ELT

SIMPLIFIED
 1

GRAMMAR TRANSLATION
METHOD
The grammar translation is a method of teaching foreign
languages derived from the classical method of teaching Greek and
Latin. In grammar-translation classes, students learn grammatical
rules and then apply those rules by translating sentences between
the target language and the native language. Advanced students
may be required to translate whole texts word-for-word. The
method has two main goals: to enable students to read and
translate literature written in the target language, and to further
students’ general intellectual development.

Characteristics:
• Classes are taught in the mother tongue
• Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated
words.
• Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
• Reading of difficult texts is begun early.
• Long, elaborate explanations of the intrincacies of grammar
are given.
Why would I use this method?
• GTM focuses on the application of grammar and correct
sentence structure. This is especially helpful in teaching
students how to write and read in another language, allowing
them to explore interchangeable words and phrases (i.e.,
different words for different tenses) more effectively than a
verbal teaching method.
 • Tests of grammar rules and of translations are easy to
construct.
• Class activities or learning games are rarely necessary, as
students are translating text to another language directly.
Teachers who are not fluent in English (but fluent in the other
language that the students primarily use) can teach English
using this approach, as the emphasis is not on the spoken
word but on translations.
SWOT

Strenghts:
• Students learn a lot of vocabulary.
• Reading and writing skills are excelled.
• It activates students´ memory.
Weaknesses:
• Poor listening and speaking.
• Unnatural and Inaccurate Pronunciation
• GTM is not interactive and engaging for students.
Opportunities:
• It gives the chance of learning a new language using
textbooks.
• Students can learn vocabulary not only in the target language
but also in their mother tongue.
Threats:
• It will be more interactive
• More STT
• Students might not be accustomed to translate word by word.

THE DIRECT METHOD

The direct method of teaching, which is sometimes called the
natural method, and is often (but not exclusively) used in
teaching foreign languages, refrains from using the learners' native
language and uses only the target language. It was established in
England around 1900 and contrasts with the grammar–
translation method and other traditional approaches, as well as
with C.J. Dodson's bilingual method. It was adopted by key
international language schools such as Berlitz and Inlingua in the
1970s and many of the language departments of the Foreign
Service Institute of the U.S. State Department in 2012.
In general, teaching focuses on the development of oral skills.
Characteristic features of the direct method are:

• teaching concepts and vocabulary through pantomiming,

real-life objects and other visual materials

• teaching grammar by using an inductive approach (i.e.

having learners find out rules through the presentation of
adequate linguistic forms in the target language)

• the centrality of spoken language (including a native-like

pronunciation)

• focus on question-answer patterns

1. No translation

2. Concepts are taught by means of objects or by natural

contexts through the mental and physical skills of the
teacher only.

3. Oral training helps in reading and writing listening and

speaking simultaneously.

4. Grammar is taught indirectly through the implication of

the situation creation.

1. Question/answer exercise – the teacher asks questions of

any type and the student answers.

2. Dictation – the teacher chooses a grade-appropriate

passage and reads it aloud.

3. Reading aloud – the students take turns reading sections of

a passage, play or a dialogue aloud.

4. Student self-correction – when a student makes a mistake

the teacher offers him/her a second chance by giving a
choice.

5. Conversation practice – the students are given an

opportunity to ask their own questions to the other
students or to the teacher. This enables both a teacher-
learner interaction as well as a learner-learner interaction.
 6. Paragraph writing – the students are asked to write a
passage in their own words.

AUDIO LINGUAL METHOD

The audio-lingual method, Army Method, or New Key, is a
method used in teaching foreign languages. It is based on
behaviorist theory, which postulates that certain traits of living
things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system
of reinforcement. The correct use of a trait would receive positive
feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative
feedback.

This approach to language learning was similar to another, earlier

method called the direct method. Like the direct method, the
audio-lingual method advised that students should be taught a
language directly, without using the students' native language to
explain new words or grammar in target language. However,
unlike the direct method, the audio-lingual method did not focus
on teaching vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drilled students in the
use of grammar.

Applied to language instruction, and often within the context of

the language lab, it means that the instructor would present the
correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat
it. The teacher would then continue by presenting new words for
the students to sample in the same structure. In audio-lingualism,
there is no explicit grammar instruction: everything is simply
memorized in form.

The idea is for the students to practice the particular construct

until they can use it spontaneously. The lessons are built on static
drills in which the students have little or no control on their own
output; the teacher is expecting a particular response and not
providing the desired response will result in a student receiving
negative feedback. This type of activity, for the foundation of
language learning, is in direct opposition with communicative
language teaching.

Charles Carpenter Fries, the director of the English Language

Institute at the University of Michigan, the first of its kind in the
United States, believed that learning structure or grammar was the
starting point for the student. In other words, it was the students'
job to recite the basic sentence patterns and grammatical
structures. The students were given only “enough vocabulary to
make such drills possible.” (Richards, J.C. et-al. 1986). Fries later
included principles of behavioural psychology, as developed by
B.F. Skinner, into this method.

FALL FROM POPULARITY

In the late 1950s, the theoretical underpinnings of the method

were questioned by linguists such as Noam Chomsky, who pointed
out the limitations of structural linguistics. The relevance of
behaviorist psychology to language learning was also questioned,
most famously by Chomsky's review of B.F. Skinner's Verbal
Behavior in 1959. The audio-lingual method was thus deprived of
its scientific credibility and it was only a matter of time before the
effectiveness of the method itself was questioned.
In 1964, Wilga Rivers released a critique of the method in her
book, The Psychologist and the Foreign Language Teacher.
Subsequent research by others, inspired by her book, produced
results which showed explicit grammatical instruction in the
mother language to be more productive. These developments,
coupled with the emergence of humanist pedagogy led to a rapid
decline in the popularity of audiolingualism.
Philip Smith's study from 1965-1969, termed the Pennsylvania
Project, provided significant proof that audio-lingual methods
were less effective than a more traditional cognitive approach
involving the learner's first language.

MAIN FEATURES
• Each skill (listening, speaking, reading, writing) is treated
and taught separately.
• The skills of writing and reading are not neglected, but the
focus throughout remains on listening and speaking.
• Dialogue is the main feature of the audio-lingual syllabus.
• Dialogues are the chief means of presenting language
items. They provide learners an opportunity to practice,
mimic and memorize bits of language.
 • Patterns drills are used as an important technique and
essential part of this method for language teaching and
learning.
• The language laboratory was introduced as an important
teaching aid.
• Mother tongue was not given much importance, similar to
the direct method, but it was not deemphasized so rigidly.

ADVANTAGES
• Each skill (listening, speaking, reading, writing) is treated
and taught separately.
• The skills of writing and reading are not neglected, but the
focus throughout remains on listening and speaking.
• Dialogue is the main feature of the audio-lingual syllabus.
• Dialogues are the chief means of presenting language
items. They provide learners an opportunity to practice,
mimic and memorize bits of language.
• Patterns drills are used as an important technique and
essential part of this method for language teaching and
learning.
• The language laboratory was introduced as an important
teaching aid.
• Mother tongue was not given much importance, similar to
the direct method, but it was not deemphasized so rigidly.

DISADVANTAGES
• The behaviorist approach to learning is now discredited.
Many scholars have proven its weakness.
• It does not pay sufficient attention to communicative
competence.
• Only language form is considered while meaning is
neglected.
• Equal importance is not given to all four skills.
• It is a teacher-dominated method.
• It is a mechanical method since it demands pattern
practice, drilling, and memorization over functional
learning and organic usage.
 • The learner is in a passive role; the learner has little control
over their learning.

STRUCTURAL APPROACH
The structural approach is a technique wherein the learner
masters the pattern of sentence. Structures are the different
arrangements of words in one accepted style or the other. It
includes various modes in which clauses, phrases or word might
be used. It is based on the assumptions that language can be best
learnt through a scientific selection and grading of the structures
or patterns of sentences and vocabulary.

DEFINITION

This approach as Kripa K. Gautam states "is based on the belief

that language consists of 'structures' and that the mastery of these
structures is more important than the acquisition of vocabulary.
Since structure is what is important and unique about a language,
early practice should focus on mastery of phonological and
grammatical structures rather than on mastery of vocabulary."
Kulkarni "emphasizes the teaching and learning of the basic items
or materials that constitute the framework of language." Whereas
according to Yardi 'structures' as an "internal ordering of linguistic
item", and further adds that structures may be defined as "device
that we use to make signal, to convey meanings, and indicate
relationship."

OBJECTIVES
According to Menon and Patel the objectives of the new structural
approach are as follows:-
• To lay the foundation of English by establishing through
drill and repetition about 275 graded structures.
 • To enable the children to attain mastery over an essential
vocabulary of about 3000 root words for active use.
• To correlate the teaching of grammar and composition with
the reading lesson.
• To teach the four fundamental skills, namely understanding,
speaking, reading and writing in the order names.
• To lay proper emphasis on the aural- oral approach, activity
methods and the condemnation of formal grammar for its
own sake.

MAIN FEATURES OF STRUCTURAL

APPROACH

The structural approach makes use of the following features for

teaching the language:
• Word order – Word order or the pattern of form is very
important in Language for e.g.:
a) Jo broke his toy
b) The toy broke Jo
sentence a) Jo broke his toy – makes proper sense. it shows the
arrangement or pattern of words.
• The presence of function words:
Function words help in modifying meaning considered the
following sentence -
for e.g.:
a) I ate an ice cream.
b) I'm eating an ice cream.
c) I will eat an ice cream.
In the above given example, we can see the modified meaning.
• the use of few Inflections:
By adding an affix, the base form of the word can be altered.e.g.:
a) In verbs: I play; he plays; I am playing ; I played
b) In nouns; One boy; two boys; one man
c) In adjective and adverb: Great – Greater – Greatest
PRINCIPLES OF THE STRUCTURAL
APPROACH

Prof. F.G.French has entitled the following principles underlying

the structural approach:
1. Importance of Framing Language Habits.
2. Importance of Speech – The structural approach is based on
the principle of effective used of speech.
3. Importance pupil's activity.
4. The Principles of Oral work – Oral work is the basis and all
the rest are built up from it.
5. Each language as its own Grammar – Instead of teaching
Grammar of the target language and its structures are to be
taught.
6. Creation of different types of meaningful situations by
dramatization, facial expression, actions etc. Is stressed
upon.
7. One item of language is taught at one time.
8. Mastery of structures is emphasized.

GRADATION OF STRUCTURE
Structural approach upholds the teaching of English as a foreign
language through the teaching of the structures of the language.
The questions which structural approach attempts to answer
primarily are: (1) should the structural items and sentence
patterns to be graded? (2) how shall they be graded? and (3) what
should be the fundamental principles of grading the structural
items? through gradation of structure, we can get answers for the
following Questions.
Gradation means grouping synonyms. In structural approach,
gradation of structure can be taught by using the following
patterns that should be taught at early stages:
1. Grouping :-
a) Phonetic grouping – group according to sound. for example:
cat, rat, mat etc.
b) Lexical grouping – grouping according to words used in same
situation.
c) grammatical grouping – pattern of sentences similar should be
taught together.
d) Semantic grouping – Words having similar meaning grouped
together.
e) Structure Grouping – selecting items that are fit for each other.
2. Sequencing :-
a) Grammatical sequencing – it will tell that it follows which
structure. e.g.: I was watching a movie. I was watching a movie
with my friend.
b) Semantic sequencing – A word having different meanings e.g.:
The ball is there, under the bed. There are many balls in the bag.
c) Lexical sequencing – It Tells which word follows which e.g.: sit-
stand, come-go, high-low
3. Types of patterns of sentences:
there are different patterns of sentence. as follows below:
a) Two- part patterns like She goes (she / goes)
b) Three-part patterns e.g.: He is reading (He / is / reading)
c) Four-part patterns e.g.: Geetha went to school (Geetha/went/
to/school)
d) Patterns beginning with 'there', 'wh' type question e.g.: There
are five baskets in the rack. What is your name?
e) Patterns of Command and Request e.g.: come here, sit down,
stand up etc.
f) Formal pattern – like Good Morning, Thank You etc.
4. Sentence patterns
The structures may have the following pattern like:
a) Statement of Fact – mention simple facts e.g.: Pinky gets up at 6
a.m. She takes bath. she eats her breakfast. she goes to school.
(subject-verb-object pattern)
b) Imperative sentence – Question form verb-subject-object
pattern e.g.: Did Pinky come to school today? has she taken her
breakfast ?
c) Imperative sentence (imply compliance) subject remains
hidden. e.g.: (Pinky) Come here, Close the door, Bring your book
etc.
5. Phrase patterns
Sentence using phases are called Phrase pattern. e.g.: That book is
'on the table’

TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

Total physical response (TPR) is a language teaching method
developed by James Asher, a professor emeritus of psychology at
San José State University. It is based on the coordination of
language and physical movement. In TPR, instructors give
commands to students in the target language with body
movements, and students respond with whole-body actions.
The method is an example of the comprehension approach to
language teaching. The listening and responding (with actions)
serves two purposes: It is a means of quickly recognizing meaning
in the language being learned, and a means of passively learning
the structure of the language itself. Grammar is not taught
explicitly but can be learned from the language input. TPR is a
valuable way to learn vocabulary, especially idiomatic terms, e.g.,
phrasal verbs.
Asher developed TPR as a result of his experiences observing
young children learning their first language. He noticed that
interactions between parents and children often took the form of
speech from the parent followed by a physical response from the
child. Asher made three hypotheses based on his observations:
first, that language is learned primarily by listening; second, that
language learning must engage the right hemisphere of the brain;
and third, that learning language should not involve any stress.
Total physical response is often used alongside other methods and
techniques. It is popular with beginners and with young learners,
although it can be used with students of all levels and all age
groups.
PROCEDURE
The majority of class time in TPR lessons is spent doing drills in
which the instructor gives commands using the imperative mood.
Students respond to these commands with physical actions.
Initially, students learn the meaning of the commands they hear
by direct observation. After they learn the meaning of the words in
these commands, the teacher issues commands that use novel
combinations of the words the students have learned.
Instructors limit the number of new vocabulary items given to
students at any one time. This is to help students differentiate the
new words from those previously learned, and to facilitate
integration with their existing language knowledge. Asher suggests
that students can learn between 12 and 36 words for every hour of
instruction, depending on their language level and class size.
While drills using the imperative are the mainstay of total physical
response classes, teachers can use other activities as well. Some
typical other activities are role plays and slide presentations.
However, beginners are not made to learn conversational dialogs
until 120 hours into their course.
There is little error correction in TPR. Asher advises teachers to
treat learners' mistakes the same way a parent would treat their
children's. Errors made by beginning-level students are usually
overlooked, but as students become more advanced teachers may
correct more of their errors. This is similar to parents raising their
children; as children get older parents tend to correct their
grammatical mistakes more often.
According to Asher, TPR lesson plans should contain the detailed
commands that the teacher intends to use. He says, “It is wise to
write out the exact utterances you will be using and especially the
novel commands because the action is so fast-moving there is
usually not time for you to create spontaneously.”
ARE THERE ANY DISADVANTAGES WITH
USING TPR?

• Students who are not used to such things might find it

embarrassing. This can be the case initially but I have found
that if the teacher is prepared to perform the actions, the
students feel happier about copying. Also the students are in
groups and don't have to perform for the whole class. This
pleasure is reserved for the teacher.
• It is only really suitable for beginner levels.
• Whilst it is clear that it is far more useful at lower levels
because the target language lends itself to such activities I
have also used it successfully with Intermediate and
Advanced levels. You need to adapt the language accordingly.
• For example, it helped me to teach 'ways of
walking' (stumble, stagger, tiptoe) to an advanced class and
cooking verbs to intermediate students (whisk, stir, grate).
• You can't teach everything with it and if used a lot it would
become repetitive. I completely agree with this but it can be a
successful and fun way of changing the dynamics and pace of
a lesson used in conjunction with other methods and
techniques.

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE
TEACHING
Communicative language teaching (CLT), or the
communicative approach (CA) , is an approach to language
teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the
ultimate goal of study.
Learners in environments using communication to learn and
practice the target language by interactions with one another and
the instructor, the study of "authentic texts" (those written in the
target language for purposes other than language learning), and
the use of the language both in class and outside of class.
Learners converse about personal experiences with partners, and
instructors teach topics outside of the realm of traditional
grammar to promote language skills in all types of situations. That
method also claims to encourage learners to incorporate their
personal experiences into their language learning environment
and to focus on the learning experience, in addition to the learning
of the target language.
According to CLT, the goal of language education is the ability to
communicate in the target language.[2] This is in contrast to
previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly
given top priority.
CLT also positions the teacher as a facilitator, rather than an
instructor. Furthermore, the approach is a non-methodical system
that does not use a textbook series to teach the target language but
works on developing sound oral and verbal skills prior to reading
and writing.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
CLT teachers choose classroom activities based on what they
believe is going to be most effective for students developing
communicative abilities in the target language (TL). Oral activities
are popular among CLT teachers, as opposed to grammar drills or
reading and writing activities, because they include active
conversation and creative, unpredicted responses from students.
Activities vary based on the level of language class they are being
used in. They promote collaboration, fluency, and comfort in the
TL. The six activities listed and explained below are commonly
used in CLT classrooms.
Role-play
Role-play is an oral activity usually done in pairs, whose main goal
is to develop students' communicative abilities in a certain setting.
Example:
1. The instructor sets the scene: where is the conversation
taking place? (E.g., in a café, in a park, etc.)
2. The instructor defines the goal of the students'
conversation. (E.g., the speaker is asking for directions, the
speaker is ordering coffee, the speaker is talking about a
movie they recently saw, etc.)
 3. The students converse in pairs for a designated amount of
time.

This activity gives students the chance to improve their

communication skills in the TL in a low-pressure situation. Most
students are more comfortable speaking in pairs rather than in
front of the entire class.
Instructors need to be aware of the differences between a
conversation and an utterance. Students may use the same
utterances repeatedly when doing this activity and not actually
have a creative conversation. If instructors do not regulate what
kinds of conversations students are having, then the students
might not be truly improving their communication skills.
Interviews
An interview is an oral activity done in pairs, whose main goal is to
develop students' interpersonal skills in the TL.
Example:
1. The instructor gives each student the same set of questions
to ask a partner.
2. Students take turns asking and answering the questions in
pairs.
This activity, since it is highly structured, allows for the instructor
to more closely monitor students' responses. It can zone in on one
specific aspect of grammar or vocabulary, while still being a
primarily communicative activity and giving the students
communicative benefits.
This is an activity that should be used primarily in the lower levels
of language classes, because it will be most beneficial to lower-
level speakers. Higher-level speakers should be having
unpredictable conversations in the TL, where neither the
questions nor the answers are scripted or expected. If this activity
were used with higher-level speakers it wouldn't have many
benefits.
Group work
Group work is a collaborative activity whose purpose is to foster
communication in the TL, in a larger group setting.
Example:
1. Students are assigned a group of no more than six people.
 2. Students are assigned a specific role within the group.
(E.g., member A, member B, etc.)
3. The instructor gives each group the same task to complete.
4. Each member of the group takes a designated amount of
time to work on the part of the task to which they are
assigned.
5. The members of the group discuss the information they
have found, with each other and put it all together to
complete the task.
Students can feel overwhelmed in language classes, but this
activity can take away from that feeling. Students are asked to
focus on one piece of information only, which increases their
comprehension of that information. Better comprehension leads
to better communication with the rest of the group, which
improves students' communicative abilities in the TL.
Instructors should be sure to monitor that each student is
contributing equally to the group effort. It takes a good instructor
to design the activity well, so that students will contribute equally,
and benefit equally from the activity.
Information gap
Information gap is a collaborative activity, whose
purpose is for students to effectively obtain information
that was previously unknown to them, in the TL.

Example:
1. The class is paired up. One partner in each pair is Partner
A, and the other is Partner B.
2. All the students that are Partner A are given a sheet of
paper with a time-table on it. The time-table is filled in
half-way, but some of the boxes are empty.
3. All the students that are Partner B are given a sheet of
paper with a time-table on it. The boxes that are empty on
Partner A's time-table are filled in on Partner B's. There
are also empty boxes on Partner B's time-table, but they
are filled in on Partner A's.
4. The partners must work together to ask about and supply
each other with the information they are both missing, to
complete each other's time-tables.
Completing information gap activities improves students' abilities
to communicate about unknown information in the TL. These
abilities are directly applicable to many real-world conversations,
where the goal is to find out some new piece of information, or
simply to exchange information.
Instructors should not overlook the fact that their students need to
be prepared to communicate effectively for this activity. They need
to know certain vocabulary words, certain structures of grammar,
etc. If the students have not been well prepared for the task at
hand, then they will not communicate effectively.
Opinion sharing
Opinion sharing is a content-based activity, whose purpose is to
engage students' conversational skills, while talking about
something they care about.
Example:
1. The instructor introduces a topic and asks students to
contemplate their opinions about it. (E.g., dating, school
dress codes, global warming)
2. The students talk in pairs or small groups, debating their
opinions on the topic.
Opinion sharing is a great way to get more introverted students to
open up and share their opinions. If a student has a strong opinion
about a certain topic, then they will speak up and share.
Respect is key with this activity. If a student does not feel like their
opinion is respected by the instructor or their peers, then they will
not feel comfortable sharing, and they will not receive the
communicative benefits of this activity.
Scavenger hunt
A scavenger hunt is a mingling activity that promotes open
interaction between students.
Example:
1. The instructor gives students a sheet with instructions on
it. (e.g. Find someone who has a birthday in the same
month as yours.)
2. Students go around the classroom asking and answering
questions about each other.
3. The students wish to find all of the answers they need to
complete the scavenger hunt.
In doing this activity, students have the opportunity to speak with
a number of classmates, while still being in a low-pressure
situation, and talking to only one person at a time. After learning
more about each other, and getting to share about themselves,
students will feel more comfortable talking and sharing during
other communicative activities.
Since this activity is not as structured as some of the others, it is
important for instructors to add structure. If certain vocabulary
should be used in students' conversations, or a certain grammar is
necessary to complete the activity, then instructors should
incorporate that into the scavenger hunt.

NATURAL APPROACH
The natural approach is a method of language teaching
developed by Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell in the late 1970s
and early 1980s. It aims to foster naturalistic language acquisition
in a classroom setting, and to this end it emphasises
communication, and places decreased importance on conscious
grammar study and explicit correction of student errors. Efforts
are also made to make the learning environment as stress-free as
possible. In the natural approach, language output is not forced,
but allowed to emerge spontaneously after students have attended
to large amounts of comprehensible language input.
The natural approach has become closely associated with
Krashen's monitor model, and it is often seen as an application of
the theory to language teaching. Despite this perception, there are
some differences, particularly Terrell's view that some degree of
conscious grammar study can be beneficial. The syllabus focuses
on activities which Terrell sees as promoting subconscious
language acquisition. He divides these activities into four main
areas: content activities, such as learning a new subject in the
target language; activities which focus on personalizing language,
such as students sharing their favorite music; games; and
problem-solving activities.

THEORY
Although Terrell originally created the natural approach without
relying on a particular theoretical model, his subsequent
collaboration with Krashen has meant that the method is often
seen as an application to language teaching of Krashen's monitor
model. Krashen outlined five hypotheses in his model:
 1. The acquisition-learning hypothesis. This states that there
is a strict separation between conscious learning of
language and subconscious acquisition of language, and
that only acquisition can lead to fluent language use.
2. The monitor hypothesis. This states that language
knowledge that is consciously learned can only be used to
monitor output, not to generate new language. Monitoring
output requires learners to be focused on the rule and to
have time to apply it.
3. The input hypothesis. This states that language is acquired
by exposure to comprehensible input at a level a little
higher than that the learner can already understand.
Krashen names this kind of input "i+1".
4. The natural order hypothesis. This states that learners
acquire the grammatical features of a language in a fixed
order, and that this is not affected by instruction.
5. The affective filter hypothesis. This states that learners
must be relaxed and open to learning in order for language
to be acquired. Learners who are nervous or distressed
may not learn features in the input that more relaxed
learners would pick up with little effort.
Despite its basis in Krashen's theory, the natural approach does
not adhere to the theory strictly. In particular, Terrell perceives a
greater role for the conscious learning of grammar than Krashen.
Krashen's monitor hypothesis contends that conscious learning
has no effect on learners' ability to generate new language,
whereas Terrell believes that some conscious learning of grammar
rules can be beneficial.

SYLLABUS
Terrell outlines four categories of classroom activities that can
facilitate language acquisition (as opposed to language learning):
• "Content (culture, subject matter, new information,
reading, e.g. teacher tells interesting anecdote involving
contrast between target and native culture.)"
• "Affective-humanistic (students' own ideas, opinions,
experiences, e.g. students are asked to share personal
preferences as to music, places to live, clothes, hair styles,
etc.)"
• "Games [focus on using language to participate in the
game, e.g. 20 questions: I, the teacher, am thinking of an
object in this room. You, students, have twenty questions
 to guess the object. Typical questions: is it clothing? (yes)
is it for a man or a woman? (woman) is it a skirt? (yes) is it
brown? (yes) is it Ellen's skirt? (yes)]"
• "Problem solving (focus on using language to locate
information, use information, etc., e.g. looking at this
listing of films in the newspaper, and considering the
different tastes and schedule needs in the group, which
film would be appropriate for all of us to attend, and
when?)”

TASK BASED LANGUAGE

LEARNING
Task-based language teaching (TBLT), also known as task-
based instruction (TBI), focuses on the use of authentic
language to complete meaningful tasks in the target language.
Such tasks can include visiting a doctor, conducting an interview,
or calling customer service for help. Assessment is primarily based
on task outcome (the appropriate completion of real-world tasks)
rather than on accuracy of prescribed language forms. This makes
TBLT especially popular for developing target language fluency
and student confidence. As such, TBLT can be considered a branch
of communicative language teaching (CLT).

DEFINITION OF A TASK
A concept, earlier known as the "communicative activity" in 1970s
and 80's was later replaced by the term task has since been
defined differently by different scholars. Willis (1996) has defined
a task as a goal based activity involving the use of the learners'
existing language resources, that leads to the outcome. Examples
include playing games, and solving problems and puzzles etc. Ellis
(2003) defines a task as a work plan that involves a pragmatic
processing of language, using the learners' existing language
resources and attention to meaning, and resulting in the
completion of an outcome which can be assessed for its
communicative function. David Nunan (2004) draws upon the
definitions given by other experts, of two types of tasks: target
tasks and pedagogical tasks. Targets tasks refer to doing
something outside the classroom and in the real world; whereas
pedagogical tasks refer to the tasks students perform inside the
classroom and in response to target language input or processing.
Nunan concludes that target tasks may be non-linguistic. He
defines pedagogical task as a classroom activity that involves a
student to understand and produce the target language while
focusing on conveying the meaning and not being too concerned
with form. On the other hand, Long (1985) defines a task as things
people do in everyday life.
According to Rod Ellis, a task has four main characteristics:
1. A task involves a primary focus on (pragmatic) meaning.
2. A task has some kind of ‘gap’. (Prabhu identified the three
main types as information gap, reasoning gap, and opinion
gap.)
3. The participants choose the linguistic resources needed to
complete the task.
4. A task has a clearly defined, non-linguistic outcome.

IN PRACTICE
The core of the lesson or project is, as the name suggests, the task.
Teachers and curriculum developers should bear in mind that any
attention to form, i.e., grammar or vocabulary, increases the
likelihood that learners may be distracted from the task itself and
become preoccupied with detecting and correcting errors and/or
looking up language in dictionaries and grammar references.
Although there may be several effective frameworks for creating a
task-based learning lesson, here is a basic outline:
Pre-task
In the pre-task, the teacher will present what will be expected from
the students in the task phase. Additionally, in the "weak" form of
TBLT, the teacher may prime the students with key vocabulary or
grammatical constructs, although this can mean that the activity
is, in effect, more similar to the more traditional present-practice-
produce (PPP) paradigm. In "strong" task-based learning lessons,
learners are responsible for selecting the appropriate language for
any given context themselves. The instructors may also present a
model of the task by either doing it themselves or by presenting
picture, audio, or video demonstrating the task.
Task
During the task phase, the students perform the task, typically in
small groups, although this depends on the type of activity. Unless
the teacher plays a particular role in the task, the teacher's role is
typically limited to one of an observer or counselor—thereby
making it a more student-centered methodology.
Review
If learners have created tangible linguistic products, e.g. text,
montage, presentation, audio or video recording, learners can
review each other's work and offer constructive feedback. If a task
is set to extend over longer periods of time, e.g. weeks, and
includes iterative cycles of constructive activity followed by review,
TBLT can be seen as analogous to Project-based learning.
Types of task
According to N. S. Prabhu, there are three main categories of task:
information-gap, reasoning-gap, and opinion-gap.
Information-gap activity, which involves a transfer of given
information from one person to another – or from one form to
another, or from one place to another – generally calling for the
decoding or encoding of information from or into language. One
example is pair work in which each member of the pair has a part
of the total information (for example an incomplete picture) and
attempts to convey it verbally to the other. Another example is
completing a tabular representation with information available in
a given piece of text. The activity often involves selection of
relevant information as well, and learners may have to meet
criteria of completeness and correctness in making the transfer.
Reasoning-gap activity, which involves deriving some new
information from given information through processes of
inference, deduction, practical reasoning, or a perception of
relationships or patterns. One example is working out a teacher's
timetable on the basis of given class timetables. Another is
deciding what course of action is best (for example cheapest or
quickest) for a given purpose and within given constraints. The
activity necessarily involves comprehending and conveying
information, as in an information-gap activity, but the information
to be conveyed is not identical with that initially comprehended.
There is a piece of reasoning which connects the two.
Opinion-gap activity, which involves identifying and
articulating a personal preference, feeling, or attitude in response
to a given situation. One example is story completion; another is
taking part in the discussion of a social issue. The activity may
involve using factual information and formulating arguments to
justify one's opinion, but there is no objective procedure for
demonstrating outcomes as right or wrong, and no reason to
expect the same outcome from different individuals or on different
occasions.
Reception
According to Jon Larsson, in considering problem-based learning
for language learning, i.e., task-based language learning:

...one of the main virtues of PBL is that it displays a significant

advantage over traditional methods in how the communicative
skills of the students are improved. The general ability of social
interaction is also positively affected. These are, most will agree,
two central factors in language learning. By building a language
course around assignments that require students to act, interact
and communicate it is hopefully possible to mimic some of the
aspects of learning a language “on site”, i.e. in a country where it
is actually spoken. Seeing how learning a language in such an
environment is generally much more effective than teaching the
language exclusively as a foreign language, this is something
that would hopefully be beneficial.
Larsson goes on to say:
Another large advantage of PBL is that it encourages students to
gain a deeper sense of understanding. Superficial learning is
often a problem in language education, for example when
students, instead of acquiring a sense of when and how to use
which vocabulary, learn all the words they will need for the exam
next week and then promptly forget them.
In a PBL classroom this is combatted by always introducing the
vocabulary in a real-world situation, rather than as words on a
list, and by activating the student; students are not passive
receivers of knowledge, but are instead required to actively
acquire the knowledge. The feeling of being an integral part of
their group also motivates students to learn in a way that the
prospect of a final examination rarely manages to do.
Task-based learning benefits students because it is more student-
centered, allows for more meaningful communication, and often
provides for practical extra-linguistic skill building. As the tasks
are likely to be familiar to the students (e.g.: visiting the doctor),
students are more likely to be engaged, which may further
motivate them in their language learning.
According to Jeremy Harmer, tasks promote language acquisition
through the types of language and interaction they require.
Harmer says that although the teacher may present language in
the pre-task, the students are ultimately free to use what grammar
constructs and vocabulary they want. This allows them, he says, to
use all the language they know and are learning, rather than just
the 'target language' of the lesson. On the other hand, according to
Loschky and Bley-Vroman, tasks can also be designed to make
certain target forms 'task-essential,' thus making it
communicatively necessary for students to practice using them. In
terms of interaction, information gap tasks in particular have been
shown to promote negotiation of meaning and output
modification.
According to Plews and Zhao, task-based language learning can
suffer in practice from poorly informed implementation and
adaptations that alter its fundamental nature. They say that
lessons are frequently changed to be more like traditional teacher-
led presentation-practice-production lessons than task-based
lessons.

CONTENT AND LANGUAGE

INTEGRATED LEARNING
Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) is an
approach for learning content through an additional language
(foreign or second), thus teaching both the subject and the
language.

CLIL ORIGIN
The term CLIL was created in 1994 by David Marsh as a
methodology similar to but distinct from language immersion and
content-based instruction. The idea of its proponents was to create
an "umbrella term" which encompasses different forms of using
language as the medium of instruction. The methodology has been
applied in a business context in many countries and widely
accepted as an effective approach. In Italy, for example, it is being
used as an accelerated method to teach management concepts in
English to business people. Among CLIL's proponents and
practitioners there is Dr Maurizio Morselli, a Human Resources
professional and Executive Coach, who believes that "this hybrid
immersion approach produces a lot more immediate results and it
appeals to self-motivated adult audiences who possess a basic
knowledge and understanding of the target language".

CLIL AND LANGUAGE IMMERSION

CLIL is fundamentally based on methodological principles
established by research on language immersion. This kind of
approach has been identified as very important by the European
Commission[4] because: "It can provide effective opportunities for
pupils to use their new language skills now, rather than learn them
now for later use. It opens doors on languages for a broader range
of learners, nurturing self-confidence in young learners and those
who have not responded well to formal language instruction in
general education. It provides exposure to the language without
requiring extra time in the curriculum, which can be of particular
interest in vocational settings." This approach involves learning
subjects such as history, geography, managerial skills/concepts or
others, through an additional language. It can be very successful in
enhancing the learning of languages and other subjects, and
helping children develop a positive attitude towards themselves as
language learners.
The European Commission has therefore decided to promote the
training of teachers to "...enhancing the language competences in
general, in order to promote the teaching of non-linguistic subjects
in foreign languages".

CLIL OBJECTIVES
CLIL objectives are varied, but among the most relevant ones the
following can be pointed out (Coyle et al., 2010): To improve the
educational system. To establish the necessary conditions that will
allow students to achieve the appropriate level of academic
performance in CLIL subjects. To improve students’ proficiency in
both their mother tongue and the target language, attaching the
same importance to each. To develop the intercultural
understanding. To develop social and thinking skills.
CLIL advocates claim that this educational approach (Lorenzo et
al., 2011): Improves L1 and L2 development. Prepares students for
the globalized world. Increases students’ motivation to learn
foreign languages. Promotes the learning of a more extensive and
varied vocabulary. Enhances students’ confidence in the target
language. Improves language competence in the target language,
CLIL being more beneficial than traditional foreign language
teaching courses. Helps develop intercultural competence.

CLIL IN ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL

LANGUAGE
The integration of content and language learning in English as an
international language (EIL) is found in approaches to bilingual
education. These approaches include immersion, content-based
instruction (CBI), content-based language teaching (CBLT), and
the movement towards English medium instruction (EMI). All of
these approaches raise a number of questions that a view of
English as an international language has for content-integrated
approaches (Thompson & McKinley, 2018).
Multiplicity of terms
The multiplicity of terms used to refer to instructional approaches
for the integration of content and language learning (immersion,
CBI, CBLT, CLIL, EMI) can be a source of confusion in EIL
studies, although they all commonly share the purpose of additive
bilingualism via a dual focus on content and language learning.
Debate continues about the extent to which immersion, CBLT,
CBI, and CLIL are different, similar, or the same. Some argue that
CLIL represents an appropriate umbrella term that can be used to
house various approaches towards content integration (e.g.,
immersion is a type of CLIL), where terms can be used
interchangeably (e.g., CLIL and CBI are the same concept with a
different name) (Cenoz et al., 2014). However, others argue that
CLIL and CBI represent very different concepts, where CLIL
represents the intersection between content and language from
the content perspective (i.e., CLIL happens in content classes),
while CBI is an attempt at responding to the content needs of
learners in language classes (Dalton-Puffer et al., 2014).
The similarities (and variability) between approaches lead to
circular arguments about whether the key features of one
approach are also shared by others (e.g., immersion and CLIL),
and therefore they are indistinguishable. In some ways, this is an
inevitable result of terms being used outside of academia, by
educators applying ideas from one context to another, and the
lines of demarcation become more unclear as approaches are
transported to different countries and contextualized to meet
different learning situations.
In EIL studies, different terms have been associated with different
regions, such as CLIL, which is associated with Europe, and was
“purposefully coined” by European educators and researchers
attempting to influence language policy and ideology (Dalton-
Puffer et al., 2014:214). CLIL represented a deliberate attempt to
develop a European model for additive bilingual education.
However, policy makers, educators, and researchers from
international contexts have started to apply and develop CLIL
approaches in distinctly non-European situations, and the term is
now widely used within the wider international foreign language
learning community.

SUGGESTOPEDIA
Suggestopedia, a portmanteau of "suggestion" and "pedagogy" is
a teaching method used to learn foreign languages developed by
the Bulgarian psychiatrist Georgi Lozanov. It is also known as
desuggestopedia.
First developed in the 1970s, suggestopedia utilised positive
suggestions in teaching language. In 1978, Lozanov presented the
method to a commission in Paris at UNESCO. Two years later in
1980, UNESCO issued their final report with various mixed views
on of the theory. On the one hand, it affirmed suggestopedia as a
language learning technique for second-language speakers, but the
report also included various criticisms of the theory.

PRACTICE
Suggestopedia asserts that the physical surroundings and
atmosphere of classroom are vital factors in making sure that
"students feel comfortable and confident". It also promotes
various techniques, including art and music, in teaching
languages. The pedagogy of suggestopedia consists of three
phases: deciphering, concert session, and elaboration.
Deciphering: In the deciphering phase, a teacher introduces to
their students some written or spoken content. In most materials
the foreign-language text is on the left half of the page with a
translation on the right half.
Concert session: The concert session phase consists of active
and passive sessions. In the active session, the teacher reads the
text at a normal speed, while their students follow. In the passive
session, the students relax and listen to the teacher reading the
text. Baroque music is played in the background.
Elaboration: The students express what they have learned
through acting, songs, and games.
A fourth phrase, production, is also sometimes used.
Production: The students spontaneously speak and interact in
the target language without interruption or correction.

SUGGESTOPEDIA TEACHERS
Suggestopedia asserts that teachers should not act in a directive
way. For example, teachers should act as partners to their
students, participating in activities such as games and songs
"naturally" and "genuinely" Lozanov asserts that teachers should
be versed in the "communication in the spirit of love, respect for
man as a human being, the specific humanitarian way of applying
their 'techniques'

SUGGESTOPEDIA FOR CHILDREN

The suggestopedia pedagogy for adult learners includes long
sessions without movement, and other techniques that Lozanov
claims are effective for adults. Luzanov asserts that children have
brains that are more delicate than those of adults, and another
approach should be applied to children. Suggestopedia lessons for
children are shorter in order to keep children away from the
negative pedagogical suggestions of society.

CLAIMS
As a pseudoscience, suggestopedia is claimed to impart better
health and intellectual abilities onto its learners. Lozanov claims
that the effect of suggestopedia is in not only language learning
but also producing favorable side effects on health, the social and
psychological relations, and the subsequent success in other
subjects.

CRITICISM
Suggestopedia has been called a "pseudo-science". In response,
Lozanov claimed that Suggestopedia cannot be compared to a
placebo as he regarded placebos as being effective. Another point
of criticism is brought forward by Baur, who claims that in
suggestopedia students only receive input by listening, reading
and musical-emotional backing, while other important factors of
language acquisition are being neglected. Several other features of
the method – like the 'nonconscious' acquisition of language, or
bringing the learner into a childlike state – are questioned by
critics. Lukesch also claims that Suggestopedia lacks scientific
backing and is criticized by psychologists as being based on
pseudoscience.

THE SILENT WAY

The Silent Way is a language-teaching approach created by Caleb
Gattegno that makes extensive use of silence as a teaching method.
Gattegno introduced the method in 1963, in his book Teaching
Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way. Gattegno was
critical of mainstream language education at the time, and he
based the method on his general theories of education rather than
on existing language pedagogy. It is usually regarded as an
"alternative" language-teaching method; Cook groups it under
"other styles", Richards groups it under "alternative approaches
and methods" and Jin & Cortazzi group it under "Humanistic or
Alternative Approaches".
The method emphasizes learner autonomy and active student
participation. Silence is used as a tool to achieve this goal; the
teacher uses a mixture of silence and gestures to focus students'
attention, to elicit responses from them, and to encourage them to
correct their own errors. Pronunciation is seen as fundamental to
the method, with a great deal of time spent on it each lesson. The
Silent Way uses a structural syllabus and concentrates on teaching
a small number of functional and versatile words. Translation and
rote repetition are avoided, and the language is usually practiced
in meaningful contexts. Evaluation is carried out by observation,
and the teacher may never set a formal test.
One of the hallmarks of the Silent Way is the use of Cuisenaire
rods, which can be used for anything from introducing simple
commands ("Take two red rods and give them to her.") to
representing objects such as clocks and floor plans. The method
also draws on color associations to help teach pronunciation; there
is a sound-color chart which is used to teach the language sounds,
colored word charts which are used for work on sentences, and
colored Fidel charts which are used to teach spelling. While the
Silent Way is not widely used in its original form, its ideas have
been influential, especially in the teaching of pronunciation.
Gattegno was openly sceptical of the role the linguistic theory of
his time had in language teaching. He felt that linguistic studies
"may be a specialization, [that] carry with them a narrow opening
of one's sensitivity and perhaps serve very little towards the broad
end in mind". The Silent Way was conceived as a special case of
Gattegno's broader educational principles, which he had
developed to solve general problems in learning, and which he had
previously applied to the teaching of mathematics and of spelling
in the mother tongue. Broadly, these principles are:
1. Teachers should concentrate on how students learn, not on
how to teach
2. Imitation and drill are not the primary means by which
students learn
3. Learning consists of trial and error, deliberate
experimentation, suspending judgement, and revising
conclusions
4. In learning, learners draw on everything that they already
know, especially their native language
5. The teacher must not interfere with the learning process

PROCESS
Teaching techniques
As the name implies, silence is a key tool of the teacher in the
Silent Way. From the beginning levels, students do 90 percent or
more of the talking. Being silent moves the focus of the classroom
from the teacher to the students, and can encourage cooperation
among them. It also frees the teacher to observe the class. Silence
can be used to help students correct their own errors. Teachers can
remain silent when a student makes a mistake to give them time to
self-correct; they can also help students with their pronunciation
by mouthing words without vocalizing, and by using certain hand
gestures. When teachers do speak, they tend to say things only
once so that students learn to focus their attention on them.
A Silent Way classroom also makes extensive use of peer
correction. Students are encouraged to help their classmates when
they have trouble with any particular feature of the language. This
help should be made in a cooperative fashion, not a competitive
one. One of the teacher's tasks is to monitor these interactions so
that they are helpful and do not interfere with students' learning.
Teaching materials

A set of Cuisenaire rods

The silent way makes use of specialized teaching materials:
colored Cuisenaire rods, the sound-color chart, word charts, and
Fidel charts. The Cuisenaire rods are wooden, and come in ten
different lengths, but identical cross-section; each length has its
own assigned color. The rods are used in a wide variety of
situations in the classroom. At the beginning stages they can be
used to practice colors and numbers, and later they can be used in
more complex grammar. For example, to teach prepositions the
teacher could use the statement "The blue rod is between the
green one and the yellow one". They can also be used more
abstractly, perhaps to represent a clock when students are learning
about time.
A Fidel chart for English. These charts are used to teach spelling.
The sound-color chart consists of blocks of color, with one color
representing one sound in the language being learned. The teacher
uses this chart to help teach pronunciation; as well as pointing to
colors to help students with the different sounds, the teacher can
also tap particular colors very hard to help students learn word
stress. Later in the learning process, students can point to the
chart themselves. The chart can help students perceive sounds
that may not occur in their first language, and it also allows
students to practice making these sounds without relying on
mechanical repetition. It also provides an easily verifiable record
of which sounds the students have and which they have not, which
can help their autonomy.
The word charts contain the functional vocabulary of the target
language, and use the same color scheme as the sound-color chart.
Each letter is colored in a way that indicates its pronunciation. The
teacher can point to the chart to highlight the pronunciation of
different words in sentences that the students are learning. There
are twelve word charts in English, containing a total of around five
hundred words. The Fidel charts also use the same color-coding,
and list the various ways that sounds can be spelled. For example,
in English, the entry for the sound /ey/ contains the spellings ay,
ea, ei, eigh, etc., all written in the same color. These can be used to
help students associate sounds with their spelling.
TEACH TEST TEACH APPROACH
Test, teach, test (TTT) is an approach to teaching where learners
first complete a task or activity without help from the teacher.
Then, based on the problems seen, the teacher plans and presents
the target language. Then the learners do another task to
practise the new language.

Example
The learners, who have not studied phrasal verbs, are given a text
and asked to find examples. They are able to do this but not to
deduce meaning. The teacher plans a lesson to help learners
develop this, and then asks them to do a similar activity.

In the classroom
TTT is a useful approach as it enables teachers to identify the
specific needs of learners concerning a language area and address
this need suitably. It can be particularly useful at intermediate
levels and above, where learners may have seen language before,
but have specific problems with it, and also in mixed level classes
to help identify objectives for each individual.