-E amplifier, the phase difference between the
circuit symbol truth table
input and output signals is  .
14. NOT GATE :
12. OR GATE:
The Boolean expression is Y  A
The Boolean expression is Y=A+B
D1 Vcc = +5 V
A
Y=A or B R

B
Y
D2 R
A
V=0

Realisation of NOT Gate using N-P-N -transistor

Trasistor NOT gate

54 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS SEMI CONDUCTOR

17. THE BASIC RELATIONS FOR OR GATE:

A Y
i) A+0=A ii) A+1=1
0 1 iii) A+A=A iv) A  A  1
A Y
1 0 18. THE BASIC RELATIONS FOR AND GATE :
i) A.0=0ii) A.1=A
circuit symbol truth table iii) A.A=A iv) A.A  0
19. DE-MORGAN’S THEOREMS :
15 NOR GATE
The Boolean expression is Y  A  B i) A  B  A.B ii) A.B  A  B
iii) A  B  A.B  A.B
A
Y
iv) A.B  A  B  A  B
B

two input NOR gate

Input Output
A B Y=A+B
0 0 1
A 1 0
Y 0
B 0 1 0
1 1 0

truth table
16. NAND GATE
The Boolean expression is Y  A . B

A
Y
B

two input NAND gate

Input Output
A B Y=A.B
0 0 1
A Y 1 0 1
B 0 1 1
1 1 0

circuit symbol truth table

NARAYANA GROUP 55
 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS SR-PHYSICS

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
FORMULAS
1. COMMUNICATION SYSTEM :
A communication system consists of three essential parts.
a) transmitter
b) medium or channel
c) receiver
Transmitted
Message signal Received Receiver User of
Information Transmitter Channel
source signal Message signal Information
signal

Noise

2. BAND WIDTH OF SIGNALS :

In general a signal is the composition of number of frequencies. Hence the signal has a frequency range called
band width
Analog signals Continuous variation Frequency Band width
Voice message 300 Hz to
telephonic communication 3100 Hz 2800 Hz
Music 20 Hz to
20 kHz 20 kHz
Video Signals 4.2 MHz
TV Signals 6 MHz
Digital Signals As higher extends to GHz
Step wise harmonics
Variation contribute
less to signal wave

PROPAGATION OF EM WAVES
the horizon, Dt = 2Rht .
The three modes of propagation are
a) Ground wave propagation Where ht = height of transmitting antenna R =
b) Sky wave propagation and Radius of the earth
c) Space wave propagation b) The distance between receiving antenna and the
3. ANTENNA : horizon, Dr = 2Rhr .
The linear size of the antenna must be the order of Where hr = height of receiving antenna
the wavelength and for effective transmission its
c) The maximum distance between the transmitting

length must be . antenna and receiving antenna Dm .
4
4. Two antennas : d) The maximum distance Dm  Dr  Dt
dM Dm = 2 Rhr  2 Rh t .
dT dR Where R is the radius of earth.
hT 5. Single antenna :
hR
a) The distance between transmitting antenna and a) The radius "d" of the area covered by a single
transmitting tower of height h is given by d =

2Reh . Where Re is the radius of the Earth.

56 NARAYANA GROUP
 SR-PHYSICS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

b) If the Population density around the tower is given,

the number of persons covered by the tower is
= (Area covered by the tower) x Population den-
sity
No. of persons covered =  d2 x Population den-
sity.
6. MODULATION :
i) The effective power radiated by the transmitter is
2
 
proportional to l /  , where l is length of antenna
ii) Modulation is of three types
a) Amplitude modulation
b) Frequency modulation
c) Phase modulation
iii) Message signal can be written as

Ym  t  = A msin  ωm t + φ m 
iv) Carrier signal can be written as

Yc  t  = A c sin  ωc t + φc 

iv) c  m  2  f c  f m  = Lower side band

frequency (LSB)
c  m  2  f c  f m  =Upper side band
frequency (USB)
v) Here   Am / Ac is the modulation index; (or)
modulating factor.
Am
vi) Depth of modulation = A 100    100
C

vii) Depth of modulation interms of Amax and Amin

A max  A min
 μa
A max + A min
where Amax = Ac+Am and Amin = Ac–Am
viii) The Band width of AM wave is "2fm"

EXERCISE – I

NARAYANA GROUP 57
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES SR-PHYSICS

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
7. The intensity of EM radiation from an isotropic point
FORMULAS
P
1. Displacement current in space between two plates source at a distance r is I  where P is power
4 r 2
of a capacitor where electric field is changing with
of source
dφ E dE ε 0 A dv dv 8. Momentum and Radiation Pressure
time as ID = ε 0 = ε0A = = C0
dt dt d dt dt When EM waves are incident on a surface and the
where E is the electric flux, E is electric intensity, V total energy transferred to the surface in a time t is U
then magnitude of momentum transferred to surface
is potential differnce, C0 is capcity of capacitor.
U I
2. Amper’s-Maxwell’s Law :- is p  (total absorption), radiation pressure =
  C C
Mathematically  B.dl   0  ic  id  When radiation incident on a surface is entirely
reflected back along its original path, magnitude of
 d 
 0  ic   0 E  2U
 dt  momentum delivered to the surface is p  where
C
3. Relation between amplitudes of electric and magnetic
2I
E0 ‘C’ is velocity of light, radiation pressured =
fields is, B = C . C
0

4. Energy density of EM waves:

In any small volume ‘dV’, the energy of electric field
1 2
is U E   0 E dV and energy of the magnetic field
2
B2
in volume ‘dV’ is U B  dV
2 0
Thus t otal energy of EM wave is
1 B2
u  0 E 2 dV  dV
2 20
5. Average energy density of EM wave
1 B2
u  u E  u B  2u E  2u B   0 E02  0
2 2 0
total EM wave energy
6. Intensity I  Surface area  time

1 2
Interms of electric fields I   0 E0 C ---------(1)
2
B02
Interms of magnetic field I  C ---------(2)
20
Either eq (1) or (2) may be used to find intensity of
EM waves

58 NARAYANA GROUP