SCSA1502-COMPUTER NETWORKS AND

DESIGN

UNIT - II

7/8/2024 1
SCSA1502-COMPUTER NETWORKS AND
DESIGN

Unit II-Underlying LAN Concepts

 UNIT 2
UNDERLYING LAN CONCEPTS

LAN connectivity for small businesses – Integration –

Token-Ring – Ethernet – ATM LAN emulation – Inter LAN
Switching – LAN to Mainframe – Building networks.

7/8/2024 3
Definition of computer networks

Wireless Medium

Wire Connection
Typical network architecture

General structure of a Computer Network

 Need for Networking
• Resource sharing -Through a network , data ,
s/w and h/w resources can be shared
irrespective of the physical location of the
resources and the user.
• Reliability – A file can have its copies on
two or more computers of the network
• Cost – Sharing resources reduces the cost
• Communication – Information can be
exchanged at a very fast speed
 Network Components

Image Courtesy:Basics of Computer Networking: What is, Advantages, Components, Uses (guru99.com)
 SWITCHES / HUB

• A switch (switching hub) in the context of networking refers to a device

which filters and forwards data packets across a network.

• Unlike a standard hub which simply replicates what it receives on one port
onto all the other ports, a switching hub keeps a record of the MAC
addresses of the devices attached to it.

• When the switch receives a data packet, it forwards the packet directly to
the recipient device by looking up the MAC address.

• A network switch can utilize the full throughput potential of a networks

connection for each device making it a natural choice over a standard hub.

• In other words, say for instance you had a network of 5 PCs and a server all
connected with 10Mbps UTP cable, with a hub the throughput (10Mbps)
would be shared between each device, with a switch each device could
utilize the full 10Mbps connection.
 HUBS

➢Incoming data passing through a hub

 HUBS

Returned response passing through a hub.

 SWITCH
➢Incoming data passing through a switch
 SWITCH
➢Returned response passing through a switch
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HUB AND SWITCH
 ROUTERS
✓ A router is a device or a software in a computer that determines the next
network point to which a packet should be forwarded toward its
destination
✓ Allow different networks to communicate with each other
✓ A router creates and maintain a table of the available routes and their
conditions and uses this information along with distance and cost
algorithms to determine the best route for a given packet
✓ A packet will travel through a number of network points with routers
before arriving at its destination
 BRIDGES
• A bridge is a product that connects a local area network (LAN) to another
local area network that uses the same protocol (for example, Ethernet or
token ring)
• A bridge examines each message on a LAN, "passing" those known to be
within the same LAN, and forwarding those known to be on the other
interconnected LAN (or LANs)
 ROUTER’s Vs BRIDGE’s
S.NO Bridge Router
1. Bridge works in data link layer. Router works in network layer.

Through bridge, data or information is not Through router, data or information is

2.
stored and sent in the form of packet. stored and sent in the form of packet.

While there are more than two ports in

3. There are only two ports in bridge.
router.
Router is used by LAN as well as MAN for
4. Bridge connects two different LANs.
Connection of nodes.

5. In bridge, routing table is not used. While in routers, routing table is used.

While router works on more than single

6. Bridge works on single broadcast domain.
broadcast domain.
While Routers are difficult to setup and
7. Bridges are easy to configure.
configure.

8. Bridge focuses on MAC address . Router focuses on protocol address.

9. Bridge is comparatively inexpensive. While Router is relatively expensive device.

Bridges are good for segment network and While Routers are good for joining remote
10.
extends the existing network. networks.
 GATEWAY
➢ Gateway is considered as a networked
device that acts as an entry point from
one network to other networks
➢ Gateway is a device that connects
dissimilar networks.
➢ Establishes intelligent connection
between a local network and external
networks with completely different
structures
➢ A gateway acts as a safeguard to all
local networks and connects the local
networks to public networks.
➢ It acts as the entry – exit point for a
network since all traffic that flows across
the networks should pass through the
gateway. Only the internal traffic between
the nodes of a LAN does not pass
through the gateway
CLASSIFICATIONS
 Types of Computer Networks
• Networks are classified depending on the geographical area
covered by the network

Computer
Networks

Local Campus Area Metropolitan Wide

Area Network Network Area Network Area Network
(LAN) (CAN) (MAN) (WAN)
 Personal Area Network
• PAN networks are usually wireless, established in an on- demand or
ad-hoc fashion when needed to communicate between two or more
devices.
• PAN networks can be used between devices owned by two different
parties, or between two devices owned by one person, such as a
PDA and a laptop or mobile phone.
• These networks are usually characterized as short-range, often
limited to 10 meters or less in range.
Example: Bluetooth
 Network Architecture
Major (Two) classifications based on Architecture
are
➢Peer-to-Peer network
➢Server based network
 Client Server Application

➢ This model are broadly used network model.

➢ In Client-Server Network, Clients and server are
differentiated, Specific server and clients are present.
➢ In Client-Server Network, Centralized server is used to
store the data because its management is centralized. In
Client-Server Network, Server respond the services
which is request by Client.
 Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages of client/server networks

• Facilitate resource sharing – centrally administrate and control
• Facilitate system backup and improve fault tolerance
• Enhance security – only administrator can have access to
Server
• Support more users – difficult to achieve with peer-to-peer
networks
Disadvantages of client/server networks
• High cost for Servers
• Need expert to configure the network
• Introduce a single point of failure to the system
 Application

• Mail server
• Application server
• Message server
• Proxy server
• Database server
• Web server
 Peer to Peer network
➢This model does not differentiate the clients and
the servers
➢In this each and every node is itself client and
server.
➢In Peer-to-Peer Network, Each and every node can
do both request and respond for the services.
 Peer to Peer network
➢ In the P2P (Peer-to-Peer) network, “peers” generally
represent computer system.
➢ These peers are connected to each other with help
of Internet.
➢ Files might be shared directly without requirement
of central server among these systems on the
network.
➢ In this architecture, system is generally
decomposed into various computational nodes that
contain the same and equivalent capabilities,
abilities, and responsibilities.
 Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages of peer-to-peer networks:

Low cost
Simple to configure
User has full accessibility of the computer
Disadvantages of peer-to-peer networks:
May have duplication in resources
Difficult to uphold security policy
Difficult to handle uneven loading

Where peer-to-peer network is appropriate:

10 or less users
No specialized services required
Security is not an issue
Only limited growth in the foreseeable future
 LAN Architecture

• Topologies
• Transmission medium
• Layout
• Medium access control
 Topology

• Topology refers to the layout of connected

devices on a network.
• Here, some logical layout of topology.
oMesh oStar
oBus
oRing
oTree and Hybrid
Network Topology
 Considerations for choosing topology
• Money-Bus n/w may be the least expensive way to install a
n/w.
• Length-of cable needed- the linear bus n/w uses shorter
lengths of cable.
• Future growth-with star topology, expending a n/w is easily
done by adding another devices.
• Cable type-most common used cable in commercial
organization is twisted pair. Which often used with star
topologies.
 LAN transmission medium
➢ What is Network Cabling?
➢ Cable is the medium through which information usually moves
from one network device to another.
➢ There are several types of cable which are commonly used with
LANs.
➢ In some cases, a network will utilize only one type of cable,
other networks will use a variety of cable types.
➢ The type of cable chosen for a network is related to the
network's topology, protocol, and size.
 Types of cables used in networks

➢Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

➢Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

➢Coaxial Cable

➢Fiber Optic Cable

 Twisted pair cable
➢ Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties:
➢ Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and
is generally the best option for school networks.
➢ The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire
to extremely high-speed cable.
➢ The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each
pair is twisted with a different number of twists per
inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs
and other electrical devices.
➢ The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported
transmission rate and the greater the cost per foot.
Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair
 Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

• The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an

RJ-45 connector.
• This is a plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style
connector. A slot allows the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way.
• RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the connector
follows a standard borrowed from the telephone industry.
• This standard designates which wire goes with each pin inside
the connector.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
• Although UTP cable is the least expensive cable, it may be susceptible to radio and electrical
frequency interference (it should not be too close to electric motors, fluorescent lights, etc.).

• If you must place cable in environments with lots of potential interference, or if you must
place cable in extremely sensitive environments that may be susceptible to the electrical
current in the UTP, shielded twisted pair may be the solution. Shielded cables can also help
to extend the maximum distance of the cables.

• Shielded twisted pair cable is available in three different configurations:

• Each pair of wires is individually shielded with foil.

• There is a foil or braid shield inside the jacket covering all wires (as a group).

• There is a shield around each individual pair, as well as around the entire group of wires
(referred to as double shield twisted pair).
 Coaxial Cable

• Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center.

• A plastic layer provides insulation between the center
conductor and a braided metal shield.
• The metal shield helps to block any outside interference from
fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.
• Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly
resistant to signal interference.
• In addition, it can support greater cable lengths between
network devices than twisted pair cable. The two types of
coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.
 Coaxial Cable Connectors

• The most common type of connector used with coaxial

cables is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector
• Connectors on the cable are the weakest points in any
network. To help avoid problems with your network, always
use the BNC connectors that crimp, rather screw, onto the
cable.
 Fiber Optic Cable
• Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core
surrounded by several layers of protective materials
• It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating
the problem of electrical interference.
• immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.
• transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial
and twisted pair.
Specification of Cables
 Installing Cable - Some Guidelines
• Always use more cable than you need. Leave plenty of slack.

• Test every part of a network as you install it. Even if it is brand new, it
may have problems that will be difficult to isolate later.

• Stay at least 3 feet away from fluorescent light boxes and other
sources of electrical interference.

• If it is necessary to run cable across the floor, cover the cable with
cable protectors.

• Label both ends of each cable.

• Use cable ties (not tape) to keep cables in the same location together.
 Wireless LANs

• Use high frequency radio signals, infrared light beams, or lasers to

communicate between the workstations, servers, or hubs.
• Each workstation and file server on a wireless network has some
sort of transceiver/antenna to send and receive the data.
• For longer distance, wireless communications can also take place
through cellular telephone technology, microwave transmission, or
by satellite.
• Wireless networks are great for allowing laptop computers,
portable devices, or remote computers to connect to the LAN.
• Wireless networks are also beneficial in older buildings where it
may be difficult or impossible to install cables.
 Wireless LANs
• The two most common types of infrared communications
used in schools are line-of-sight and scattered broadcast.
• Line-of-sight communication means that there must be an
unblocked direct line between the workstation and the
transceiver. If a person walks within the line-of-sight while
there is a transmission, the information would need to be
sent again. This kind of obstruction can slow down the
wireless network.
• Scattered infrared communication is a broadcast of infrared
transmissions sent out in multiple directions that bounces off
walls and ceilings until it eventually hits the receiver.
Networking communications with laser are virtually the same
as line-of-sight infrared networks.
Wireless standards and speeds
 OSI model
and
its layer architecture
 The OSI Model

❖ International standard organization (ISO) established a committee in 1977 to

develop an architecture for systems communication.

❖ Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model is the result of this effort.

❖ This model allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of

their underlying architecture.
 Cntd..

❖ The OSI model describes how data flows from one computer,
through a network to another computer.

❖ The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and

designing a network architecture that is flexible and robust.

❖ The OSI model consists of seven separate but related layers, each of
which defines a part of the process of moving information across a
network.
Seven layers of the OSI model
 Why so many layers?

❖To reduce the complexity, networks are organized as a

stack of layers, one below the other.

❖Each layer performs a specific task,. It provides

services to an adjacent layer.
OSI Layers
 Cntd..

❖ Layers 1,2, 3- physical, data link and network are

network support layers.

❖ Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two subgroups.

❖ Layers 5,6,7- session, presentation, and application are user

support layers.
An exchange using the OSI model
Physical layer
 Physical Layer

➢ Physical layer is the bottom(layer 1) of OSI model.

➢ It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.

➢ The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one
node to next.
 Functions of Physical Layer

❖ Convert bits to signals

❖ Bit synchronization
❖ Manage physical connection
❖ Bit rate control
❖ Physical topology
❖ Transmission mode
❖ Multiplexing
❖ Switching
 Data Link Layer

❖ The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one node
to the next.
 Functions of Data Link Layer
❖ Framing:- divides the data from N/W layer into frames.

❖ Physical Addressing:- Add a header to the frame to define the physical

address of the source and the destination machines.

❖ Flow Control:- It is the traffic regulatory mechanism implemented by Data Link

layer that prevents the fast sender from drowning the slow receiver.

❖ Error Control:- It provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects

and retransmits damaged or lost frames.

❖ Feedback:- after transmitting the frames, the system waits for the feedback.
Network Layer
 Functions of Network layer

❖ It is responsible for the source to destination delivery of a packets across

multiple networks.

❖ Routing:- Provide mechanism to transmit data over independent networks

that are linked together.

❖ Logical addressing:- Adds Logical addresses of sender and Receiver.

 Transport Layer

❖ It is responsible for source process to destination process delivery of

entire message.
 Cntd…

❖ Transport layer provides two types of services:

❖ 1) Connection Oriented Transmission: In this type of

transmission the receiving device sends an
acknowledgment back to the source after a packet or
group of packet is received.

❖2) Connectionless Transmission: In this type of transmission the

receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet.
 Functions of Transport Layer
❖ Segmentation and Reassembly: Divide the message received from
Session layer into Segments and number them to make a sequence
for reassembly at the receiving side.

❖ Service point addressing: Transport layer makes sure that the

message is delivered to the correct process on destination machine.

❖ Error Control: Make sure that the entire message arrives without
errors else retransmit.

❖ Flow Control: Transport layer makes sure that the sender is

synchronized with receiver
 Session Layer

❖ It is responsible for beginning, maintaining & ending the

communication between two devices, which is called session.
 Functions of Session Layer

❖ Establishment, maintaining and ending a session:

❖ Sends SYN packet – establish request
❖ Receives ACK & SYN- established
❖ To end – Sender sends ACK

❖ Dialog Control: The session layer allows two systems to enter into a
dialog.

❖ Synchronization: Allows a process to add checkpoints to a stream of

data.
 Presentation Layer

❖ This layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the

information exchanged between two systems.
 Functions of Presentation Layer

❖ Data Translation: Encoding and Decoding Sender to Common format on

Sending side Common to Receiving format on Receiver side

❖ Data Encryption: For security and privacy purpose.

❖ Data Compression: Data compression reducesthe number of bits

contained in the information.
 Application Layer

❖ Provides User interfaces and support for Services, like e- mail, file
transfer.
 Functions of Application Layer

❖ Network Virtual terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote

host.
❖ File Transfer Access, and Management: This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host.
❖ Mail Services: This applicationprovides various e-mail services.
❖ Distributed Services: This application provides the global information
about database sources and access for various objects and services.
 LAN design for Small business

Requirements:
• A CPA firm with 5 departments
• Total of 560 employees
• One building
• No current LAN operating
• Need for easy future expansion
• Need for fast access for each department
• Reliability of the network
 LAN design for Small business
Design goals
• Functionality - the network must work with reasonable speed
and reliability.
• Scalability - the network must be able to grow without any
major changes to the overall design.
• Adaptability - the network must be designed with an eye
toward future technologies, and should include no element
that would limit implementation of new technologies as
they become available.
• Manageability - the network would be designed to facilitate
network monitoring and management.
 Network design outline

• Gathering the users requirements and expectations

• Determining data traffic patterns now and in the
future based on growth and Server placements
• Defining all of the layer 1, 2 &3 devices and along
with LAN and WAN topology
• Document the physical and logical network
implementation
 Methodology

• Analyze customer’s requirements

• Choose and Develop LAN structure (topology)
• Set up addressing and routing
 Step 1: Analyse requirements

• Business issues
• Technology issues
• Administrative issues
 Some datas to be gathered
➢ Corporate Structure – small CPA firm with 560 employees.
➢ Business information flow - ?
➢ Applications in use - ?
➢ Current topology - NONE
➢ Performance characteristics of current network - N/A
➢ Determine if documented policies are in place - ?
➢ Mission-critical data - ?
➢ Mission-critical operations - ?
➢ Approved protocols and platforms - ?
➢ Control versus distributed authority - ?
➢ Availability requirements –
➢ Throughput
➢ Response time
➢ Access to resources
 Network load analysis

• Client/Server applications
• Host/terminal applications
• Routing protocols
• Regularly scheduled services, such as file backup
• Estimate worst-case traffic load during the busiest
times for users and during regularly scheduled
network services
 Step 2: choosing and developing topology
• Keeping in mind the first step requirements
choose a suitable topology.

• Another issue that comes into play is how Tall

is the building and how are the departments
physically located in it.
 Step 3: Addressing and Routing

➢ In this step the LAN engineer must carefully to

consider where to place bridges and routers in
order to minimize collision domains and to
provide back up routes in case of bridge failures.
➢ Creating subnets and networks.
➢ Mapping physical and logical addressing.
➢ Develop and document the IP addressing
scheme.
 Selecting the Physical medium

➢Considering the requirement for fast access and the

possibility for a future expansion the best fitting
LAN would be fast Ethernet
➢With the same consideration in mind the specific
choice would be 100Base-TX using CAT5(UTP or
STP).
 More specification

➢Choosing main distribution facility (MDF) and

intermediate distribution facilities (IDF). MDF is
usually placed in the base of the building, Whereas
each floor can have its own IDF.
➢ Choice of backbone (vertical) cabling .
➢ Choice of horizontal cabling.
 ETHERNET
• Ethernet is most widely used LAN Technology, which is defined under IEEE
standards 802.3. The reason behind its wide usability is Ethernet is easy to
understand, implement, maintain and allows low-cost network implementation.
Also, Ethernet offers flexibility in terms of topologies which are allowed. Ethernet
generally uses Bus Topology. Ethernet operates in two layers of the OSI model,
Physical Layer, and Data Link Layer. For Ethernet, the protocol data unit is Frame
since we mainly deal with DLL. In order to handle collision, the Access control
mechanism used in Ethernet is CSMA/CD. It supports data transfer rates of
10/100/1000 Mbps.
 What are classic Ethernet and switched Ethernet
➢ Classic Ethernet is the original form of Ethernet that provides data
rates between 3 to 10 Mbps. The stations are connected by hubs that
allow each station to communicate with every other station in the
LAN. There are number of varieties of classic Ethernet, commonly
referred as 10BASE-X. Here, 10 is the maximum throughput, i.e. 10
Mbps, BASE denotes use of baseband transmission, and X is the type
of medium used.
➢ In switched Ethernet, the hub connecting the stations of the classic
Ethernet is replaced by a switch. The switch connects the high-speed
backplane bus to all the stations in the LAN. The switch-box contains
a number of ports, typically within the range of 4 – 48. A station can
be connected in the network by simply plugging a connector to any of
the ports. Connections from a backbone Ethernet switch can go to
computers, peripherals or other Ethernet switches and Ethernet hubs.
 IEEE 802.3 Popular Versions of classic
Ethernet
• IEEE 802.3: This was the original standard given for 10BASE-5. It used a
thick single coaxial cable into which a connection can be tapped by drilling
into the cable to the core. Here, 10 is the maximum throughput, i.e. 10
Mbps, BASE denoted use of baseband transmission, and 5 refers to the
maximum segment length of 500m.
• IEEE 802.3a: This gave the standard for thin coax (10BASE-2), which is a
thinner variety where the segments of coaxial cables are connected by BNC
connectors. The 2 refers to the maximum segment length of about 200m
(185m to be precise).
• IEEE 802.3i: This gave the standard for twisted pair (10BASE-T) that uses
unshielded twisted pair (UTP) copper wires as physical layer medium. The
further variations were given by IEEE 802.3u for 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-
T4 and 100BASE-FX.
• IEEE 802.3j: This gave the standard for Ethernet over Fiber (10BASE-F)
that uses fiber optic cables as medium of transmission.
Types of Ethernet
 10Base5
• Thick Ethernet.
• Up to 100 stations can be connected to the cable using vampire taps (bus)
• The system is difficult to install and maintain.
• The 10 refers to its transmission speed of 10 Mbit/s. The BASE is short for
baseband signaling as opposed to broadband,
• The 5 stands for the maximum segment length of 500 meters (1,600 ft.).
• It was the first Ethernet specification to use a bus topology with a external
transceiver connected via a tap to a thick coaxial cable.
 10BASE2
➢ 10BASE2 (also known as cheapernet, thin Ethernet, thinnet, and thinwire) is a
variant of Ethernet that uses thin coaxial cable, terminated with BNC connectors

➢ 10BASE2 coax cables have a maximum length of 185 meters (607 ft).
➢ The maximum practical number of nodes that can be connected to a 10BASE2
segment is limited to 30 with a minimum distance of 50 cm.
 10Base-T
➢ Cables look like thick phone cables, but with 8 copper wires instead of 2 or 4, and
they go from each computer' to a Hub or a Switch.

➢ Supported speed is 10 MBit/second.

➢ It uses star topology and the station are connected via two pairs of twisted
cable(one for sending another for receiving)between the station and the hub.

➢ The maximum length of the twisted cable here is defined as 100m,to minimize the
effect of attenuation in the twisted cable
 10Base-F

➢ Same as 10Base-T, but cables transmit light pulses, instead

of electrical signals
➢ Using star topology.
➢ Expensive due to the cost of the connectors and
terminators.
IEEE 802.3 Frame Format

89
 Preamble

• Length of the field is 7 bytes.

• Each byte contain the bit pattern of 10101010.

• Manchester encoding produces a square wave for this bit

pattern with Frequency of 10 MHz.
• Time period of 5.6 sec.

90
 IEEE 802.3 Frame Format
Preamble SFD D Address S Address

• Start of Frame delimiter

– Contains 10101011 to indicate the start of Frame

• Source Address
– Contains either 2 bytes or 6 bytes

• Destination Address
– Contains either 2 bytes or 6 bytes
– For ordinary addressing the higher order bit is 0
– For group addressing the higher order bit is 1
i.e Multicasting
– For Broadcasting of the frame in the network all the
bits are made as 1’s
91
 IEEE 802.3 Frame Format
Preamble SFD D Address S Address Length
Length
–Tells how many bytes are present in the data field 0 to a
maximum of 1500

–A data field of 0 bytes is legal, it causes a problem

–When a computer detects a collision, it truncates the current

frame which means that corrupted frames appear on the cable all
the time

–To make it easier to distinguish valid frames from corrupted

frames (due to collisions), 802.3 states that valid frames to be at
least 64 bytes long from destination address to checksum

92
 IEEE 802.3 Frame
Format
Preamble SFD D Address S Address Length Data Pad Checksum

• Pad field
If the data portion is less than 46 bytes, the pad field
is used to fill out the frame to the minimum size of
64 bytes

• Checksum
The Checksum is used to detect if any data bits
have been corrupted during transmission

93
Types of Ethernet
 Fast Ethernet
➢ Fast Ethernet is an Ethernet standard for 100-Mbps data transmission
defined by the IEEE 802.3u specification.
➢ It can transmit data 10 times faster at a rate of 100 Mbps.
➢ Fast Ethernet is used for departmental backbones, connections to
high-speed servers, and connections to workstations running
bandwidth-intensive software such as CAD or multimedia
applications.
➢ uses the same Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD)
➢ They are generally wired in a star topology using special Fast Ethernet
hubs and switches.
Topology used in Fast Ethernet
Varities of Fast Ethernet Cables
 Gigabit Ethernet
➢ The need for higher data rate resulted in the design of the Gigabit Ethernet (1000
Mbps).
➢ The IEEE committee calls the standard 802.3z.
➢ All configurations of gigabit Ethernet are point to point.
➢ Point-to-point, between two computers or one computer – to –switch.
➢ It supports two different modes of operation: full duplex mode and half duplex
mode.
➢ Full duplex is used when computers are connected by a switch.No collision is there
and so CSMA/CD is not used.
Goals of Gigabit Ethernet
➢ Upgrade the data rate to 1Gbps.
➢ Make it compatible with standard or fast Ethernet.
➢ Use the same address ,frame format.
➢ Keep the same minimum and maximum frame length.
➢ To support auto negotiation as defined in Fast Ethernet
 Gigabit Ethernet

➢ Half duplex is used when computers are connected by a hub.

➢ Collision in hub is possible and so CSMA/CD is required.
➢ The 802.3z committee considered a radius of 25 meters to be unacceptable and
added two new features to increase the radius-Carrier Extension and Frame
Bursting.
➢ Carrier Extension tells the hardware to add its own padding bits after the normal
frame to extend the frame to 512 bytes.
➢ Frame Bursting allows a sender to transmit a concatenated sequence of multiple
frames in a single transmission. If the total burst is less than 512 bytes, the
hardware pads it again.
Topology used in GigaBit Ethernet
Varieties of Gigabit Ethernet
GigaBit Ethernet Example
 10Gpbs Ethernet configuration

100Gpbs Ethernet configuration

 Switched Ethernet
➢ In switched Ethernet, the hub connecting the stations of the classic Ethernet is
replaced by a switch.
➢ The switch connects the high-speed backplane bus to all the stations in the LAN.
The switch-box contains a number of ports, typically within the range of 4 – 48.
➢ A station can be connected in the network by simply plugging a connector to any of
the ports. Connections from a backbone Ethernet switch can go to computers,
peripherals or other Ethernet switches and Ethernet hubs.
 Switched Ethernet

➢ When a station wants to transmit a frame, it outputs a frame

to switch.

➢ The plug-in card checks to see if the frame is for the other

station on the same card. If so, it is copied there otherwise it

is sent over high speed back-plane to destination station’s
card.
 Switched Ethernet
➢ All ports on the same card are wired together to form a local
on-card LAN.
➢ Collisions on this on-card LAN are detected and handled
using CSMA/CD protocol.
➢ One transmission per card is possible at any instant. All the
cards can transmit in parallel.
➢ With this design each card forms its own collision domain.
➢ In other design, each input port is buffered, so incoming
frames are stored in the card’s on board RAM.
➢ It allows all input ports to receive (and transmit) frame at
same time
 Frame Transmission
➢ The preamble and start-of-frame delimiter are inserted in the PRE and

SOF fields.

➢ The destination and source addresses are inserted into the address
fields.

➢ The LLC data bytes are counted, and the number of bytes is inserted

into the Length/Type field.

➢ The LLC data bytes are inserted into the Data field. If the number of

LLC data bytes is less than 46, a pad is added to bring the Data field
length up to 64.
➢ An FCS value is generated over the DA, SA, Length/Type, and Data

fields and is appended to the end of the Data field.

➢ After the frame is assembled, actual frame transmission will
depend on MAC.

➢ There are two Media Access Control(MAC) protocols defined for

Ethernet: Half-Duplex Full-Duplex

➢ Half-Duplex is the traditional form of Ethernet that uses the

CSMA/CD protocol.Full-Duplex bypasses the CSMA/CD
protocol

➢ Full-duplex mode allows two stations to simultaneously exchange

data over a point to point link that provides independent transmit

and receive paths
 Half Duplex

➢ Refers to the transmission of data in just one direction at a time.

➢ Half-Duplex Ethernet is the traditional form of Ethernet that uses

the CSMA/CD.

➢ The CSMA/CD access rules are summarized by the protocol's

acronym: carrier sense multiple access collision detect

➢ Half duplex Ethernet assumes that all the "normal" rules of
Ethernet are in effect on the local network.
 Collision Detection
The network is monitored for presence of a transmitting
station (carrier sense).

After sending the jam sequence the transmitting station

waits a random period of time (called “backoff”).

If an active carrier is not detected then the station

immediately begins transmission of the frame.

While the transmitting station is sending the frame, it

monitors the medium for a collision.
➢ If a collision is detected, the transmitting station stops
sending the frame data and sends a 32-bit "jam sequence.
➢ If repeated collisions occur, then transmission is repeated
, the random delay is increased with each attempt
➢ Once a station successfully transmits a frame, it clears
the collision counter it uses to increase the backoff time
after each repeated collision.
 Full Duplex

➢ Based on the IEEE 802.3x standard, “Full-Duplex”

MAC type bypasses the CSMA/CD protocol
➢ Full-duplex mode allows two stations to simultaneously
exchange data over a point to point link
➢ The aggregate throughput of the link is effectively
doubled
➢ A full-Duplex 100 Mb/s station provides 200 Mb/s of
bandwidth
➢ Full-Duplex operation is supported by: 10-Base-T,
10Base-FL, 100Base-TX, 100Base- FX, 100Base- T2,
1000Base-CX, 1000Base-SX, 1000Base-LS, and
1000Base-T.
➢ Full-Duplex operation is NOT supported by:10Base5,
10Base2, 10Base-FP, 10Base-FB, and 100Base- T4.
➢ Full-Duplex operation is restricted to point to point links
connecting exactly two stations
 Frame Reception
➢ Full-duplex MACs must have separate frame buffers and data
paths to allow for simultaneous frame transmission and
reception.
➢ The destination address of the received frame is checked to

determine whether the frame is destined for that station

➢ If an address match is found
➢ the frame length is checked and the received FCS is compared to the

FCS that was generated during frame reception.

➢ If the frame length is okay and there is an FCS match, the frame type is

determined by the contents of the Length/Type field.

➢ The frame is then parsed and forwarded to the appropriate upper layer.
Ethernet protocol
IEEE 802.5 TOKEN RING

There is a point to point link

between stations that form a
ring.
Physical Layer Topology: Ring
Stations connected in a loop
Signals go in only one direction, station-to-
station
In a token ring a special bit
format called a token
circulated around all the
stations.
119
 Token Ring Frame Format

•Start frame delimiter (SFD) – Alerts each

station for the arrival of token(or data
frame) or start of the frame. It is used to
synchronize clocks.
 Token Ring Frame Format
Access control (AC) –

Priority bits and reservation bits help in implementing priority. Priority bits =
reservation bits = 3. Eg:- server is given priority = 7 and client is given priority = 0.
Token bit is used to indicate presence of token frame. If token bit = 1 –> token frame
and if token bit = 0 –> not a token frame.
Monitor bit helps in solving orphan packet problem. It is covered by CRC as monitor
are powerful machines which can recalculate CRC when modifying monitor bit. If
monitor bit = 1 –> stamped by monitor and if monitor bit = 0 –> not yet stamped by
monitor.
 Token Ring Frame Format
Frame control (FC) – First 2 bits indicates whether the frame
contains data or control information. In control frames, this byte
specifies the type of control information.

•Destination address (DA) and Source address (SA) – consist of two 6-byte fields
which is used to indicate MAC address of source and destination.

•Data – Data length can vary from 0 to maximum token holding time (THT)
according to token reservation strategy adopted. Token ring imposes no lower
bound on size of data i.e. an advantage over Ethernet.

•Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) – 32 bit CRC which is used to check for errors in
the frame, i.e., whether the frame is corrupted or not. If the frame is corrupted, then
its discarded.
 Token Ring Frame Format
•End delimiter (ED) – It is used to mark the end of frame. In Ethernet, length field is
used for this purpose. It also contains bits to indicate a damaged frame and identify
the frame that is the last in a logical sequence.

•Frame status (FS) – It Is a 1-byte field terminating a data frame.

It makes use of 2 copies of AC bits are used as a error detection mechanism (100%
redundancy) as CRC does not cover FS byte so that destination does not have to
recalculate CRC when modifying AC bits.
 FRAME
Starting delimiter and ending delimiter mark the
beginning & ending of the frame.
Access control consist of token bit, monitor bit,
priority bit.
Destination address & source address fields gives the
address.
Checksum field is used to detect transmission errors.

132
 Frame status field

✓ When a frame arrives at the interface A bit is turned on.

✓ If the interface copies the frame to the station the C bit is turned
on.
✓ 3 combinations:
A=0 C=0 : Destination not present or not powered.
A=1 C=0 : destination present but frame not accepted.
A=1 C=1 : Destination present and frame copied.

This increases reliability and acts as automatic

acknowledgement.

133
IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring): Ring Topology
⚫ Shared ring medium: all nodes see all frames
⚫ Round Robin MAC Protocol: determines which station can transmit
⚫ A special 3-byte pattern, the token, circulates around the ring perpetually and
represents the "right to transmit"
⚫ This establishes round-robin media access
⚫ Data flow is unidirectional
⚫ All data flows in a particular direction
around the ring; nodes receive frames
from their upstream neighbor and forward
them to their downstream neighbor
⚫ Data rate: 4 or 16 Mbps
 R

R R

R
 IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring) Operation
⚫ The token bit sequence circulates around the ring.
⚫ Each station forwards the token if it does not have a frame to transmit.
⚫ A station with data to send seizes the token (repeater now in transmit state)
and begins sending it’s frame. It can transmit for length of time called the
Token Hold Time (THT) = 10 mseconds.
⚫ Each station forwards the frame.
⚫ The destination station notices its address and saves a copy of the frame as it
also forwards the frame.
⚫ When the sender sees its frame return, it drains it from the ring and reinserts
a token. When the last bit of the returning frame has been drained, the
repeater switches immediately to the listen state.
 IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring) using a Hub

⚫ The star-wired ring topology uses the physical layout of a star in conjunction
with the token-passing data transmission method. Data are sent around the
star in a circular pattern. This hybrid topology benefits from the fault
tolerance of the star topology and the reliability of token passing.
 IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring): Bypass relays
and Wire Center

⚫ Bypass relays protect ring topology from node failure at the hardware level.
 IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring) Frame Format

Start Access End

TOKEN: Delimiter Control Delimiter

• Start delimiter (1 byte): serves the same basic purpose as the preamble in an Ethernet frame.
• Access Control (1 byte): contains the token bit, monitor bit, and priority bits
• Frame Control (1 byte): contains access control information
• Destination Address (6 bytes)
• Source Address (6 bytes)
• Data (no size limit specified): this is the actual data being sent (IP packet). Since the THT = 10 mseconds, practical
size limit of the frame is 4500 bytes.
• Frame Check Sequence (4 bytes): CRC error checking bits
• End Delimiter (1 byte): signifies the end of the frame
• Frame Status Field (1 byte): serves as the ACK and indicates whether the address was recognized and the frame
copied, which is done by the receiving computer before being sent back around the ring
 IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring): Ring
Maintenance
⚫ There is a special station on the ring called a monitor station. It is
responsible to identify and address situations dealing with a lost token and an
orphan frame.

⚫ Lost Token:
⚫ Monitor station knows the number of stations on the ring and so calculates
maxTHT = n * THT (n is the number of stations on the ring). It keeps a timer of
how long since it last saw the token pass by. If this is more than maxTRT, it drains
the ring and inserts a new token in the ring.

⚫ Orphan frame:
⚫ A frame can get orphaned if the sending station goes down before it can drain it’s
frame. As a frame passes by the monitor, it sets the "monitor" bit in the header of
the frame. If it sees a frame with this bit already set, it knows it is an orphan frame.
Then the monitor drains the ring and inserts a new token in the ring.
 IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring)
Performance
⚫ Under light load conditions where few stations have data to send, token ring
performance is fair but there is an overhead of passing the token.

⚫ Under heavy load condition where most of the stations have data to send,
performance is excellent and utilization approaches 100%. The token is fully
utilized in this case.
 IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) vs IEEE
802.5 (Token Ring)
⚫ Ethernet is widely used at present (> 90% market share). People are
experienced in using this technology.
⚫ Ethernet uses CSMA/CD as the MAC protocol while Token Ring uses Round
Robin protocol.
⚫ Token Ring uses point-to-point connections between ring interfaces so that
the electronic hardware can be fully digital and simple. There is no need for
collision detection. The Ethernet NIC card requires some analog circuitry to
be able to detect collisions.
⚫ Token Ring has excellent throughput at high loads since there is no
possibility of collisions unlike 802.3.
⚫ Under light load, Token Ring experiences token passing overhead. Ethernet
has no such overhead and has excellent performance at light loads.
IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring) Token
Frame Format
 IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring)Frame Format Details

⚫ The access control byte contains the priority and reservation fields, as well
as a token bit (used to differentiate a token from a data/command frame)
and a monitor bit (used by the active monitor to determine whether a frame
is circling the ring endlessly).
⚫ The frame control byte indicates whether the frame contains data or control
information. In control frames, this byte specifies the type of control
information.
⚫ The frame status byte is only present in Token Ring frames. It contains the
A and C bits.When a frame arrives at the interface of a station with the
destination address, the interface sets the A bit (=1), as it passes through. If
the interface copies the frame to the station, it also sets the C bit (=1). A
station might fail to copy a frame due to lack of buffer space or other
reasons.
⚫ When the station which sent the frame strips it from the ring, it
examines the A and C bits.The three possible combinations are;
1. A=0 and C=0; Destination not present or powered up.
2. A=1 and C=0; Destination present but frame not accepted.
3. A=1 and C=1; Destination present and frame copied.
⚫ This arrangement provides an automatic acknowledgment of the
delivery status of each frame.
IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring) Hierarchical
Setup
 Integrating Voice and LAN
Infrastructures and Applications
➢ INTEGRATION OF VOICE AND LAN NETWORKS will be an
essential IT strategy for many businesses in the next three
to five years.
➢ Consolidating the long separate voice and data networks
has implications not only for the network infrastructure,
but also for the PC, the telephone set, the PBX, and the IT
organization itself.
➢ road map to guide organizations in making the right voice
LAN-related investment decisions.
 PROBLEMS ADDRESSED
➢Voice LAN is the transmission of voice traffic over a
LAN infrastructure.
➢Voice LAN enables server-based telephony
architecture for voice switches, terminals/phone
sets, and Applications.
➢Today, voice traffic is transmitted across a separate
circuit-switched infrastructure with a PBX or key
system (for smaller offices) serving as a centralized
switch.
➢Under a voiceLAN scheme, both data and voice
traffic are interleaved and switched as frames or
cells over the same data network.
 Reasons for running their voice traffic
over the LAN infrastructure
➢Single infrastructure
➢Single organization
➢Breaking PBX lock-in
 MIGRATING THE LAN INFRASTRUCTURE
• A first step in deploying voiceLAN is to upgrade the present
LAN infrastructure to support the demands of voice traffic
without affecting the flow of existing data traffic.
• Infrastructure refers to the cabling plant and the local
networking equipment used to carry traffic from end station
to end station (i.e., hub, bridge, router, switches, and network
adapters).
• The PBX is not considered part of the infrastructure in a
voiceLAN environment; rather, the PBX will evolve into a call
server that can be considered another type of end station on
the LAN.
 Solutions for Delay-Sensitive
Applications
➢ Voice needs only 64 Kbps, and compression or packetization reduces bandwidth

requirements further.

➢ More important, voice is a delay-sensitive application that demands minimal

latency.

➢ Desktop Switching

➢ Minimize Routing

➢ Controlling LAN Backbone Traffic

➢ Frame Switching/IP-based Solution

➢ ATM-centric approaches
 Frame Switching/IP-based Solution

➢ Ethernet (especially Fast Ethernet) trunks for interconnecting

desktop switches to each other or to LAN backbone segment
switches.
➢ Ethernet frames are switched across the network, delay
problems may still occur for voice.
➢ Ethernet has no mechanism for prioritizing one frame over
another. Therefore, as network traffic increases, small frames
carrying a voice payload may often have to wait in switch
buffer queues behind large frames carrying data.
➢ Because voice has a delay tolerance of only 75 milliseconds,
the lack of prioritization across a switched Ethernet network
may degrade the quality of voice communications.
Furthermore, this fundamental problem will not disappear
with expanded bandwidth under Fast (or Gigabit) Ethernet.
 RSVP
➢ Most promising solutions to Ethernet’s lack of prioritization or guaranteed
latency is to handle the problem at Layer 3 via the RSVP.

➢ RSVP, which was developed by the IETF and leading network product
vendors, operates by reserving bandwidth and router/switch buffer space
for certain high-priority IP packets such as those carrying voice traffic.

➢ RSVP’s best-effort capability is sufficient for several delay-sensitive

applications, such as non-realtime streaming video or audio. However, it is
questionable whether RSVP can support real-time voice communications
over the LAN to a level of quality and reliability that is acceptable in a
business environment.
 ATM-Based Backbone Solutions
➢ ATM was designed specifically to support both voice and data traffic over a
common infrastructure and provides multiple QoS levels.
➢ ATM’s CBR service guarantees a virtual circuit of fixed bandwidth for high-
priority traffic such as voice. In addition, ATM uses a relatively small, fixed-
length cell (53 bytes) rather than a variable-length frame to transport
traffic, thereby limiting the maximum time any one cell must wait in a
switch buffer queue.
➢ The use of ATM links/trunks between LAN switches neatly solves the
problem of supporting both voice and data traffic for that portion of the
network.
➢ ATM to the desktop is more problematic, however. The most
common standard for ATM LANs operates at 155 Mbps over
Category 5 UTC cable or optical fiber.
➢ However, deploying 155 Mbps ATM to every desktop is
currently too expensive for the vast majority of organizations
(although it is beginning to be deployed as a LAN backbone
technology).
➢ In order to deploy a reliable voiceLAN solution cost-effectively
using ATM, a lower-cost access technology must be deployed
to the desktop.
➢ However, this access technology must also be able to extend
the benefits of ATM’s QoS from the ATM backbone all the way
to the desktop.
➢ An organization can choose from among several potential
access solutions, including ATM25, Ethernet using IP/RSVP, or
Ethernet/CIF.
 ATM25 Access
➢ ATM25, as its name implies, is a 25 Mbps version of ATM designed
specifically for desktop connectivity to a 155 Mbps ATM backbone.

➢ ATM25 provides all of the QoS benefits of higher-speed ATM and can be
used to build end-to-end ATM networks.

➢ ATM25 can also operate over Category 3 UTC cable, whereas 155 Mbps
ATM and Fast Ethernet require organizations to upgrade their UTP cabling
to Category 5 UTP cable.

➢ The downside of ATM25 is that it requires replacing all legacy network

adapters where voiceLAN will be deployed. In addition, ATM25 adapters
and switches are still considerably more expensive than 10Base-T Ethernet
adapters and switches.
 Ethernet RSVP/IP Access
➢ The desktop end station sends voice in IP packets (further encapsulated
inside Ethernet frames) to the switch, using RSVP to request bandwidth to
be reserved for the voice conversation.

➢ The desktop switch then terminates the IP connection and converts the
voice payload to ATM cells for transmission across the backbone (or the
desktop switch may forward these IP datagrams across the ATM backbone
without terminating the IP connection).

➢ The desktop switch is also responsible for mapping the RSVP bandwidth
reservation request (at the IP level of the architecture) to an appropriate
ATM QoS for the ATM connection.
 Ethernet CIF Access
➢ CIF allows a desktop application to place voice traffic in ATM
cells that are subsequently inserted into Ethernet frames by
the network adapter driver for transport over the link from
the adapter to switch. At the Ethernet switch, cells are
extracted from the frames and sent across the ATM
backbone.
➢ CIF’s ability to guarantee quality of service comes at a price.
CIF requires installation of special software or NIC drivers in
workstations to accomplish the framing of ATM cells. In
addition, transporting traffic inside of ATM cells, which are in
turn encapsulated by frames, entails significant overhead,
reducing the usable bandwidth on an Ethernet segment to 6
Mbps to 7 Mbps.
 CONSOLIDATION OF THE CABLING
PLANT
➢No matter what technology is used for voice
transport (i.e., ATM or IP), voiceLAN deployment
requires optical fiber in the risers of buildings for
backbone connectivity.
➢Most large organizations have already installed fiber
for their LAN backbone and therefore no upgrade to
the cabling plant is necessary.
Legacy voice and data cabling
infrastructures
Consolidated cabling infrastructure
 MIGRATING THE DESKTOP

➢The deployment of voiceLAN also entails a

migration of the desktop PC to become telephony-
enabled.This migration has two components:
hardware and software.
 Hardware Upgrades
➢In a pure voiceLAN architecture, all voice calls are
received via a PC and its LAN adapter card rather
than via a desktop telephone wired to a PBX or
voice switch.
➢There are two alternative human interfaces for
people to interact with the PC to receive voice
communications: the PC itself and the traditional
desktop telephone.
 PC as the interface
➢ Voice traffic is processed by a PC sound card and the user
employs a PC-attached microphone and headset.
➢ Appropriate for users who are already using a microphone
and headset
➢ Voice packets are processed by the PC’s CPU.
➢ Hampering performance of other applications that might be
running simultaneously.
➢ In addition, if the PC locks up, the user’s conversation may be
interrupted.
➢ Phone set must be able to connect directly to the PC so that
voice traffic can be Received directly from the network
adapter card without having to pass through the CPU.
➢ Today this can be accomplished through a third-party plug-in
card.
 Universal Serial Bus
• A more elegant solution for accomplishing a direct
connection is the USB interface, originally
developed by Intel.
• The USB supports 12 Mbps of throughput and
allows USB-compatible telephone sets to connect
directly to the PC without the need for an
additional plug-in card. This alternative greatly
reduces the cost of deploying voiceLAN. Several
vendors have released or will soon release
telephones conforming to the USB standard.
 Firewire bus

➢ The Firewire bus runs at speeds of up to 400

Mbps, which makes it appropriate for video
traffic as well as voice.
➢ This high level of performance also may make
Firewire too expensive for ubiquitous
deployment, particularly if voiceLAN, not video, is
the driving application.
➢ Deploying USB-compatible phones is currently
the most prudent choice for voiceLAN migration
at the desktop.
 Software Upgrades
➢ To take maximum advantage of voiceLAN technology,
PC-resident applications need to communicate with
the PBX and PC-attached desktop phone sets. For this,
a standardized software interface is required.
➢ Microsoft Corp. has introduced a newer API, combining
its Windows data transmission API (Winsock) with its
voice communications API (TAPI).
➢ This consolidated API, known as Winsock 2, makes it
even easier for developers to write integrated voice
and data communications applications.
 MIGRATING THE PBX
• Legacy Telephony
• Linking Distributed PBX Components
• Server-Based Telephony
 Legacy Telephony

➢ Today’s PBX and telephony systems are analogous to

the host and dumb terminal model of the mainframe
era. PBXs are relatively inflexible, proprietary, and
expensive to maintain and upgrade in the same way
mainframes are. Phone sets are still the most
ubiquitous desktop instrument for telephony
communications, but the PC offers the most intuitive
interface to advanced features. Moving from the
traditional PBX model to a server based telephony
model represents the final stage in the migration to
a fully integrated voice and data network.
 Linking Distributed PBX Components
➢ This type of architecture has traditionally required a
dedicated fiber backbone to connect multiple units
➢ This infrastructure is already in place in most larger
campus network environments. In this case, the
horizontal connection between the PBXs and the
telephone sets at the desktop can continue to use the
traditional voice network infrastructure.
➢ There are two advantages to this architecture:
1. Distributed PBXs scale more cost-effectively than a
single, large PBX.
2. The necessity for installing and maintaining dual
backbones, one for voice and one for data, is
eliminated.
 Server-Based Telephony
• A server-based telephony architecture allows for
the traditional functions of the PBX to be broken
down into its components and distributed on the
voiceLAN network.
• The switching function of the PBX can be handled
by the frame or cell switches of the data network,
whereas the call control function can be moved
to a server. Specific telephony applications can
also be moved to distributed application servers
and integrated with other networked data
applications.
VoiceLAN architecture
 Initial Implementation Tips
➢Server-based telephony should be implemented
initially in specific workgroup environments.
➢Where a voiceLAN model is implemented, the
user’s port on the legacy PBX should be left
unchanged until the voiceLAN deployment has
stabilized and has been thoroughly tested.
 Desktop Telephony Applications
➢GUI phone
➢Integration with PIM software
➢GUI voice mail
➢Integrated messaging
 MIGRATING USERS
➢ Collaborative applications- A server-based telephony
architecture facilitates the integration of voice
communications to collaborative software that allows
multiple people to work on the same document while
communicating.
➢ Voice/database applications- At present, computer
telephony integration permits a certain level of integration
between PBXs and databases; however, deploying such
applications is expensive and generally reserved for
telemarketing or customer service applications. A server-
based telephony architecture allows high-end CTI
functionality to be deployed on a much wider scale and to
be made accessible to the general user population.
Decision points/recommendations for VoiceLAN migration
Decision points/recommendations for VoiceLAN migration
Network Architecture - Protocols

• Physical: Actual signal transmission

• Data-Link: Framing / Error Detection
• Network: Routing / Addressing
• Transport: Congestion / Flow Control
• Application: Specific to user needs
Layered Protocols – (HTTP)
 Data Link Layer - Ethernet
• Invented in 1973 @ Xerox. (IEEE 802.3)
• Originally a LAN technology – extended to MAN / WAN.
• Same frame format, different wiring schemes, data rates
across generations.
• Most common version (10BaseT) – 1990.
 Ethernet Generations
• Original Ethernet:
– Coaxial cable (10Base5)
– Thicknet.

• Next Generation:
– Thin coax cable (10Base2)
– Thinnet.

• Modern Ethernet:
– Twisted pair ethernet
(10BaseT)
– Uses hub: physical star but
logical bus.
 Ethernet Components

• NIC – Network Interface Card

– Integrated Tx/Rx – direct interface to medium.
• MAU – Media Attachment Unit
– Attaches network interface to the medium (integrated into NIC).
• AUI – Attachment Unit Interface
– Decouple physical layer -reuse MAC design with different media.
• MII – Media Independent Interface
– Like AUI for gigabit / faster ethernets.
 Ethernet Addressing
• 48-bit address
• Address assigned when NIC card is manufactured.
• Packets can be sent to
– Single address – Unicast
– All stations on network – Broadcast (address = all 1s.)
– Subset of stations – Multicast

• Broadcast (address = all 1s.)

– All receivers accepts unicast / broadcats.

• Half addresses reserved for multicast (247)

– NIC can accepts zero or more multicasts.
 Ethernet Frame

Sender adds:
– Senders address is source
– Recepients addreess in destination
– Type of data in frame type
– Error check data (CRC)

Receiver NIC:
– Gets transmitted frame.
– Examines address and either accepts or rejects.
– Passes frame to system software.
Ethernet FRAME FORMAT
 Ethernet FRAME FORMAT
1.PREAMBLE – Ethernet frame starts with a 7-Bytes Preamble. This is a pattern of
alternative 0’s and 1’s which indicates starting of the frame and allow sender and
receiver to establish bit synchronization. Initially, PRE (Preamble) was introduced to
allow for the loss of a few bits due to signal delays. But today’s high-speed Ethernet
doesn’t need Preamble to protect the frame bits. PRE (Preamble) indicates the
receiver that frame is coming and allow the receiver to lock onto the data stream
before the actual frame begins.
2.Start of frame delimiter (SFD) – This is a 1-Byte field that is always set to
10101011. SFD indicates that upcoming bits are starting the frame, which is the
destination address. Sometimes SFD is considered part of PRE, this is the reason
Preamble is described as 8 Bytes in many places. The SFD warns station or stations
that this is the last chance for synchronization.
3.Destination Address – This is a 6-Byte field that contains the MAC address of the
machine for which data is destined.
4.Source Address – This is a 6-Byte field that contains the MAC address of the source
machine. As Source Address is always an individual address (Unicast), the least
significant bit of the first byte is always 0.
 Ethernet FRAME FORMAT
1.Length – Length is a 2-Byte field, which indicates the length of the
entire Ethernet frame. This 16-bit field can hold a length value
between 0 to 65534, but length cannot be larger than 1500 Bytes
because of some own limitations of Ethernet.
2.Data – This is the place where actual data is inserted, also known
as Payload. Both IP header and data will be inserted here if Internet
Protocol is used over Ethernet. The maximum data present may be as
long as 1500 Bytes. In case data length is less than minimum length
i.e. 46 bytes, then padding 0’s is added to meet the minimum possible
length.
3.Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) – CRC is 4 Byte field. This field
contains a 32-bits hash code of data, which is generated over the
Destination Address, Source Address, Length, and Data field. If the
checksum computed by destination is not the same as sent checksum
value, data received is corrupted.
 Media Access Control - MAC
• Shared medium – stations take turns at sharing the medium.
• Media access control ensures fairness.

CSMA / CD
• Carrier Sense: wait till medium is idle before sending frame.

• Multiple Access: multiple computers use the same shared media.

Each uses same access algorithm.

• Collision Detection: Listen to medium – detect if another station’s

signal interferes – back off and try again later.
 CSMA / CD
• If collision occurs: wait a random time t1 - 0< t1<d.
– D depends on transmission speed – time for frame width or 512 bits.
• If second collision occurs, wait a random time t2 - 0< t2<2d.
– Double range for each succesive collision.
– Exponential backoff
• No acknowledgement like TCP.

• CSMA/CA used in wireless networks where not all stations receive

message.
• Both sides send small message followed by data:
– X is about to send to Y
– Y is about to receive from X
– Data frame sent from X to Y.
 Recent Developments
• 100Base-FX
– LED light source / MMF / 2 km max distance.
– Modal dispersion – limited bandwidth

• 100Base-SX (IEEE 802.3z)

– Short wavelength laser (850 nm)
– Max distance = 5 km.

• 100Base-LX
– Long wavelength laser (1310 nm)
– Max distance = 5 km.
 Beyond Gigabit Ethernet
• 10 Gb/s Ethernet
– No CSMS/CD, same frame format.
• Applications
– Upgrade LANs / Backbone.
– MAN applications.
 ATM LAN Emulation
➢ LAN emulation allows users of an ATM network to run
any higher-layer protocol in its existing state without
requiring any changes.
➢ LANE is a method of performing basic bridging
functionality between a host on an ATM-attached
bridge and an ATM-attached host, or between two ATM
attached hosts.
➢ Because LANE masks much of the complexity from users
while allowing them to benefit from ATM, it has
become the standard of choice for transporting data
traffic across heterogeneous networks
 GOALS OF LANE
• To provide seamless and transparent bridging between an
arbitrary number of hosts, where the hosts may be ATM
native or connected to the ATM cloud via an interworking
device.
• To support the goal of transparent operation, the
connection-oriented nature of ATM is concealed. To allow
seamless operation, features found in the shared-medium
domain such as broadcast are emulated.
• Ease of use is addressed at the outset by designing in
support for services, including automatic configuration and
address registration, that allow true plug-and-play
operation. A secondary goal is simplicity of design.
ATM LAN Emulation

LAN
ATM Network

ATM LAN Emulation 193

 Why Do We Need ATM LAN
Emulation?
• Permit coexistence and interoperability between ATM and legacy LANs
• Emulate connectionless nature of shared-media legacy LANs
• Support multicast/broadcast services over ATM network similar to
multicast/broadcast services over a shared-media LAN
• Use an ATM network as a scaleable, high capacity, high speed, low latency
backbone network for legacy LANs
• Enable existing end systems on shared-media LANs such as Ethernet to
interoperate across an ATM network
• Emulate services provided by existing LANs to run across an ATM network
• Applications and higher layer protocols built on top of the connectionless
IEEE 802’s MAC layer and run on legacy LANs will run on connection-
oriented ATM network
• Provide a migration path towards ATM-based LANs
ATM LAN Emulation 194
 What is Emulated LAN?
• An emulated LAN comprises a group of ATM-attached end systems
• This group of end systems would be analogous to a group of LAN stations
attached to an Ethernet/IEEE 802.3 or Token Ring/IEEE 802.5 LAN segment
• Each end system on an emulated LAN must have a unique MAC address
• Data interchange between end systems on the same emulated LAN
involves the use of the MAC protocol and is transparent to the upper
layers
• An end system on a legacy LAN may exchange data with an end system
attached directly to an ATM network
• The ATM end systems must include a LAN emulation layer that emulates
the MAC layer
• A bridge is required to connect legacy LAN to ATM network

ATM LAN Emulation 195

 What is Emulated LAN
• The bridge logic must be augmented by the capability of converting MAC
frames to and from ATM cells
• Several emulated LANs (ELANs) could be configured within an ATM
network
• Membership in an emulated LAN is independent of where an end station
is physically connected
• An end system could belong to multiple emulated LANs
• A broadcast frame originating from a member of a particular emulated
LAN is distributed only to the members of that emulated LAN
• Communication between end systems on different emulated LANs is
possible only through a router

ATM LAN Emulation 196

 ATM LANE-Layered Protocol
Architecture
LAN
ATM Network
ATM End System Legacy LAN End System

Legacy LAN Legacy LAN

Applications ATM-LAN Bridge Applications

NDIS/ODI Driver Bridging NDIS/ODI Driver

Interface Interface

LAN
LAN Emulation Emulation

AAL5 ATM Switch AAL5 MAC MAC

ATM ATM ATM

Physical Physical Physical Physical Physical Physical

ATM LAN Emulation 197

 Basic LAN Emulation Principles
• The basic operation of LANE is to set up a point-to-point ATM connection
between two ELAN end systems for data transmission
• Before an ATM connection can be established, it is necessary to resolve
destination MAC address to destination ATM address
• A LAN emulation layer implemented in the ATM end system emulates the
MAC layer of the legacy LAN
• It communicates with application software through existing MAC drivers
such as NDIS or ODI in such a way as if the applications were
communicating with legacy LAN’s MAC layer
• The LAN emulation layer hides the lower layer ATM and its complexity of
setting up connections from higher layer applications
• It makes the point-to-point ATM connections look and behave like a
shared-media LAN to higher layer protocols such as IP, IPX, or AppleTalk

ATM LAN Emulation 198

 LAN Emulation Components
• LAN emulation operates in a client-server mode
• An emulated LAN consists of multiple LAN Emulation Clients (e.g., ATM
workstations and ATM bridges) and one LAN Emulation Service
• The LAN Emulation Service includes a LAN Emulation Configuration
Server (LECS), a LAN Emulation Server (LES), and a Broadcast and
Unknown Server (BUS)
• The servers may reside in the same physical system or in separate
physical systems
• The clients interact with the LAN emulation service across an interface,
referred to as LAN Emulation UNI (LUNI)
• LUNI makes the clients unaware of any changes to the emulated LAN
implementation
• LAN Emulation Client (LEC)
– An end system (host, bridge, or router) on an emulated LAN

ATM LAN Emulation 199

 LAN Emulation Components
– Represents one or more end users, identified by their MAC addresses
– The LAN emulation software (LAN emulation layer) provides a MAC
level emulated 802.3 or 802.5 interface to higher level protocols, such
as IP, or IPX
– Performs address translation (between MAC addresses and ATM
addresses), address resolution, data forwarding, and other control
functions
• LAN Emulation Configuration Server (LECS)
– A component of the LANE service, responsible for initial configuration
of LECs
– Provides configuration information to LECs prior to joining the
emulated LAN
– Responsible for the assignment of individual LECs to different ELANs
based on administrative policies

ATM LAN Emulation 200

 LAN Emulation Components
– Provides the LES’s ATM address to LEC
– One LECS serves one network that consists of many ELANs
• LAN Emulation Server (LES)
– A component of the LANE service, implements control and
coordination functions for the ELAN
– Controls the joining of LECs to its ELAN
– Provides registration service to LECs
– An LEC registers its MAC and ATM addresses with the LES
– Responsible for address resolution from MAC address to ATM
address
– Has unidirectional point-to-point VCs for ARP data coming from LECs
and unidirectional point-to-multipoint VCs for ARP data going to
LECs
– Each ELAN has one LES
ATM LAN Emulation 201
 LAN Emulation Components
• Broadcast and Unknown Server (BUS)
– A component of the LANE service, used by an LEC to forward frames to
broadcast/multicast addresses
– Also used by an LEC to send unicast frames to all clients before the
destination is known
– All broadcast, multicast, and unknown traffic to and from an LEC
passes through this single entity
– The multicast server function provided in the BUS is required as part
of LANE to provide the connectionless data delivery characteristics of
a shared-media network to LECs
– Has unidirectional point-to-point VCs for data coming from LECs
– Has unidirectional point-to-multipoint VCs for data going to LECs
– Each ELAN has one BUS

ATM LAN Emulation 202

 LAN Emulation Components
– Must always exist in the ELAN
– All LECs must join its distribution group
• Bridge
– To connect legacy LANs (802.3 and 802.5) to the
emulated LAN
– To implement features required in the LUNI
interface to support both transparent and source
routing bridging

ATM LAN Emulation 203

 LAN Emulation Conceptual
Configuration
LES/BUS
LUNI
LECs
LUNI
ELAN 1 ATM
Switch
(Ethernet) Token Ring

LES/BUS Bridge
(LEC)
LECs
ELAN 2
(Ethernet) Ethernet

Bridge
LECs (LEC)

ELAN 3
(Token Ring)

LECS
LES/BUS

ATM LAN Emulation 204

 Emulated LAN Connections
LAN Emulation Services

LAN Emulation
Configuration Server
(LECS)
Bridge
Workstation
LAN Emulation Server
(LES)

LAN Emulation Legacy

Client (LEC) LAN
LAN Emulation
Client (LEC)

Broadcast and Unknown

Server (BUS)

Control Connection
LUNI Interface
Data Connection

ATM LAN Emulation 205

 LAN Emulation Operation
• The following are the functions of LANE operation
– Initialization
– Joining and Registration
– Address Resolution
– Data Transfer
• Initialization
– The main goal of the initialization procedure is to reduce the
required manual configuration of LEC when it first joins an ELAN
– Ideally, all configuration and initialization is done automatically
without human interaction (plug-and-play)
– This is achieved by using LECS

ATM LAN Emulation 206

 LAN Emulation Operation
• The LECS contains all the information required by an LEC such as
• The ATM address of its LES
• LAN type (Ethernet or Token Ring) to be emulated
• Maximum data frame size (1516, 4544, 9234, or 18190)
• Name of the emulated LAN (Engineering/Marketing)
– Prior to joining the emulated LAN, an LEC (after power-up) uses the following
order to locate the LECS
• Get the LECS address via ATM Forum defined Interim Local Management
Interface (ILMI) procedure which takes place between the LEC and the ILMI
software in the switch
• If the ILMI procedure fails, use the well known LECS address defined by the
ATM Forum’s LANE standards
• If the well known address fails, use the ATM Forum defined LECS PVC (VPI =
0, VCI = 17)
– LECS connection
ATM LAN Emulation 207
 LAN Emulation Operation
• Once the location of LECS is known, the LEC establishes a
configuration Direct VCC to the LECS
– Configuration
• Once a connection is established between the LEC and the LECS, the
LEC is configured automatically with the information provided by the
LECS
• Joining and registration
– To join an ELAN, LEC establishes a bi-directional point-to-point Control
Direct VCC to its LES
– Transmits join request with ATM address, MAC address, proxy indication
(workstation or bridge) to LES
– If the LEC is a proxy for a number of end systems on a legacy LAN (a
bridge), it sends a list of all MAC addresses on the legacy LAN

ATM LAN Emulation 208

 LAN Emulation Operation

– This information will be used by the LES to perform address

resolution functions.
– If accepted, LES responds with a join response indicating acceptance
• Then a Control Distribute point-to-multipoint VCC is established
from LES to LEC used for address resolution functions
• LES provides LEC with the ATM address of the BUS
• LEC creates a bidirectional multicast send VCC to BUS
• LEC accepts a unidirectional multicast forward VCC from BUS
• At this point, the LEC is registered and ready to transfer data

ATM LAN Emulation 209

 LAN Emulation Operation
• Data Transfer
– Once a client is registered, it is able to send and receive MAC frames
– There are three cases to consider:
• Unicast MAC frame, ATM address known
• Unicast MAC frame, ATM address unknown
• Multicast or broadcast MAC frame
– If the client knows the ATM address of the unicast frame (in its internal
cache), it checks whether it has a virtual data connection already
established to the destination client
– If so, it sends the frame over that connection (as a series of ATM cells)
– Otherwise, it uses the ATM signaling to set up a connection and then
sends the frame

ATM LAN Emulation 210

 LAN Emulation Operation
– If the destination ATM address is unknown, the LEC asks LES for
address resolution
– While waiting, the LEC transmits frame(s) via BUS
– When an LES response is received, the LEC establishes a direct
connection with the destination
– Connections are timed out on inactivity
– If the MAC frame is a multicast or broadcast frame, the LEC sends the
frame to the BUS
– The BUS replicates that frame and sends it over the virtual data
connections to all clients on the ELAN
• Address Resolution
– In ELAN, the destination stations are usually known by their MAC
addresses
– Only ATM addresses can be used for connection set up in the ATM
network
ATM LAN Emulation 211
 LAN Emulation Operation

– LES allows LECs to request the resolution of a

target MAC address into ATM address to to be
used to establish a direct VCC to the target end
system
– For MAC group address, a single ATM address is
returned as the root of a point-to-multipoint VCC
for the support of multicast service

ATM LAN Emulation 212

 LAN Emulation Operation Examples
• Example 1:

– LEC A wants to send a unicast message to LEC B

– If LEC B’s ATM address is not in LEC A’s cache, LEC A issues an LE_ARP
to LES requesting an ATM address corresponding to LEC B’s MAC
address
– If the LES finds LEC B’s ATM address in its table, it is returned to LEC A;
otherwise, LES broadcasts a message to all LECs on the network to find
LEC B’s ATM address
– LEC A enters LEC B’s ATM address in its address table and establishes a
VCC to LEC B
– Message is sent to LEC B via that VCC
– The VCC is also stored in the table and used for future
communications with LEC B

ATM LAN Emulation 213

LAN Emulation Operation Examples
• Example 2
– LEC A wants to send a unicast message to LEC B
– There is no direct VCC between LEC A and LEC B
– LEC A sends unknown frame to BUS
– BUS has a point-to-multipoint SVC to all members of the ELAN
– BUS retransmits frame on point-to-multipoint SVC
– ATM infrastructure replicates cell stream at branching points
– Once LEC A knows LEC B’s ATM address (may be via address
resolution), LEC A establishes a direct SVC to LEC B
– LEC A then sends a “Flush” frame to BUS
– Once flush is ACKed, BUS is no longer used

ATM LAN Emulation 214

 LAN Emulation Operation Example
• Example 3
– LEC A wants to send a message to a client C attached to a legacy LAN
– Client C’s ATM address is not in the cache (it has no ATM address)
– LEC A issues an LE_ARP to LES requesting an ATM address
corresponding to Client C’s MAC address
– Client C’s ATM address is not in LES’s address table (of course not), LES
forwards the LE ARP on Control Distribute VCC to all LECs, including all
bridges
– The bridge that has client C’s MAC address in its address table will
respond to the LE ARP with its own ATM address
– LEC A will establish a VCC with the bridge to carry all unicast traffic
between them

ATM LAN Emulation 215