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Skills in
Mathematics for
JEE MAIN & 7
ADVANCED

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arihant
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Amit M. Agarwal
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i.

Skills in
Mathematics for
JEE MAIN &
ADVANCED

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Play with
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Graphs
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Amit M. Agarwal

jjcarihant
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ARIHANT PRAKASHAN (Series), MEERUT
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Skills in Mathematics for
JEE MAIN & ADVANCED

arihant
ARIHANT PRAKASHAN (Series), MEERUT

t
All Rights Reserved ne
e.
iv
at
re

s
nc

©AUTHOR
No part of this publication may be re-produced, stored in a retrieval system or by any means, lectronic
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mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, web or otherwise without the written permission of the
.le

publisher. Arihant has obtained all the information in this book from the sources believed to be reliable
and true. However, Arihant or its editors or authors or illustrators don’t take any responsibility for the
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absolute accuracy of any information published, and the damages or loss suffered thereupon.
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All disputes subject to Meerut (UP) jurisdiction only.

ADMINISTRATIVE & PRODUCTION OFFICES

Rcgd. Office
‘Ramchhaya’ 4577/15, Agarwal Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi -110002
Tele: Oil- 47630600,43518550; Fax: 011- 23280316

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Skills in Mathematics for
J JEE MAIN & ADVANCED

PREFACE
It is a matter of great pleasure and pride for me to introduce to you
this book “play with Graphs”. As a teacher, guiding the Engineering
aspirants for over a decade now, I have always been in the lookout
for right approach to understand various mathematical problems. I
had always felt the need of a book that can develop and sharpen the

t
ne
ideas of the students within a very short span of time.
e.
The book in your hands, aims to help you solve various
iv
at

mathematical problems by the use of graphs. Ways to draw different

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types of graphs are very easy and can be understood by even an

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average student. I feel glad to mention that the use of graphs in

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solving various mathematical problems has been well illustrated in

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this book.
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I would like to take this opportunity to thank

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M/s Arihant Prakashan for assigning this work to me.

It is their inspiration that has encouraged me to bring this book in
this present form.

I would also like to thank Arihant DTP Unit for the nice laser
typesetting.

Valuable suggestions from the students and teachers are always

welcome, and these will find due places in the ensuing editions.

Amit M. Agarwal

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Skills in Mathematics for
JEE MAIN & ADVANCED

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS 1-50
1.1 Algebraic functions
1. Polynomial function
2. Rational function
3. Irrational function
4. Piecewise functions

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1.2 Transcendental functions
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e.
1. Trigonometric function
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2. Exponential function
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3. Logarithmic function
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4. Geometrical curves
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1.3 Trigonometric inequalities

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1.4 Solving equations graphically

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2. CURVATURE AND TRANSFORMATIONS 51-137

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2.1 Curvature
2.2 Concavity, convexity and points of inflexion
2.3 Plotting of algebraic curves using concavity
2.4 Graphical transformations
2.5 Sketching h(x)= maximum {f(x), g(x)} and h(x)= minimum {f(x), g(x)}
2.6 When f(x), g(x) — f(x) + g(x) = h(x)
2.7 Whenf(x),g(x) — f(x).g(x) = h(x)

3. ASYMPTOTES, SINGULAR POINTS

AND CURVE TRACING 138-165
3.1 Asymptotes
3.2 Singular points
3.3 Remember for tracing cartesian equation

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. HINTS & SOLUTIONS
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INTRODUCTION OF
GRAPHS If
fta “
fe-
HCZ

. o-
In this section, we shall revise some basic curves which are given as.
*T3'-
•-4-0-
- H»-
Polynomial)

Rational ) ztoz
Algebraic) Modulus )
7_:S z
t
Irrational ]
ne Signum ] - ■u -
e.
Piecewise)
-0-
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Greatest integer function)
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Fractional part function )

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Least integer function)

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3^^ Trigonometric J
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Exponential )
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Logarithmic/lnverse of exponential )
Transcendental —
Geometrical curves )

Inverse trigonometric curves)

lol ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

It Polynomial Function
A function of the form:
f O) = a0 + + a2x2 + ... + anxn ;
where n 6 N and ga0, alt a2,...,an e R.
Then,/is called a polynomial function. “fW is also called polynomial inx”.

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1__L
Some of basic polynomial functions are
(i) Identity function/Graph of /(x) = x

-M A function f defined by f (x) = x for all x e R, is called the

■ W - identity function.
Here, y = x clearly represents a straight line passing through
- the origin and inclined at an angle of 45° with x-axis shown as:
— The domain and range of identity functions are both
!■ equal to R.
t o.q Fig. 1.1
4(ii) Graph of/(x) = x ,2 y y=x2
A function given by /(x) = x2 is called the square function.
1. ■
The domain of square function is R and its range is R+ u {0}
ti ^'_or[°>00)
Clearly y = x2, is a parabola. Since y = x2 is an even x
O
function, so its graph is symmetrical about y-axis, shown as:

(iii) Graph of f(x) = x3 Fig. 1.2

t
A function given by /(x) = x3 is called the cube function.
ne
y = x3
The domain and range of cube are both equal to R.
e.
Since, y = x3 is an odd function, so its graph is symmetrical
iv

r
about opposite quadrant, i.e., “origin”, shown as:
at
re
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(iv) Graph of/(x) = x2n; neN

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If n g N, then function/given by /(x) = x2n is an even function.

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So, its graph is always symmetrical about y-axis. Fig. 1.3

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Also, x2 > x4 > x6 > x8 >... for all x e (-1,1)

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and x2 < x4 < x6 < x8 <... for all x g (-«>, -1) u (1, °°)
Graphs ofy = x2, y = x4, y = x6,..., etc. are shown as:

y=*%=x6 y y = x6
y = x2
sy = x

x
O 1

Fig. 1.4

(v) Graph of /(x) = x2"-1; n g N

If n g N, then the function f given by /(x) = x2n-1 is an odd function. So, its graph is
L_LJJ symmetrical about origin or opposite quadrants.
i-in
h | | ~~
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Here, comparison of values of x, x3, x5,...
for
xe(l, oo)

xe (0,1)
xe(-l, 0)
xe(-oo,-l)
x<x3<x5<...

x> x3 > xs >...

x<x3<x5<...
x>x3>x5>...

Graphs of /(x) = x, /(x) = x3, /(x) = x5,... are shown as in

T
u - O
y=x5 y=x3
‘y

!
,-.y=*

X
3

c
:: &
Fig. 1.5 Fig. 1.5

2rRational Expression o
A function obtained by dividing a polynomial by another polynomial is called a rational function. 3
=> 0
Q(x)

i.e.,
Domain e R - {x | Q(x) = 0}
domain e R except those points for which denominator = 0.
0

t
Graphs of some Simple Rational Functions
ne y ■u
e.
(i) Graph of f(x) = —
iv
x
at

A function defined
by f (x) = — is called the reciprocal
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x +
o i
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function or rectangular hyperbola, with coordinate axis as

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asymptotes. The domain and range of f(x) = — is R - {0}.

x
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Since, /(x) is odd function, so its graph is symmetrical

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about opposite quadrants. Also, we observe Fig. 1.6

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lim /(x) = + oo and lim /(x) = - oo .

x — > 0+ x -> 0"
and as x -> ± oo => /(x) -> 0

Thus, /(x) = — could be shown as in Fig. 1.6.

x -H-f
....
(ii) Graph of f(x) = —
x
p__ 1 * " •
Here,
1 /(x) = —
v., j is an even function, so its „graph is symmetrical about y-axis.
X
Domain of f(x) is R - {0} and range is (0, ®o).
Also, as y -> oo as /(x)
lim J(x) or lim /(x) .
x-» 0+ x -> 0"
and y-* 0 as lim /(x).
X —» ± oo
1 O
Thus, /(x) = — could be shown as in Fig. 1.7.
x Fig. 1.7
3

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1
(iii) Graph of f(x) = —-=2n
— ne N
-1 ’
x y=—
x.
X3
Here, f(x) = — is an odd function, so its graph is
(/) x
X symmetrical in opposite quadrants.
V
fi. Also, y -> oo when lim /(x) and
x -> 0+ —i-------- x
when lim /(x).
6
y —> _ oo
x -> 0- b\ -1‘

Thus, the graph for f(x) = ; /(x) = -y, ., etc.

willbe similar to the graph of /(x) = — which has

x
asymptotes as coordinate axes, shown as in Fig. 1.8 Fig. 1.8

■
(iv) Graph of /(x) = ; ne N
,r-. x

JL
We observe that the function /(x) = —is an even
x2"

t
' J function, so its graph is symmetrical about y-axis.
ne
e.
Also, y oo as lim /(x) or lim /(x)
iv
x-> 0+ x -> O'
at

and y -> 0 as lim /(x) or lim /(x).

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X -»-oo X -» + oo
-1 o
O !
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The values of y decrease as the values of x increase.

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Thus, the graph of /(x) = ; /(x) = etc. will be Fig. 1.9

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x2 x4
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similar as the graph of /(x) = which has asymptotes as coordinate axis. Shown as in Fig. 1.9.
w

x2
w

3.'Irrational Function
The algebraic function containing terms having non-integral rational powers of x are called
irrational functions.
Graphs of Some Simple Irrational Functions
(i) Graph of f(x) = xV2
Here; /(x) = Vx is the portion of the parabola y2 = x, which
lies above x-axis.
y=Jx
Domain of f(x) eR+ u {0} or [0, <») 1
and range of /(x) e R+ u {0} or [0, °°).
Thus, the graph of /(x) = x1/2 is shown as; + x
O 1

Note If f(x) = xn and g(x) = x1/n, then f(x)and g(x)are inverse of

Fig. 1.10
each other.
.-. f(x) = x" and g(x) = x1/n is the mirror image about y = x.

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(ii) Graph of f(x) = x'/3

As discussed above, ifg(x) = x3. Then/(x) = x.1/3 1/3

is image of g(x) about y = x.

where domain /(x) e R. +

1

r
a
and range of /(x) e R.
Thus, the graph of /(x) = x1/3 is shown in Fig.
O 1

T C
I
1.11;
Fig. 1.11
-a
4- ■■I

(iii) Graph of f(x) = x'/2n; ne N

y* y=/4y=*2 0
Here, fix') = *1/2n is defined for all x e [0, °°) and the values
3
taken by /(x) are positive. 0
So, domain and range of f (x) are [0, <»). y=x'12
y=xM
Here, the graph of f (x) = x,l/2n
1/2n is the mirror image of the
graph of /(x) = x2n about the line y = x, when x e [0, «>).
0
Thus, /(x) = x1/2, _f(x) = x1/4, ...are shown as; o
■+
1 X - 0)

t
ne -■u
e.
Fig. 1.12
(iv) Graph of f(x) = x1/2n-1 , when n e N
0
iv

y=x® y=x3
at

Here, f(x) = x1/2n-1 is defined for all xe R. So, 4

\ t -y=x
re

domain of /(x) e R, and range of /(x) e R. Also the

y =x1/3
graph of/(x) = x1/2n-1 is the mirror image of the graph
nc

-y= x1/5
of /(x) = x2n-1 about the liney = x when xe R. 1--
ar

Thus, /(x) = x1/3, /(x) = x1/5,..., are shown

.le

1
as; +■ X
w

O 1
w

Note We have discussed some of the simple curves

w

for Polynomial, Rational and Irrational

functions. Graphs of the some more difficult
rational functions will be discussed in
chapter 3. Such as;
Fig. 1.13
x 1 x2 + X + 1
j—
y = 77T y = ZH ’ y = T^~l
tt
4t'Piecewise Functions
As discussed piecewise functions are:
(a) Absolute value function (or modulus function), (b) Signum function.
(c) Greatest integer function. (d) Fractional part function.
(e) Least integer function.
(a) Absolute value function (or modulus function)
x, x > 0
y = 1*1= -x, x < 0

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y = -x y* y=x
“It is the numerical value of x”.
“It is symmetric about y-axis” where domain gR
135°
and range g [0, «>).
,45°
V) Properties of modulus functions
O
(i) | x | < a => - a < x < a ; (a > 0)
a- (ii) |x|2a=>x<-a or x > a ; (a > 0) Fig. 1.14
(iii) |x±y|<|x| + |y|
0 (iv) |x ± y | > ||x|-|y||.
y-axis
$ (b) Signum function; y = Sgn(x)

s It is defined by;

klx X
x*0
+1, if x>0
1 >
x-axis
y = Sgn(x) = or ki ; -1, if x<0 '' O
0; x = 0. 0, if x = 0
<
Here, Domain of f(x) g R.
and Range of /(x) e {-1, 0,1}. Fig. 1.15

t
ne
(c) Greatest integer function [x] = n
[x] indicates the integral part of x which is nearest and smaller
e.
integer to x. It is also known as floor of x.
iv

Thus, [2.3] = 2, [0.23] = 0, [2] = 2, [-8.0725] = - 9,.... n n+1

at

I* —I
In general; x
re

n < x < n + 1 (n e Integer) => [x] = n. Fig. 1.16

nc

y-axis
Here, /(x) = [x] could be expressed graphically as;
ar

■■3
.le

X [X]
2
w

0< x< 1 0
w

1
w

1< x< 2 1
4-
2 3 4 xaxis
2< x< 3 2 -3 -2

Thus, /(x) = [x] could be shown as; ■■-2

Properties of greatest integer function

■■-3

(i) [x] = x holds, if x is integer.

Fig. 1.17
(ii) [x + /] = [x] + I, if I is integer.
(iii) [x + y] > [x] + [y].
(iv) If [<t> (x)] > I, then 4> (x) > I.
(v) If [<j> (x)] < I, then <j) (x) < I + 1.
(vi) [—x] = - [x], if x e integer.
(vii) [—x] = - [x] - 1, if x i integer.
“It is also known as stepwise function/floor of x.”

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(d) Fractional part of function
Here, {.} denotes the fractional part ofx. Thus, iny = {x}.
x = [x] + {x} = I + f ; where I = [x] and f = {x}
y = {x} = x - [x], where 0 < {x} < 1; shown as: 3
y
X {.V}

0< x< 1 X

l<x< 2 x-1
,1
c
- 0
2< x< 3 x-2
-3 -2 0 12 3
-1< x< 0
-2< x<- 1 x+2 Fig. 1.18 §
Properties of fractional part of x
Po
’ t-*c
(i) {x} = x ; if 0< x< 1
(ii) {x} = 0 ; if x e integer. -Q
(iii) {—x} = 1 - {x} ; if x g integer.

t
- Q)
(e) Least integer function ne ■u -
e.
y = (x) = Fxl, -7
iv

(x) or Fxl indicates the integral part ofx which is nearest and greatest integer to x.
at
re

It is known as ceiling of x.
(x)=[x]=n+1
nc

Thus, F2-3023l = 3, (0.23) = 1, (-&0725) = - 8, (-0.6) = 0

In general, n<x<n + l (ne integer))
•H
ar

+ -H—
i.e., Pl
[”x"J or (x) = n + l
.le

n x n+1
shown as; Fig. 1.19
w

Here, /(x) = (x) = Fxl, can be expressed graphically as:

w

y-axis
w

x Fxl = (x)
3-
-1 < X < 0 0 2-

0< X< 1 1 1
x-axis
1< x< 2 2 -4 -3 O 1 2 3 4

-2<x<-l -1 T t'T

-3 < x < - 2 -2
-3 ■

Properties of least integer function Fig. 1.20

(i) W = Fxl = x, ifx is integer.
(ii) (x +1) = Fx + /I = (x) + J ; if I e integer.
(iii) Greatest integer converts x = I + f to [x] = I while Fxl converts t.. (/ + 1).

Note We shall discuss the curves:

y = {sin x}, y = {x3}, y = {sin-1 (sin x)} y = [sinx], etc. in chapter 2. (Curvature and f-H-
Transformations).
\ 7 4-
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TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

.... j.! 1 1r~TrigonometricFunction

0 (a) Sine function
Here, /(x) = sin x can be discussed in two ways i.e., Graph diagram and Circle diagram where
a-- Domain
re
U
' Graph diagram
of sine function is “R” and range is [-1,1].

. 0 .. | (On *-axis and y-axis)

- J /(x) = sin x, increases
strictly from-1 to 1 as x increases
(-?■’) 1
" "B.
(?•') -D^-y = i

... from to —, decreases strictly / h'

—i--------> —H -+- ■X
-2n, _3rt -n _£ OA n TV 3n In C
- from Ito-las x increases from — 2 2 2 2
•- --CV- 3n 2
— to — and so on. We have graph
• as;
(-f-v (?•-')
Fig. 1.21

t
. _|. Here, the height is same after
J ne
every interval of 2n. (i.e., In above figure, AB = CD after every interval of 2k).
e.
- sin x is called periodic function with period 2k.
iv

■ Circle diagram
at

n/2
(On trigonometric plane or using (M-!?■’)
re

quadrants). Let a circle of radius ‘1’, y=_! (.

nc

i.e., unit circle.

ar

a 1/
Then, sin a = - , / b j Z y a\
.le

1 i

|4 b
• np = -, V r 1
w

I
sin
w

1—I— 5n,3n,n y=o\ ;0=y x=0,2n,4n

w

sin y = -
C \c d i
I

T’
• os = —
sin d , ., shown as. 2n-8
1
.•. sin x generates a circle of
radius ‘1’. 3n/2,7n/2,...
. . .. Fig. 1.22
(b) Cosine function
Here, /(x) = cos x
The domain of cosine function is R and the range is [-1,1].
Graph diagram (on x-axis and y-axis)
4
•-i. As discussed, cos x decreases strictly
from 1 to -1 as x increases from 0 to it, _(^n,1). (0,1) (2M)„
increases strictly from -1 to 1 as x
- increases from it to 2 n and so on. Also,
—H /------- 1—-X
-- cos x is periodic with period 2 n. -2n -3n/2 -n -n/2 0 n/2 n '3nJ2 2n

(-n,-1) (K.-1)
8

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Fig. 1.23
 I

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Circle diagram y
y=j...
Let a circle of radius ‘1’, i.e., a unit circle.

Then, cos a =
a
COS P =---- , b 1
P1,
-3
x Ir *
1 H 1
8.
cos y = y, cos 8 = -
d 02
1 4- 0.4-
... c - ■
cos x generates a circle of radius ‘1’. 0 i
4- H
■■I
-
(c) Tangent function 0
Fig. 1.24 ■ 5
/(x) = tan x
The domain of the function y = tan x is; y

r J±^±^,±-J
[ 2 22 J
I
I

I
i
i
i
t-G)*
I
i.e., R-|(2n + l) || I

0)
t
I

and Range e R or (-«>, °o). ne

'-n
■X
■u
e.
The function y = tan x increases strictly
I
. 4 :
i
3"
iv
I i
i
(/)
at

from - <x> to + <x> as x increases from i /

i

i I I I
re

7t 7t 7t 3rc 3tt 5tc , i I I I i

— to—, — to—, —to—,... and so on. i | i
nc

T '
2 2 2 2 2 2 x =-3k/2 x= n!2 x=3n/2
ar

The graph is shown as:

.le
w

Note Here, the curve tends to meet at x = ± —, ± — ± —,... but never meets or tends to
w

2 2 2
w

infinity.
± ... are asymptotes to y = tan x.
"■±r
(d) Cosecant function
/(x) = cosec x

u w u
y.
y = cosec x y= cosec x y=cosec x
I

/ \ i ---------- -----------------------
-y-vT / \ i i / X iy=smx
z z iZ x1
t----- 1---- X----- 1----- ------- 1---- X----- 1----- X--------- 3
H*"
T'

y = cosec x y = cosec x| y=cosecx

Fig. 1.26

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4--H-f
Here, domain of y = cosec x is,
R - {0, ± rt, ± 2n, ± 3n,...}
-J-.l i.e., R - {nn| ne z} and range g R - 1,1).
w as shown in Fig. 1.26.
£ The function y = cosec x is periodic with period 2it.
a
- !
(e) Secant function
/(x) = sec x
o Here, domain g R - j (2n + 1) ~ n e z

Range e R - (-1,1)
Shown as:

¥ 4
y=secx y= sec x

T 4.
H4 J
et
71 -2k _3«!\ 4- X

/ ±___ 2|_J -It

H O a;
.n
2;
7t
y=cosx
e
iv

'/(-it.-l? I/(*.-!)
at

i
re
nc

Fig. 1.27
ar
.le

The function y = sec x is periodic with period 2it.

w
w

Note (i) The curve y = cosec x tends to meet at x = 0, ±n, ±2jc,... at infinity.
w

x = 0, ±7t, ±2tc, ...

or x = nn, n e integer are asymptote to y = cosec x.
(ii) The curve y = sec x tends to meet at x = ± |-± 41,... at infinity.

x=± , ± 41, ± 41,... or x = (2n + 1) , n e integer are asymptote to y = cosec x.

Here, we have used the notation of asymptotes of a curve in the context of special curves,
but we would have a detailed discussion in chapter 3.
:t j j
(f) Cotangent function
rH~ f(x)= cot X
- Here, domain g R - {nn | n g z} Range e R.
which is periodic with period re, and has x = nit, n e z as asymptotes. As shown in Fig. 1.28;

■' ' 4-
10

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444

•8
Lc -
o
Fig. 1.28
0
2:Exponential Function Z3
Here, /(x) = ax' a > 0, a * 1, and x e R, where domain e R,
Range e (0, °°).
0
—
Case I. a > 1
Here, /(x) = y = ax increase with the increase in x, i.e., f(x) is increasing function on R.
0
- fi) -4

t
ne
y=ax,a> 1
T5
e.
- 3*
iv

W
at

x tj-r
re

O
nc

Fig. 1.29
ar

y-axis. 4*
Lv
.le

For example;
w

y = 2x, y = 3X, y = 4x,...have;

w

2X < 3X < 4X < ... for x > 1 (0.1)

w

and 2X > 3X > 4X > ... for 0<x<l. x-axis

O
and they can be shown as; 4- j
Fig. 1.30 H-h
y-axis
Case II. 0<a<1 ■

I ;_ ;_
Here, f(x) = ax decrease with the increase in x, Le., f(x) is
decreasing function on R.
0<a<1
J0.1)
R-4-
“In general, exponential function increases or
decreases as (a > 1) or (O < a < 1) respectively”. x-axis
O 1—i~
3. Logarithmic Function
Fig. 1.31
(Inverse of Exponential)
The function /(x) = loga x; (x, a > 0) and a # 1 is a logarithmic function.
ttf
Thus, the domain of logarithmic function is all real positive numbers and their range is the set R
of all real numbers.
We have seen that y = ax is strictly increasing when a > 1 and strictly decreasing when
0 < a < 1.
11
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Thus, the function is invertible. The If 0 < a < 1 If a> 1
y-axis y-axis
inverse of this function is denoted by loga x,
_14 we write
(/) — y = ax => x = logay;
£ where xeR and ysfO,™) O
(1.0)
-x-axis x-axi
O '(1.0)
writing y = loga x in place of x = logo y,
'Ll (Q ‘ we have the graph of y = loga x.
Thus, logarithmic function is also
0J known as inverse of exponential function.
Properties of logarithmic function
Fig. 1.32

■s z 1. loge(ab) = loge a + loge b {a, b > 0}

-1-H 2. loge 4 = loge a - loge b {a, b > 0}
\b J
3. loge am = m loge a {a> 0 and me R}
4. logoa = l {a > 0 and a 1}
c . 1 .
5- log bmm a = — logb a {a, b > 0, b # 1 and m e R}
° m

t
1
6. logb a =
logab ne {a,b> 0 and a, b * 1}
e.
7. logb a- logm a
iv

{a, b > 0 * {1} and m > 0}

at

logm b
8. a10gam = m
re

{a, m > 0 and a * 1}

nc

9. al0fob =bl°ic“ {a, b, c > 0 and c * 1}

=>fx>y, if
ar

m> 1 {m, x, y, > 0 and m * 1}

10- tflogmx>logmy
.le

.[x < y, if 0 < m < 1

w

which could be graphically shown as;

w

If m > 1 (Graph of logma) Again if 0 < m < 1. (Graph of logm a)

w

logmx log™ a
logmx
'ogmy
logmy

o 1 y x o

Fig. 1.33 Fig. 1.34

=> logmx> logmy whenx>y and m>l. => logm x> logm y; when x<y and 0< mcl.
11. logma = b => a = mb {a,m>0;m*l;beR}

12. logma>b => a > m4

b; if m > 1
a<mb; if0<m<l
la< mb ; if m> 1
13. logma< b =>
[a> mb ; if 0< m< 1

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4. Geometrical Curves yt
(a) Straight line
ax + by + c = 0 (represents general equation of straight line). We
n
know, 3
J=‘b
c
when x = 0 r
and
a
X C
when y = 0

joining above points we get required straight line.

(b) Circle
O

Fig. 1.35
fl 0
■■I
We know, 0
(i) x2 + y 2 = a2 is circle with centre (0, 0) (ii) (x-a)2 + (y - b)2 =r2, circle with 1 3
and radius r. centre (a, b) and radius r. 0
y y
- 0
fi)
t
; c^o) ■+--------- -x ne I C*^r I
■u
e.
i (r. 0)
iv

V)
at
re

Fig. 1.36 Fig. 1.37

nc
ar

(iii) x.2‘ + y 2 + 2gx + 2jy + c = 0; (iv) (x - Xj) (x - x2) + (y - yj (y - y2) = 0;

.le

centre (-g, -/); radius ^g2 + f2 - c .

w

End points of diameter are (x1; y2) and

w

y (x2, y2). ------

w

o
i
i i yt)x 1 (*2. y2)
(-g-f)
x
Fig. 1.39
Fig. 1.38

(c) Parabola

(i) y2 = 4ax (ii) y2 = - 4ax

Vertex (0, 0) Vertex : (0,0)
Focus (a, 0) Focus : (-a,0)
Axis x-axis or y = 0 Axis : x-axis or y = 0
Directrix x=-a Directrix : x=a

x 13 —
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y y.
y2=-4ax

w- 1:
4------ b-
V \ (a,0) Focus (0,0) :
■x

£ O i
(-3,0)
2:
fi. tr

e;
Q;
r~ y2=4ax I

j- - t x=a

□:
x= -a
Fig. 1.40 Fig. 1.41

S (iii) x2 = 4ay (iv) x2 = - 4ay

J Vextex : (0,0) Vertex (0,0)
Focus : (0, a) Focus (0,-a)
Axis : y-axis or x = 0 Axis y-axis or x = 0
Directrix : y =-a Directrix y=a
x2=4ay
y •

44 F--(O.a) ■>y=2

et
e .n U|(0,0)
~x
■x
iv
V (0, 0)
at

........... y = -a F--(O.-a)
Directrix
re

x2= ~4ay
nc

Fig. 1.42 Fig. 1.43

ar
.le

(v) (y - k)2 = 4a (x - h)
w
w

Vertex (h, k) y=K. «-•' I-

t
w

Focus (h + a, k) VM F(h+a,k)
Axis x=h
Directrix x=h-a
♦ ♦
x=h-a x=h
directrix
(d) Ellipse Fig. 1.44

*2 y2
(,)?v = 1 (a2 > b2) a2>b2
Centre : (0,0)
b
Focus : (±ae, 0)
Vertex : (±a,0) 'a
O
Eccentricity: e= I
-b
I
♦
x=-a/e x=a/e
Directrix : x = ±- Fig. 1.45
e
14 •

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x2 y2 (x-h)2 + (y-k) 2
+^=1 (a2 < b2) (iii) — = 1 (a2 > b2)
a a2 b2
y
b2> a2
........... y = b/e
5

0
(O.b) \(h,k+b) r
y=Jf........
0
'{a-'h, 3.
(Xb] (a.O)
X C
o 0
V
(O.-b) x=h
directrix
— y = -b/e 0
3
Fig. 1.46 Fig. 1.47
t 0
(e) Hyperbola
x2 y2 y=|*
0
3
et
Centre : (0,0) .n ■3
Focus 3"
e
: (±ae, 0)
iv

Vertices : (±a,0) tt (a.O) (ae.O) x W

at

f b2
re

Eccentricity : e =
I+7
nc
ar

Directrix : x= ±- x=-a/e x=a/e

.le

e
Fig. 1.48
w

b
In above figure asymptotes are y = ± - x.
w

a
w

(x-h)2 2
x2 y2 (y - k)
(«i) -=1
a2 b2
1—
■M
y*
' 7^
(O.b)
•*y=*

X
(0.

x=h
Fig. 1.49 Fig. 1.50

15

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-7 (iv) x2 - y2 - a2 (Rectangular hyperbola) (v) xy = c2
As asymptotes are perpendicular. Therefore, Here, the asymptotes are x-axis andy-axis.
r called rectangular hyperbola.
(0 y
to
£ o

Q.- E
- ft ~ co

□ O asymptote
x

S -
§ :
Fig. 1.51
Fig. 1.52

Note In above curves we have used the name asymptotes for its complete definition see
chapter 3.

t
Inverse Trigonometric Curves
ne
As we know trigonometric functions are many one in their domain, hence, they are not
e.
invertible.
iv

But their inverse can be obtained by restricting the domain so as to make invertible.
at
re

Note Every inverse trigonometric is been converted to a function by shortening the domain.
nc

For example: Let /(x) = sin x

ar

We know, sin x is not invertible for x e R.

.le

In order to get the inverse we have to define domain as:

w

n it
xe
w

.2’2.
w

••• If/: -» [-1,1] defined by /(x) = sin x is invertible and inverse can be represented
2
by:
it .
y = sin ---- < sin x< —
2 2
Similarly,
y = cos x becomes invertible when f : [0, it] -+ [-1,1]
y = tan x ; becomes invertible n it
when f: -
2’2.
y = cot x ; becomes invertible when / : (0, it) -> (- °°)
, ..l___ £ . rn -1 I
y = sec x; becomes invertible when f : [0, n] - < -
' "J I 2

y = cosec x; becomes invertible when /: - -{0} -> R-(-l,l)

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(i) Graph of y = sin x;
where, Ml
/(x) = sin x
1
x e [-1, 1]
: 3
n n ---------- 1------- h—
and (-K, 0) (—re/2,0) (—1,0k o (1,0) (4/2,0)
2’ 2.

As the graph of /-1 (x) is mirror image of

/(x) about y = x.
Fig. 1.53 0
■I
(ii) Graph of y = cos y=cos~’x
x; 0
Here, 3
domain e [-1,1] 0
Range g [0, it]

Z(x) = cosx
0)

t
(iii) Graph of y = tan 1 x;
ne Fig. 1.54 *3
e.
Here, domain eR, Range e[--, -J. 3*
iv

V)
at

y=tanx Yl
re

— » y= n/2
nc

y= tarr’x 4—
ar
.le

X X
o o
w
w

y=-nJ2
w

x=-n/2 x=nJ2
Fig. 1.55 j-
As we have discussed earlier, “graph of inverse function is image of /(x) about y = x” or “by
interchanging the coordinate axes”.
(iv) Graph of y = cot-1 x ;
We know that the function f : (0, n) -> R, given by /(6) = cot 0 is invertible.
.-. Thus, domain of cot-1 x e R and Range e (0, it).
y=cotx Xi
(O.it) 'y=n

o (n/2,0) (K.0)
O
.k/2
y=cot'1x
ffi
Fig. 1.56 17

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. t-H-
4 (v) Graph for y = sec-1 x;
The function f : (0, n] -
{1} - < -1] o [1, «>) given by f (0) = sec 0 is invertible.

(0 y = sec x, has domain e R - (-1,1) and range e [0, n]- J — k: shown as

£ L2j
fi. I
(U -
-- q 1
(0.1) y
x-axis y=nJ2
O 7t/2 n
(n.-1)
■x
-1: o i1
x=nJ2 x=k
y=secx y=sec-1 x
Fig. 1.57

t
ne
(vi) Graph for y = cosec 1x; e.
p 7t 7C
As we know, 2. - {0} -> R - (-1,1) is invertible given by /(0) = cos 0.
Z ' L 2’ —
iv
at

y = cosec x; domain gR - (-1,1)

re
nc

Ranges - {0}.
ar
.le

y
w
w

Tt/2
w

-►
X o

y=-it/2

X=it/2

y=cosecx y=cosec-1x
Fig. 1.58

Note If no branch of an inverse trigonometric function is mentioned, then it means the principal
value branch of that function.
In case no branch of an inverse trigonometric function is mentioned, it will mean the
principal value branch of that function, (i.e.,)

I 1
18

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Function Domain Range Principal value branch
sin X [-1,1] n n - — S y < ^, where y = sin X

2.
3.
cos
tan
X
X
[-i, -1]
R
.2’2.

[0, 7t]
f 71 Ttk
0 < y < 7t, where y = cos-1x
71 71 i.
I-
a
4. cosec x
(■

>, -1] u [1, °<

k 2’ 2)
- — < y < —, where y = tan X

1c
2 J -w
-— < y < ; y * 0, where y = cosec-1 x
L 2 - 0
5. sec x c - 1] U [1, oo Ttl r+
■I
0< y < n; y * where y = sec-1x
2j’ 0
6. cot X R (0, n) 0 < y < k ; where y = cot X. 3
r 0
TRIGONOMETRIC INEQUALITIES
L
0

t
To solve trigonometric inequalities including trigonometric functions, it is good to practice fi)
periodicity and monotonicity of functions. ne ■u
e.
Thus, first solve the inequality for the periodicity and then get the set of all solutions by adding
iv

numbers of the form 2nn; ne z, to each of the solutions obtained on that interval. w
at
re

_ i
EXAMPLE Solve the inequality; sin
nc

2
ar

O SOLUTION As the function sin xhas least positive period 2it. {That is why it L sufficient to solve
.le

inequality of the form sin x > a, sin x > a, sin x < a, sin x < a first on the interval of length 2n,
w

; and then get the solution set by adding numbers of the form 2im, n e z, to each of the solutions
w

j obtained on that interval}. Thus, let us solve this inequality on the interval > where
w

graph of y = sin x and y = -| are taken two curves on x-y plane.

4—i-

y
■1
sinx>- —
2
tn
■HH-
\ _*I_Z O 7n 13n '
■X
-- - -
4-
\ 2; 6 .__ 1 —' I-------- /

-1/2
y=-2
2n
—•;
y£sinx
rH
Fig. 1.59

1
y = sin x and y = ~2

I
19
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7rt
From above figure, sin x > - - when -
2 6 6
Thus, on generalising above solution;
w 2nn - — < x < 2nit + — ; n e z.
6 6
which implies that those and only those values of x each of which satisfies these two inequalities
Q. for a certain n g z can serve as solutions to the original inequality.
tu -
o EXAMPLE (^) Solve the inequality: cos x < - i1
2
O SOLUTION As discussed in previous y

. I-i
> ■
? example, cos x is periodic with period 2tc.
• So, to check the solution in [0, 2it].
1

It is clear from figure, cos x < - - when; 1/2--

-1---------►
2n
2n____ 4n
4k
— < x < —.
-------
o n 4n
■3
Is 2it x
3 “ 3 "2 2 3 2
-1/2 y=-V2
On generalising above solution;

t
„ 2tc ~ 4n
2rm + — < x < 2mt + —; n e z ne COSX^-g
e.
3 3
Fig. 1.60
iv

.■. Solution of cos x < - -

at

2
re

2tt 4tt
x e 2nn + — , 2nit + -— ; n g z.
nc

3 3
ar

EXAMPLE (^) Solve the inequality: tan x < 2.

.le
w

O SOLUTION We know tan x is periodic with period

w

It 71^
: n. So, to check the solution on the interval I - —
w

I
! It is clear from figure, tan x < 2 when;
V 2’2;' _j----------►y=2
(tian'12,2)
I K „ 7C
— < x < tan 2 or — < x < arc tan 2 x
2 2 -n/2 O tt/4 \nJ2
=> General solution
2nn - — < x < 2nit + tan 2 tanx<2
2
n g 2 rut - — , 2nn + arc tan 2 x=-n/2 x=n/2
I 2 x= tan'12 = arc tan 2
Fig. 1.61

t -i . (3x 7t A
EXAMPLE Solve the inequality: sin — + — <
- 12 12j
O SOLUTION Here, sin --- +---- < —1= ; put —
3x 7C 3xk
+—=t
< 2 12. V2 2 12
20
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y
sin t < -^= , now sin t is periodic
y=sin t
42
1--
with period 2it, thus to check on u-J.
y~42
it 5k
or
n 3k 3
.2* ~2. 2’ T ~o\ lit Iht 5rc"
■ ■■■

u
7C 3n 7t
2 4 =t
From figure,
c~ - - 1 3k 9n
sin t < —, when — < t < —.
sinf<i
' 42’ 4 4 t=3n/4 t= 9rt/4 c
/. generalsolution
_ 3 it „ 9k
2nn + — < t < 2nn + — ; n e z
Fig. 1.62
ft
■I

„ , .
4
3x it
4 0
Substituting t = — + — 3
_ 3ir 3x it „
2hk + — < — + — < 2hk + —
9k 0
4 2 12 4
=>
4 4 13 4
— it + — itn< x < — it + — nit; n e z.
9 3 9 3
0

t
fi)
EXAMPLE Solve the inequality: cos 2x - sin 2x > Q ne ■u
e.
3*
iv

(£)) SOLUTION Here, cos 2x - sin 2x can be reduced to, 0)

at
re

42 J -5= cos 2x —sin 2x 42 < cos — cos 2x - sin — sin 2x

I 4 4
nc

[42 42 \
ar

=> 42 cos [ — + 2x |
.le

\4 J
w

(it „ n
cos 2x - sin 2x > 0 or cos — + 2x >0 ; put 2x + — = t
w

<4 4
w

cos (t) > 0, solving graphically, y

Clearly; - <t<
1 cos t >0
It Tt
or 2nn — <t < 2nn + —
2 2 t
-+—
where t = 2n + -
4
t=~2 0 K=t
Ip —i—-y=o
2n=t

.•. 2nn - — < 2n + — < 2nit + —

2 4 2 y=cos t
3k it Fig. 1.63
nn------ <, n< nn + — ; ng z.
8 8

EXAMPLE If A+ B+ C = it, then prove that; cos A + cos B + cos C < |; where A, B, C

[are distinct.
O SOLUTION Here, we have the three trigonometric functions as cos A, cos B and cos C.
| let /(x) = cos x; which can be plotted as;
21

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y

1
cosx
w X
■xJ2 O nJ2
Q.
G

Fig. 1.64
;S Now, let us suppose any three points x = A, x = B, x = C on /(x) = cos x. So that A + B + C = K
§ or on the interval of length n. y
> • where G, be centroid of A given by 3
fA + B + C cos A + cos B + cos CA 1
k 3 ’ 3 J \(B,cos B)

Thus, from figure points Q, G, P are G=

(4,cos
collinear, /h JC.cos C)
h x

t
where; ordinate of GQ < ordinate of BQ.
ne
Zt/2* * O 7qx=B x=c\nJ2 it

cos A + cos B + cos C A+B+C

e.
----------------------------- < cos
iv
3 3 A + B+C
—3~
at

Z(x) = cosx
re

71
=> cos A + cos B + cos C < 3 cos
nc

3 Fig. 1.65
3
ar

=> cos A + cos B + cos C < —

2
.le
w

Note Here, a particular case arises when A = B = C (j.e., when 4, 8, C are non-distinct)
w
w

cos A = cos B = cos C and A + B + C = tt

A+A+A = 7t or A = n/3.
cos A = cos 8 = cos C = -
2
3
cos A + cos 8 + cos C = — (only when A = B = C)
________________ 2

EXAMPLE ^j) Solve the inequality: sin x cos x + -1 tan x > 1.

2
I 7t
o SOLUTION Here; left hand side is defined for all x, except x = nn + —, where n e z.
2
2 sin x cos x + tan x > 2
2 tan x
+ tan x > 2 [Let, tan x = y]
11 -L tan2 x
+ t-OT»

=> 2y
+ y >2
i 1 + y2
J
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2y+y(l + y2)-2(l + y2) > Q
=> {•••l + y2>0}
(1 + y2)
2y + y (1 + y 2) - 2 (1 + y2) > 0
3
y3 - 2y2 + 3y - 2> 0
J
j
=> y22 (y-l)-y(y-l) + 2(y-l)>o 10
or (y-D(y2 - y+ 2)>o
y-l>0 tanx >1 ic
{v y2-y + 2 = (y-l 2 7
+ — > 0, for ally}
y+
ft
! T 0
tan x > I, shown as: y=i ; 3
from given figure;
It 7t
O n/4 0
— < X< - *
4 2
or nn + — <, x < nit + —
7C
ngz -0
4 2

t
x=-nl2
fi)
ne
x=it/2
K jr 1 Fig. 1.66
x e; nit + —, n n + — ; n e z ■o
e.
4 2 I
7
iv

(0
at

EXAMPLE If A + B + C = it, then prove that

re

2 A 2 ® 2£
nc

tan — + tan — + tan

2 2 2
ar

2 A 2 ® C
.le

O SOLUTION Here, tan —, tan — and tan2 — are three same function. So consider
2 2 2
w

2 £ y
w

f(x) = tan whose period is 2it.

2’ II
w

.-. plotting tan 2 for x g (- n, it).

In given curve let us consider any three points

A, B, C such that

Now, centroid of ARST;

A + B + C = 7t.
H
I X=>4
G»

S*=; bst
| O
1
x=c;
x

tan2 — + tan2 — + tan2

cA
A+B+C 2 2 2 ♦ t
G X= Ht X=K
3 3 Fig. 1.67

A+B+C A+B + C
also, M , tan2 where; GN > MN.
3 . 2(3)
2C
tan2 — + tan2 - + tan:
=> 2 2 2 > tan2 A+B+C => tan2—+ tan2—+ tan2£ > 1.
3 6 2 2 2

23
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i&j SOLVING EQUATIONS GRAPHICALLY

Here, we sketch both left hand and right hand side of equality and the numbers of intersections
w are required solutions.24
X- X
EXAMPLE Find the number of solutions of; sm x = —
10
O SOLUTION Here, let /(x) = sin x and g(x) = ^

also we know; -1 < sin x < 1

§ : -1 < — < 1 -10<x<10
S 10

r j Thus, to sketch both curves when x e [-10,10]

-T9« = i0
I
I
I

t
ne
(0?0) n/2
e. 10 3n/2
iv

f (x) = sin x
at

9(x)=io
re

Fig. 1.68
nc

x
ar

From above figure /(x) = sin x and g(x) = — intersect at 7 points. So, numbers of solutions
10
.le

t are 7.
w
w

EXAMPLE Find the least positive value ofx, satisfying tan x = x + 1 lies in the interval.
w

Q SOLUTION Let; /(x) = tan x and g(x) = x + 1; which could be shown as:
9(x)=x+1

.past +ve(x)

V ]¥
i2/
x

Fig. 1.69
From the above figure tan x = x + 1 has infinitly many solutions but the least positive value of

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EXAMPLE (1^) Find the number of solutions of the equation,
sin x = x2 + x + 1.
1 \ 3
O SOLUTION Let; f (x) = sin x and g(x) = x2 + x + 1 =
2 1
+-
4 3
which could be shown as;
0
: o.
/g(x) = x2+x+1
c
/1
/
Z(x) = sinx 4 o
/
—t--------------
\ 7o / 0
3
0
Fig. 1.70

which do not intersect at any point, therefore no solution. 0

- Q) ...

t
EXAMPLE Find the number of solutions of: ex=x\ ne 75
e.
iv

SOLUTION Let; /(x) = ex and g(x) = x4, which could be shown as;
W
at
re
nc
ar
.le
w
w
w

Fig. 1.71

From the figure, it is clear they intersect at two points, therefore two solutions. TT 4

EXAMPLE @ Find the number of solutions of; log 10 x = x.

O SOLUTION Let; /(x) = log10 x and g(x) = x; which could be shown as;
y 144.
f(x) = loglox
1
-x
1 10

* \w = x
Fig. 1.72
From above figure, it is clear they intersect at one points, therefore 1 solution.

25
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X /W OX
w EXAMPLE JP Sketch the graph for y = sin-1 (sin x).
£ -
Q, - O SOLUTION As, y = sin (sin x) is periodic with period 2 k.
<o to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval of length 2tc and repeat for entire
values of x.
o —Tt ' Tt
< x< —
As we know; sin 2 2
§ 1 (sin x) =
n 7t 371
4 (n-x);
2
< 7t - x<
2 <
i.e., — < x< —
2 2

as or sin-1 (sin x)
*>
7t
2
it - x, — < x< —,
2
3zt
2
7t
----- < X< —
2
7C

which is defined for the interval of length 2 n, plotted as;

t
y
ne
e.
Repeated Curve Main Curve Repeated Curve
ti/2
iv
__«.y=7t/2
at

<$/
re

—*-x or y=0
t /O 7t 3^7 W
nc

7t /
X / 2 .t/ V\ /
ar

--«-y=-n/2
-k/2
.le
w

Fig. 1.73
w
w

Thus, the graph for y = sin (sinx), is a straight line up and a straight line down with slopes 1
j i—
7t n
and -1 respectively lying between
L 2’2j’
Note : Students are adviced to learn the definition of sin-1 (sin x) as,
5tt 3k
x + 2n ; ----- < x<------
2 2
T~ 37C 7t
-it - x ----- < x<-----
2 2
7t „ n
y = sin (sin x) = x --< x< -
2 2
7C 3k
7t — X — < x<---
2 2
3tt 5k ,
x - 2tt ; — < x < —... and so on
2 2
rr
26
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EXAMPLE Sketch the graph for y = cos 1(cos x).
g SOLUTION As, y = cos-1 (cos x) is periodic with period 2n.
1 .-. to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval of length 2 k and repeat for entire 3
values of x of length 2 n.
As we know;
x; 0< x< 7C
cos (cosx) =
2n-x; 0<2n-x<n, c

or cos (cos x) =
x; 0 < X < 7t
2 it - x; jc< x< 2n.
ra0 ■I

Thus, it has been defined for 0 < x < 2it that has length 2n. So, its graph could be plotted as; 3
y
0
(55)

//
•►y=it
0
+,
a)
-X
> +/
75
< +z
2i_z
----- "3tT 4n xor y=0
•3

t
ne ] 3*
e.
Fig. 1.74
0
iv
at

; Thus, the curve y = cos'1 (cos x).

re
nc

EXAMPLE Sketch the graph for y = tan'1 (tan x).

ar

4) SOLUTION As y = tan'1 (tan x) is periodic with period n.

.le

* .-. to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval of length n and repeat for entire
w

■J values of x.
w

4
w

As we know; tan-1 (tan x) =

7C It T -*--4
Thus, it has been defined for - — < x < — that has length it. So, its graph could be plotted as;
P-4
y

A
■*y=it/2 txt
-3n/2 ■-n -k/2 'O 1J2 zft 3n/2 5n/2 X — 4-
■*y=-n/2
Y Y

--4-4-
Fig. 1.75
> Thus, the curve for y = tan'1 (tan x), where y is not defined for x e (2n + 1) —.
2

; 27
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h EXAMPLE Sketch the graph for y = cosec 1 (cosec x).
(^SOLUTION Asy = cosec"1 (cosec x) is periodic with period 2k.
4 to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval of length 2 k and repeat for entire
44 0. values of x.
As we know;
a x ; --<x<0 or 0<x<-
g ■ cosec 1(cosec x) 2 2
k - x; - — <k-x<0 or 0 < k - x< —
2 2
£- x; X 6 - —, oju|O,—K
or cosec 1(cosec x)= 2 J V'2
K 3k
k — x; xe —, K
-X—
4.-4^.- 2 "’T
71
44 Thus, it has been defined for —,
2
- {0, k} that has length 2 k. So, its graph could be

plotted as
y

ffl
t
4- ne / y=cosec“’(cosecx)
e.
;--------
iv

3n -*12 ’n
at
re

■f-y=-nJ2
nc

4—
ar

Fig. 1.76
.le
w

EXAMPLE Sketch the graph for y = sec 1 (sec x}

w

SOLUTION As y = sec"1 (sec x) is periodic with period 2k .

w

to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval of length 2 k and repeat for entire
values of x.
As we know;
K In
x; x e 0, —
sec 1(sec x) = 2 u
K
2n - x; 2k - x e 0, — u —, K
4 2

0<x<- 71 < x < k

or —
x;
or sec-1 (sec x) = 2 2
. 3k 3k ._
2k - x; K< X< ---- or —<x<2k
2 2

' Thus, it has been defined for [0, 2 k] that has length 2k. So, its graph could be plotted
ffi
'.J 1_
as;
2’ 2

28

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< y

(-n,jt/2) (h.k/2)_____
... y= n/2
/IVs-*
i ZQZ : Xi .1/ ~3
4----- 1------------ —I---- i------ 1--
-5nJ2 -2k -3k/2 -k -k!2

Fig. 1.77
it 3n/2 2it 5it/2
x

Ic
0I*
Thus, the curve for y = sec (sec x). ■I

- 0
EXAMPLE Sketch the graph for y = cot-1 (cot x). -- 3
SOLUTION As, y = cot-1 (cot x) is periodic with period n. Si
to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval of length rc and repeat for entire
values of x. 0
As we know

t
j i
ne
cot (cot x) = {x; 0 < x < it} -■3
e.
-3*
iv
which is defined for length n, i.e., x e (0, n) and x e{nn, n e z}.
at

So, its graph could be plotted as;

re
nc

y
ar

►y=rc
.le

<. A
____ +2 <*________ -y=f
w

n/2| >1$,
w

——I— 4- z—I———t— ► X
w

-2it -3n/2 -n -kJ2 o kJ2 k 3kJ2 2ir

Fig. 1.78 1
Thus, the curve for y = cot-1 (cot x).

EXAMPLE Sketch the graph for:

(i) sin (sin-1 x) (ii) cos (cos-1x») (Hi) tan (tan-1x)
(iv) cosec (cosec-1 x) (v) sec (sec-1x) (vi) cot (cot-1x)
£ SOLUTION As we know, all the above mentioned six curves are non-periodic, but have
restricted domain and range.
So, we shall first define each curve for its domain and range and then sketch these curves.
(i) Sketch for y = sin (sin-1 x)
114
We know; domain, x e [-1,1] (i.e., -1 < x < 1)
and range y = x => ye [-1,1]
I
29

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Hence, we should sketch y = sin (sin'1 x) only when x e [-1,1] and y = x. So, its graph
1-1-4- could be plotted as shown in figure.
y
* (/) y=1
•—£- T 77V
ft- 1 X
7O 1

x=-1 x=1
§ Fig. 1.79
Thus, the graph fory = sin (sin"1 x).
I
(ii) Sketch for the curve y = cos (cos'1 x).
We know, domain, x e [-1,1] (z.e.,-1 < x < 1)

I and range y = x => ye [-1,1]

t
ne
Hence, we should sketch y = cos (cos'1 x) = x only when x e [-1,1]. So, its graph could be
e.
plotted as shown in Fig. 1.80.
iv
at
re

.1 ■ * y=1
nc

1 i
ar

x
—ti
.le

o
w
w

i
w

x-1
Fig. 1.80
Thus, the graph for y = cos (cos'1 x).

(iii) Sketch for the curve y = tan (tan-1 x)

We know,
domain, x e R (i.e., < x < «) and
1
Range y = x => y e R.
Hence, we should sketch
(0,0) 1 x
y = tan (tan-1 x) = x, V xe R.
So, its graph could be plotted as shown;
Thus, the graph for y = tan (tan-1 x).
Fig. 1.81

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I

(iv) Sketch for y = cosec (cosec-1x)

r
y^
We know;
domain e R - (-1,1)
(i e., - oo<x£-lorl<x<°o)
and range y = x => y e R - (-1,1).
J 1
1
0
T
Hence, we should sketch
y = cosec (cosec-1 x) = x only when
4 O

T““
tr X

-y=-i-U 0
I c
CL

x e (-^», -1] w [1, oo).

■I
So, its graph could be plotted as 0
shown in Fig. 1.82; ZC0’
! - 3
Thus, the graph for x= 1

Fig 1.82
0
■
y = cosec (cosec-1x). *
t
(v) Sketch for y = sec (sec-1 x)
y : 0
We know, domain e R - (-1,1)
0)

t
(i.e., < x < -1 or 1 < x < «>)
ne .....J/fe.__ — y=1
■u
e.
and range y = x => y e R - (-1,1). 1(1.1) 7
iv

V)
at

Hence, we should sketch x

O

I
re

y = sec (sec-1x) = x,
nc

only when x e (- °°, - 1] u [1, °°)

ar

i
So, its graph could be plotted as shown
.le

in Fig. 1.83. I
x= 1
w

Thus, the graph for

w

y = sec (sec-1x) = x Fig. 1.83

w

(vi) Sketch for y= cot (cot-1x)

y
^Zor y = x
We know; Domain e R (i. e., < x < «>)
and Range y = x => y = R. 1

Hence, we should sketch

x
y = cot (cot-1 x) = x, V x e R. 1

Shown as in Fig. 1.84.

Thus, the graph for y = cot (cot-1 x).
Fig. 1.84 r4-
Note From previous discussions, we learn that if:
(i) The function is periodic then find period and trace the curve.
(ii) If non periodic, then define for their domain and find range to trace the curve.
Now, before going ahead you must revise previous curves of inverse trigonometry as;
y = sin-1x, y = cos-1x, y = tan-1x, y = cot-1x, y = cosec-1x, y = sec-1x
with their domain and range.
31

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EXAMPLE Sketch the graph for:
2x l-x2 2x
(i) sin (ii) cos (Hi) tan
l-x2
3x- x3
(iv) tan (v) sin (3x - 4x3) (vi) cos (4x3 - 3x).
1 - 3x2
a-,.
~ SOLUTION As we know, all the above mentioned six curves are non-periodic, but have
Restricted domain and Range.
0 So, we shall first define each curve for its domain and range and then sketch these curves.
2x )
(i) Sketch for y = sin 1 + x2 )'

2x
Here, for domain <1

21 x| < 1 + x2 {•.• 1 + x2 > 0 for all x}

|x|2 - 2|x| + 1> 0 x2 =|x|2}
=> (|x|2 - I)2 > 0

t
=> X G R.
ne2x 'l
e.
For range: y = sin
iv
at

7t 7t
re

7t 7t
=> ye as; y = sin 0 =>y g
.2’2. f 2’ 2.
nc
ar

Defining the curve: Let, x = tan 0

.le

__ It
71-20 ; 20>-
w

2
w

=> y = sin-1 (sin 20) = 20 <20< — {See Ex. 1}

w

2 2
-71-20 ; 20<- —
2
n
7t - 2 tan x tan
4
It 1 7t
or y= 2 tan x — < tan 1 x < — {v tanO = x => 0 = tan x}
4 4
71
—7t - 2 tan x tan
4
7t - 2tan-1 X ; x>l
or y = 2 tan'1 x ; -1<x<1 ...(i)
-7t - 2 tan x ; x< —1

2x
Thus, y = sin is defined for x g R, where y g - , so the graph for Eq. (i)

could be shown as in Fig. 1.85.

32 ■

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y
4
i
; ^2 ----- ^y=Td2 U-U

y=-n-2tan ’x ■
<1
o i I
X

y = -it/2
-3
... H

Hr
H.-f); -jt/2
■ §
x = -1 x= 1
Ml
Fig. 1.85
r®
: 34
2x
Thus, the graph for y = sin
•- o
Note As in later section (i.e., chapter 2) we shall discuss that functions having sharp edges and - 0

t
gaps are not differentiable at that point.
ne - fi)
e.
2x
So, in previous curve y = sin , we know it has sharp edge at x = -1 and x = 1.
iv

1 + x2
at

So, not differentiable.

re
nc

1-x2
(ii) Sketch for y = cos

r
ar

1 ■ V2
.le

1-x2
w

Here, for domain <1

w
w

i |1 - x2l< 1 + x2 {•.• 1 + x2 > 0, V x e R}

which is true for all x; as 1 + x2 > 1 - x2
• •
xeR

For range: y = cos

1-x2 4 y e (o, n)
■ —|—t—4

Define the curve : Let, x = tan 9

1 - tan2 9
y = cos
1 + tan2 9
= cos (cos 29) ‘ZH
I
29; 29 > 0
{See Example 2}
1 -29; 29 <0
*
2 tan x; tan x> 0
y= {•.• tan9 = x =>9 = tan-1x}
- 2 tan x; tan x< 0

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4
‘+4-1 1- x2 2 tan x; x> 0
So, the graph of y = cos' is shown as:
I - 2 tan x; x< 0,
y

£ ^77-50* y=n
Q.- (-1,n/2)y\
W -1 ?(1,k/2)

X
O 1

Fig. 1.86

1 Thus, the graph for y = cos'

1- x2 2 tan
- 2 tan
x,
x,
x> 0

1-x2
From above figure it is clear y = cos' is not differentiable at x = 0.

et
2x
e .n
(iii) Sketch for y = tan
[1-x2
iv
at

2x
re

Here, for domain e R except; 1 - x2 = 0

1-x2
nc

x#±l
ar

i.e., or xeR-{1,-1}
.le

2x
For range y = tan
w

1-x2
w
w

7t 7t A f 7t 7t
ye ~2’ 2 as y = tan 0 => y e --, -
I 2 2.
Defining the curve
Let x = tan0

it + 20; 20 <- -
2
2tan0
y = tan = tan-1 (tan 20) = 20; -i<20<^ {See Example 3}
1 - tan2 0 2 2
-n + 20; 20 >-
2
7t
7t + 2tan x; tan
4
7t 7t
2tan x; — < tan {as tan0 = x => 0 = tan"1 x}
4 4
!< 71
- it + 2 tan x; tan
! I J 1713 4

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n + 2tan x;
2 tan x; - 1<x<1 #1
- n + 2 tan x;
So, the graph of;

y - tan
2x
1-x2
7t + 2 tan
2 tan
-7t + 2tan
x;
x;
-1 < x < 1 is shown as;
x;
I
§
—-,“A. y=it/2 Z0 I
i
-3
^7 i 0
x L_ *
O
0
et
.n y=-n/2 - a)
■u
e
7
iv

> Fig. 1.87

at

0
re
nc

7t + 2tan x,
2x ft
ar

Thus, the graph for y = tan 2 tan x; -1< x<1

1-x2
.le

—7t + 2 tan x,
w
w

which is neither continuous nor differentiable at x = {- 1,1}.

w

3x - x3
(v) Sketch for the curve y = tan

Here, for domain

1 - 3x2 J

y = tan
3x- x3
ffi
1- 3x2

=> x 6 R except 1 - 3x2 = 0 => X * ± -t

73
-

3x- x3
For range y = tan

ye ~2’ 2
1- 3x2

7t 7t
as y = tan
o
0 => y e
( n 7t
-
g
Defining the curve: Let; x = tanG
V 2 2.
p
35
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— 7t
n + 30; 30 <- - n + 3 tan x; tan
2 6
7t n
'—t y = tan 1 (tan 30) = 30; - —<30<— = 3 tan x; — < tan
2 2 6 6
- r W- 7t
JC- —7t + 30; 30 > — -n + 3 tan x; tan
2 6
2.
1
n + 3 tan
□j
x;
V3

3 tan - —<x< —
S - x;
V3 V3
§ ’ -K + 3 tan
i
x;
1
3
1
7t + 3 tan x;
J3
3x - x3 1 1

et
So, the graph of; y = tan 3 tan x;
1- 3x2 .n 3 13
1
e
-7t + 3 tan x;
iv

3
at
re
nc

.......... —■* y=rc/2

ar
.le

n x
w

-^3 O <3
w
w

•~y=-nJ2

T
x = -1/^ x= V'JS
< “Tf Fig. 1.88

1
7t + 3 tan x,
/3
3x - x3 1 1
Thus, the curve for y = tan 3 tan x, --=<
1- 3x2 V3 V3

—7t + 3 tan x; x> —

V3
which is neither continuous nor differentiable for x = ± ’.
-T—|------ . V3l
(v) Sketch the curve y = sin 1(3x - 4x3)
,> 1 Defining the curve: Let x = sin0,

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n 36 •

1
 t
Downloaded from www.learncreative.net ft
tt
n- 30; -< 30 < — n - 3 sin x; — < sin .-1 x< —
tt
2 2 6 2
M-i
tt . . .1 tt
=> y = sin 1 (sin 30) = 30; - — <30^ — = 3 sin x; — < sin x< -
2 2 6 6 -
31t K tt r
-n - 30; - — <30<- — -n - 3sin x; - — < sin-1 X <------
2 2 2 6 olt F“

Q. -
k - 3 sin x; -< x<l
2 c
1 ^1 - 0
y = sin-1 (3x - 4x3) = 3 sin x;
2 2 J
. _ . 1 -
—re — 3 sin x; -l<x<--
2
For domain y = sin-1 (3x - 4x3) x e [- 1,1]
It Tt
For range y = sin-1(3x - 4x3) ye
L 2
-
2J 0
-fl)
t
n - 3 sin ne
x; -<X<1
73
e.
2
-T
iv
1 1
So, the graph of; y = sin-1(3x - 4x3) = 3 sin x; — < x< -
at

2 2
re

-n - 3 sin x; - 1< x<--

nc

2
U-'
ar

is shown as:
ft
.le

y
w

■
w

~y=nJ2
w

+~H
X

------ ► y = -n/2

x=-1/2 x=1/2
Fig. 1.89

Thus, the curve for y = sin-1(3x - 4x3)

which is not differentiable at x = | ± -
I 2]
(vi) Sketch the curve y = cos-1 (4x3 - 3x) t-]" ■r
Here, domain g [- 1,1] range e [0, it]
Now, defining the curve
! Let x = cos 0
•’ 37 44
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■

2k - 3cos x; — < cos'1 X < —

3 S
2k - 30; 30< 2k
k<
=> y = cos 1 (cos30) = 30; 0< 30< k 3 cos x; 0 < cos'1 x < —
■<f j (/) j —27t + 30; - k< 30 < 0
4•£ - -2k + 3cos x; - — < cos'1 X <
T CL" 3
G 2k - 3cos x;
1„ „ i
— < x< -
2 2
0 i 3 cos x; 4< x< i
2
-2 k + 3 cos x; -1< x<-4
2
{•■• If O<0<- => => cos-< cos0< cosO or 4 < cos0< 1. Here, the interval change
3 3 2
since, cos x is decreasing in [0, k]}
1„ 1
2k - 3cos x; — < x< -
2 2

t
ne
So, the graph of; y = cos J(4x3 - 3x) = ■ 3 cos x; 4< x< 1
e.
2
iv
at

-2 k + 3 cos x; -1 < x < -

2
re

is shown as;
nc

y
ar
.le

1(1/2, n) I
----------------- .-ysjTi.------ 1—->y= n
>+/iX" i
w
w
w

(0, n/2) ; A ;
r
I
------------ 1---- x

i 2
x=-1/2
1 i ~2\
X=1/2 X=1
Fig. 1.90

Thus, the curve fory = cos-1(4x3 - 3x),

which is not differentiable at x=

. -4-4- EXAMPLE Sketch the graph for:

4-44- (i) sin x. cosec x (ii) cos x • sec x (Hi) tan x ■ cot x

■*—
SOLUTION As we know for the above curves each is equal to 1, but for different domain as;
(i) y = sin x • cosec x = l; V x e R - {nn; ne z}
I I i
i—38

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I
It
(ii) y = cos xsec x = 1; x 6 R — s (2n + 1) —; n e z
■ I 2
L_
K n I
B (iii) y = tan x • cot x = 1; xe R - nn, nn + -;nezk
2 J ■'J
5tt1
|
Thus, they could be plotted as:
y y
a
1
4 r ±
--- Q--4-
j
4'-71
—
r
■X
O -21:
_3n:
2: 2:
o
3 3?:
2:
—<• o U-
E
y=sinx.cosecx y= cos x.sec x
y 0 __
_ fi) _
t
!
ne
1 I I

—(i>—(i)—(i>—(b—( ■>—(< i>-* y= 1 . 73 -

e.
^7-f-
iv

l3j H !-■’ jt2

o in •3n'X
at

: 2 ! : :2 : :2
re
nc

y=tanx.cotx
ar

Fig. 1.91
.le

■ i u» —»* .a—-t- r-. .w — ■ i ^hhi.mh —.«■ rn» lw.—t

Note From above example it becomes clear that y = sinx-cosec x = 1, y = cosx sec x = 1,
w
w

y = tanx-cotx = 1 but they are not equal, as their domains are different.

□
w

.-. Equal functions : Those functions which have same domain and range are equal
functions.

EXAMPLE Sketch the graph for:

(i) | sin x| (ii) L| cos x| (Hi) sin
cos x 2x 4-4-4
sin x | } |
1 + ^log4(16x2 - 8x + l)
Civ) log1/4 X-----
4,
(v) 1 + 3 (log | sin x| + log | cosec x|) (vi) 1 + 3 (log sin x + log cosec x)
0 SOLUTION As we know, to plot above curves we must check periodicity domain and range;
... Isinxl
- 1
(0 y = Lsinx •-~h-+-
i ; :

1; sin x > 0
Here, y=
- 1; sin x < 0
...... L J .r
' 39 |4
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hI 1; 2nn < x< (2n + l)rc; nez
y = -1; (2n + l)/t < x < (2n + 2) 7t; n e z
y

■rriw, So, from above,

1
£- domain g R - {nn; n g z}
1; 2n7t < x< (2n + l)7t !-27t J—71 ~O *4 2tc} 37q 4n
W- Range g
- 1; (2n +1) 7t < x < (2n + 2) 7t
0-
it could be plotted as shown in
I Fig. 1.92. y
Isin xl
sin x

§ Fig. 1.92
|cosx|
(ii) Sketch for y
cosx
71 7t
r ■ ; l-7" 2nn - - < x < 2nn + -
1; cosx>0 2 2
Here, y= y=
-1; cosx< 0

t
2nn + - < x < 2nn + —
ne
■ t -j ■ •
2 2
I
e.
So, it could be plotted as:
iv
at

I
re

1
<
nc
ar

[571/2 ' |-37t/2 |7t/2 *x

O ]7t/2 !37t/2 1571/2
.le

r i -1 i>— ■C
w

t
w
w

_ I cos xI
’ ~ cos x
Fig. 1.93

(iii) Sketch for y = sin

Here y = sin is defined;

when; <1 {as; sin-1 x is defined when |x|<l]

2x
1 + x2<2|x| {as; 1 + x2 > 0]
=> x2 - 2|x| + 1< 0 {as; x2=|x|2]
' I ' |x|2 - 2|x| + 1< 0
4-44- => (|x| — I)2 < 0
(|x|-l)2 = 0 {as; (| x| - I)2 < 0 is not possible]

40-
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x=±1
Domain e {± 1}
a
For range y - sin , where x = + 1, - 1
2x / 3

=>
y = sin’1 (1) and
. n
y = ±$2
y = sin"1 (-1)
f0
y
zc
Range e
2
>1(1. nJ2)
4- o i
Hence, the graph for y = sin is only
+
O
+ ■x :: o’
2x - 3—:
two points. Shown as: 0*
(-1 -n/2) F 0
Thus, the sketch for y = sin
2x
is only two Graph for sin-1 t- oX
Fig. 1.94
points A and B.
:3
t
I'l + ^log4(16x2 - 8x + 1)
TJ :
(iv) Sketch for y = log^ X-----
4; ne 3*
e.
11 + | log4 (4x- l)2 W H-4
iv

Here, y = log 1/4 X------

4;
at
re

2
+ -log4 16 + |log4
y = log i/4
nc

x 4J
ar

f 11 11,1 _ .2 . 2,_ nt 1
or y =- log4 lx--l) + -log44' +-log as; logb„ a = — logb a
.le

2 2”3
n 1
r
w

=> x - - + ■log4 x---- + -log

y = - iog4 f-
2,
w

44
I” 47 4.
w

n
=> y = 1, whenever; | x - - | > 0 {as; loga x exists only when a, x > 0 and a * 1}
4;
1 + |l°g4(4x- l)2
Thus, y = log 1/4 x —
4,
1
------
=>
. fl
Domain e — i 00
14
Range e {1} -------
o 'TT x
Thus, the graph is shown as: 14
I

Thus, the graph for

y = log1/4lx - i1 I + 1 log4(4x- l)2. Fig. 1.95
\ 4.' /
(v) Sketch for y = 1 + 3 (log | sin x | + log | cosec x|)
Here y = 1 + 3 [log(|sinx||cosec x|)]

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whenever |sinx|*0 and | cosec x| * 0
.. 1 i.e., y = 1 + 3 (log 1); whenever x e nn; ne z-

=> y=1 {as; log 1 = 0}

. (A
£- Domain e R - {nn; ne z}
Range e {1}
g it could be plotted as:
y

i 1 1
zt V I I

4------ !------ i---- 4—

•4n j-3jt 2n O
-47t>-- 2n;
4 3nf X
I I

I j I I
Fig. 1.96

t
Thus, the curve for y = 1 + 3 (log|sinx| + log | cosec x|).
(vi) Sketch for y = 1 + 3 (log sinx+ log cosec x) ne
e.
iv

Here y = 1 + 3 (log sin x • cosec x) whenever sin x > 0 and cosec x > 0
at

=> y = 1 + 31ogl; x e (2nK, (2n + 1) n)

re

whenever x e (2nn, (2n + 1»

nc

or y = 1;
ar

y = 1 + 3 (log sin x + log cosec x) = {1; 2nn < x < (2n + 1) 7t is shown as;
.le

Xi
w
w

! !
w

1
I I

■U —i—
f-4it >-37t -2n n O 2n| 3n;
X

Fig. 1.97

Thus, the curve for y = 1 + 3 flog sin x + log cosec x)

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve for cos y = cos x

^SOLUTION Here, cosy = cos x => y = 2nn ± x; nez
cosy = cosx, represents two straight lines;
x + 2nn; nez
y=
- x + 2nn; ne z
■ jj T
■_j42

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i.e., two infinite set of perpendicular straight lines which could be shown as:
y=x+4n;n=-2
y.
y=x+2n;n=-1
/lit y=x;n=O
3
y=x-2n;n=1
to #y=x-4n;n=2

:z. c±
Z-O-L
to *x
to -2if
4--
£2n
' y=-x+4x;n = 2
y=-x+2n;n=1
0

y=-x-4jt;n=-2 O

t
Fig. 1.98
ne -■U T-
e.
Thus, graph for cosy = cosx; represents two infinite set of perpendicular straight lines which have
iv

infinite number of points of intersections; (So, if asked number of solutions then they are infinite).
at

—■rr.i—rn rj-.m r_~i inn ■ — mw-ir i~i« r num tj~ n 'iixnr urn jt ■ c ,■ « wn ■ — ■■ «r.<
re

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve for sin y = sin x.

nc

£ SOLUTION Here siny = sinx => y = nit + (- l)nx; nez

ar

siny = sin x; represent two straight lines;

.le

nn + x; n even integer
w

y = mt - x; n odd integer
w
w

■y=x+4n;n=4
J'l
’<5it zy=x+2n;n=2

'An ,y=x;n=O

3k ,y=x-2it;n=-2

lit ,y=x-4n;n=-4

it

✓ X —H
n -3zr -2rt -n 0 n 3rt (4tt 5n\6n x

y=5it-x;n=5
-2k
.-3k y=3ir-x;n=3

-4n y=ir-x;n=1

—5 k tTt
Xy=-3n-x;n=-3

Fig. 1.99 43

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i.e., two infinite set of perpendicular straight lines as shown in Fig. 1.99:
Thus, the graph for sin y = sin x.

. 7tX 99x
EXAMPLE Find the number of solutions for; sin— =
2 500

: Z &'Z < SOLUTION Let /(x) = sin . nx , . . 99x

— and g(x) =-----,
1 (U 2 500
tt, to find number of solutions; we shall plot both the curves as;
y
g(x) = —
’ 500

sin^ = /(x)

iit' Fig. 1.100

ffi=:
t
ne
Clearly, from the above figure, the number of solutions are 7.
e.
EXAMPLE Find the number of solutions for; COS X = X
iv
at

It Q) SOLUTION As, cosx = x

re

to plot the curve for

nc

y = cosx; y = x and find the n/2.

point of intersection as to
ar

1 y=cosx
obtain number of solutions.
.le

. f
Here, the two curves intersect x
w

at a point A. -2n -3nl2' nJ2 71 '37t/2 2n

w

So, cosx = x has only one

w

: ' 1 i I

f it#
i j
solution.
. I I
Fig. 1.101

EXAMPLE © Find the number of solutions for; [x] = {x}. where [•], {•} represents
greatest integer and fractional part of x.
y
;-J__----- SOLUTION As, [x] = {x} {X}

ffi to plot y = [x]; y = {x}

2

ffi and find point of intersection.

Here, the only point of intersection is x = 0, -2 2 3
(x)
H------
x

U "h only one solutions.

-2
Hziz
'•i_; Fig. 1.102
i;U4-
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I
EXAMPLE Find the number of solutions of f
4 {x} = x + [x]
’ -

where {■}, [ • ] represents fractional part and greatest integer function.

^SOLUTION As we know, to find y ' 3
number of solutions of two curves we
should find the point of intersection of 0
two curves.
4 {x} = x + [x]
2
ra
=> 4(x - [x]) = x + [x]

=>
{••• x = [x] + {x}}
4x - x = 4 [x] + [x] —t-
-2
+
1

0 1 2 3 x - o
a
3x = 5 [x] -■-3/5

=>
r ■> 3 ’4 3 4
• ••(0
[x] = - X
—o
/. To plot the graph of both ■—2
3
y - [x] and y = - x. Fig. 1.103
“Ort
S i
t
Clearly, the two graphs intersects when
ne ■uu
e.
[x] = 0 and [x] = 1 -(ii)
iv
5, i
x = -[x] [from Eqs. (i) and (ii)] : (/} -
at

3
re

x = -• 0 and H
nc

3
tr
ar

!■ x = 0 and x = are the only two solutions.

4
.le
w
w

EXAMPLE Find the value ofx graphically satisfying; [x] - 1 + x2 > 0; where
w

[ ■ ] denotes the greatest integer function.

O SOLUTION As, [x]-l + x2>0 => x2 - 1 > - [x]
Thus, to find the points for which /(x) = x2 - 1 is greater than or equals to
g(x) = - [x],
where two functions /(x) and g(x) could be
plotted as shown in Fig. 1.104;
From the adjoining figure; the solution set lies
when
A
I
x<A or x>B. —Hr
: Thus, to find A and B.
x
It is clear that /(x) and g(x) intersects when; -3 b AB 2 3 4
-y •—
' '- 'W1 = 2. x2-1<-[x]
x2 - 1 = 2
x = ± V3 => x = - V3 Fig. 1.104
(neglecting x = + V3 as A lies for x < 0)

45
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• -H
Thus, for A : x = - 77 and for B : x = 1.
.-. Solution set for which x2 - 1 > - [x] holds.
-4-H
-4- r W i-
=> x e (- oo, - 73] u [1,00).

Note The method discussed in previous example is very important as it reduces your
a- calculations, so students should practice these forms.

EXAMPLE Find the values of xgraphically which satisfy; - 1 < [x] - x2 +4^2; where
ffdi'
[ ■ ] denotes the greatest integer function.
ZT.J.O SOLUTION As, - 1 < [x] - x2 + 4 < 2! => X2 - 5 < [x] < x2 - 2
x
Thus, to find the points for which / (x) = x2 - 5 is less than or equal to g(x) = [x] and
1“^ td g(x) = [x] is less than or equal to h(x) = x2 - 2, where the three functions /(x), g(x) and h(x}

e could be plotted as;

yt

■3
h(x) = x2-2
f f(x) = x2-5

'Mil

t
h(x)<.g(x)^f(x)
ne cz /
e.
'22 /jS3 x
iv
-3 U3 0 1 4 5
at
re

'w ■=2
nc

—3
-
ar

—4
.le

-5
w
w

Fig. 1.105
w

Thus, from the above graph;

x2 - 5 < [x] < x2 - 2 when x e [A, BJu [C, D]
where A and D is the point of intersection if;
x2-5 = ±2 => x = - 73, 77
and C is point of intersection of
x2 - 2 = 1 => x = 77.
.'. A = - 77, B = - 1, C = 77 and D = 77.
- 1 < [x] - x2 + 4 < 2 is satisfied;
when _ ____ x ~ 11 u '____________________________

EXAMPLE @If 0<a<3 0 < b < 3 and the equation; x2 + 4 + 3 cos (ax + b) = 2x has
dtleast one solution then find the value of (a + b}
(^SOLUTION Here, x2 + 4+ 3cos(ax + b) = 2x or x2 - 2x + 4 = - 3cos(ax + b)
| => (x - I)2 + 3 = - 3 cos(ax + b)

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for above equation to have atleast one /(x) = (x-1)2+3
rr
solution; plot /(x) = (x - l)2 +3 and (
!■
g(x) = - 3cos(ax + b) in such a way that
they touch each other. 3
(1,-3cos(a+b))
From figure the two curves could atmost
touch at one point only when
g(x)=-3cos(ax+b)
i3
- 3cos(a + b) = 3
cos (a + b) = - 1 I. &0
=> a + b = it, 3tt, 5n,... 4Z. 1+
Fig. 1.106
But 3n > 6 f0
a + b = it as 0 < a, b< 3.
LL r7 0
'ti*
EXAMPLE //A+ B + C = 7t and A, B, C are angles of A; then show 0
3>/3
sin A + sin B + sin C <----- . 0) -
t
2
ne ■c
e.
@ SOLUTION Here; we have three y T
(B, sin S)
iv

trigonometric ratios sin A, sinB, sinC.

at

| .•. Let y = sin x, on which there are three 1 1

re

points x = A, x = B and x = C shown as; zfr

'f
nc

As from the figure; In APQR, (A sin 4) <7. fl(C,sinC)

H-t-r
ar

Centroid of A formed by P(A, sin A)

; Q(B, sinB) B(C, sinC)is;
I I
iV-
.le

■x
~A 'B\l^n
O 2n
1 12
w

A + B + C sin A + sinB + sinC

G=
w

3 ’ 3
w

where; G, H and I are collinear

Fig. 1.107
i
T
A +B+C A+B + C sin A + sinB + sinC
I
3 ’°M •H—r
A+B+C A +B+C
and H , sin
3 3
t ■
From figure; HI>GI
i.e., ordinate of H > ordinate of G
A +B+C sinA + sinB + sinC
=> sin
<
3V3
----- > sin A + sinB + sinC.
2
Hrt
.' 47
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4
—— ' ' I I a
EXAMPLE (4^ jyo < A <

\ (^SOLUTION Here, graph for y =■ sin x is shown as;

then show A(cosec A) 7t
< 3’

where P(A, sin A) and Q|-,, sin — y= sin x

“hC-H 6 6) I I

sin? -
From adjoining figure; o p\ 77?
G 4 slope of OP > slope of OQ sin -

|w
I
//y i
sin— - 0
sin A - 0 6 I I
I I

thsi A-0 ^-0 O aI -4-

rt/2
X

-PTir.
L
6 I I
sin A 3 A n
or------ < Fig. 1.108
A 71 sin A 3
±L& A(cosecA)<4

4; 4: ©
I
71
EXAMPLE If v0 "X< zi,
•</ A, UB,} ViC X.< -- } »w,.» v,
then show that: A cosec A + B cosecB + C cosec C < 4

t
SOLUTION Here, graph for y = sin x is shown as;
2
ne
e.
iv

7U 1. y.
where P(B, sinB);Q(C, sinC);R(A, sin A); S|—, sin-
at

j- (2 2)
2
J..4 4
re

From figure;
nc

-J.
ar

slope of OP > slope of OS: p[

444-.
.le

I
sin— - 0
sinB - 0
w

2 ■ i
w

B- 0 7t O
S; c\ 4 jn/2
w

2
sinB 2 B 7t Fig. 1.109
or
~B~ 7U sinB 2
rt r-t 7T
or B cosec B < — ...(i)
2
Similarly, slope of OQ < slope of OS and slope of OR < slope of OS.
•—i—f
4—4—4 C cosec C < 7t/2 ...(ii)
A cosec A < tt/2 ...(iii)
• ~~I—i—r~f
Adding Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
‘‘4rn A cosec A + B cosec B + C cosec C < —.
• TT~h 2

4j 'r Note Students must practice above method in different questions of trigonometric
inequality as it saves time.
■ 4,l
4-
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W/
I

1. Construct the graph for; 4. If f is defined by y = f(x); where x = 21 - | f|,

x - 1; x < 0 y = t2 + f|f|, t eR. Then construct the graph

(■) f(x) =
J. x=0
for f(x).
4’ 5. Construct the graph for f(x) = [[x] - x]; where
x2; x>0 [ • ] denotes greatest integer function. 10 ..
2x + 3; - 3 <x <- 2
(ii) f(x) = x + 1; - 2 <x < 0
6. If 0 < a < 1; then show;
tan~1 a 7t
a
> —.
1§|
x + 2; 0 <x < 1 7. Find the number of solutions foe 1 3
cos_,(cosx) = [x] where [•] denotes the
2. Construct the graph of the function:
(i) f(x) = |x-1| + |x + 1|
greatest integer function. o
8. Find the number of solutions for;
(ii) f(x) =
3* ; - 1 < x S1
4-x; 1 <x < 4
[[x] - x] = sinx; where [ ■ ] denotes the greatest
integer function.
.o
t
(iii) f(x) = [x] + |x- 1|; -1<x<3 9. Find the values of x graphically which satisfy
(where [ ■ ] denotes greatest integer function) x2ne <t ■3
e.
|x4; x2 < 1 x —1 T -
iv
(iv) f(x) =
[x; x2 > 1 W
at

10. Find the value of x for which x3 - [x] = 3, where

re

3. Is f(x) = x2 + x + 1 invertible? If not in which [ ■ ] denotes the greatest integer function.

nc

region it is invertible.
ar
.le

L„_. J
w
w

'-1-J5 -1+
w

3. x>-- 7. 5 solutions. 8. infinite 9. x e 10. x = 22/3.

2 2 ’ 2

tn
.49 ~
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1 ~l
4-4-14
r~r (/)
Remark-1

••w
H o L meets C only at P but is not
tangent to C.
Fig. 1

Remarks

t
ne
e.
iv
at
re
nc
ar

L
.le

X
w

O L is tangent to C at P but meets C at

w

several points
w

' I
Fig. 2
“i

Remarks

X
O L is tangent to C at P but lies on two
sides of C, crossing Cat P.
Fig. 3

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CURVATURE AND ■
oc
TRANSFORMATIONS 2fi)
E
t- ®
In this chapter we shall study: 't- 3
The bending of curves at different points.
J 3
** Transformations of curves. fi.

2r1 CURVATURE
- Q)
3

t
ne
“The study of bending of curves at different points is known as curvature.” or “Rate at - 0
e.
which the curve curves”.
0
iv

Consider a curve and a point P on it and let Q be a point y-axis

at

near P. Let A be a point on the curve.

re

arc AP ~ s, arc AQ = s + 8s
;a>
nc

arc PQ = 8s
ar

4 mi
Let v and y + 8y be angles which the tangents at P and
.le

-0
Q makes with x-axis. 43
w
w

8y is called the total curvature of the arc PQ. + 8y -0

x
w

O
— is called the average curvature of the arc PQ.
8s Fig. 2.1
.. 8w d\u
lim — = —L = curvature of the curve at P.
8s-»o 8s ds -

Note To study curvature we shall define or

dx2'

2*2 CONCAVITY, CONVEXITY AND POINTS OF INFLEXION

i
(a) Concave upwards
If in the neighbourhood of a point P on a curve is above the tangent at P, it is said to be concave
upwards.
Mathematically
dy . ^>0
— increases as x increases.
dx dx2
51

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Geometrically
y Tangent
Tangent

-+4- w -
■-h-'x:--

(8 O
X
O
x

Fig. 2.2
(b) Convex upwards or Concave downwards
! If the curve is below the tangent at P, it is said to be convex upward or concave downward.
K — Mathematically
d2y n
— decreases as x decreases, => ~< 0
dx dx2
Geometrically
y.
Tangent k Tangent

t
\
l—l—l ne
e.
iv
at

---------
re

x
O O
nc

Fig. 2.3
ar
.le

(c) Point of Inflexion

w

FTr If at a point P, a curve changes its concavity from upwards to downwards or vice versa. Then P is
w

called point of inflexion.

w

Geometrically
y y

X X
O 0

Fig. 2.4

Mathematically
H“! (i)
d2y
= 0 at the point.
d2y y * 0.
d3—
4—I—
(ii) —
Ay2
changes its sign as x increases through the value at which —
Jv2
= 0; i.e., —
Jv3
dx - dx dx
52 .

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-

Note In general we can represent concavity as;.

y y
Tangent
Concave down yf ZS
O
Concave down p. ' £
Tangent
O' 7 Tangent - 3
- 0)
Concaved % P
up p - E-r
Concave up
Tangent T O’t
x x
O O
dy
> 0 for both curves.
-34
Here;
dx
< 0 for both curves. Here;
-Qd
Fig. 2.5

PLOTTING OF ALGEBRAIC CURVES USING CONCAVITY

•3

t
ne w
Here; if y = /(x) = (x - a)(x - 0). 0 < a < 0.
e.
y
Then we know it has roots a and 0 and would be 0
iv
y=/(x) = (x-a)(x-P)
at

plotted as shown in Fig. 2.6. \

3
re

From above discussion it becomes clear that to

nc

plot curves we require; X

O
(i) Point of intersection on x-axis. (i.e., y = 0)
ar

min ■■I
(ii) Point of maximum and minimum value. 0
.le

(iii) Interval for which function increases or Concave up ,, Concave up

3
w

whenx<Xg x=x0 whenx>xj)

decreases. W
w

(iv) Point at which concave up, concave down

tn
w

Fig. 2.6
and point of inflexion.

EXAMPLE
® SOLUTION
o Sketch y = (x - l)(x - 2).
Here; y = (x - l)(x - 2)
. (0 Put y - 0 => x = 1, 2. (for point of intersection on x-axis.) -
' (ii) y = x2 - 3x + 2 y.
j
^=2 %
=> and
dx dx2 t4-

3
3
minimum at x = -
2
as ^>o'
dx2
O
*

1 \3/2
///
w
/2
i±:
t (iii) Increases when x > - and decreases when minimum x= 3/2
1 2 -1/4
I 3
X< 2
Fig. 2.7
tt 53

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Zf1 3 3
(iv) Concave upwards for x > - or x < -.

■. TtT Graph is sketched as shown in Fig. 2.7.

-._-v ... ■ rr.w <■———»»r» w ■ ■ ■T.rc——

j2. EEXAMPLE (&$) Sketch the curve y = (x - l)(x - 2)(x - 3).

Q,- Q SOLUTION Here; y = (x - l)(x - 2)(x - 3)

! r ! (i) Put y = 0 => x = 1, 2, 3.

o (ii) y = x3 - 6x2 + llx- 6

^ = 3x2-12x + 11 and
d^=
6x - 12
'US’ .• dx *2
6±V3
- IS when
^=0
dx 3
x =------
X' i 6- V3 ^ = -2V3
■ ■ I •. maximum when; x =-------- as
3 dx2
6 + V3
x =-------- as ^4 = 2^3
. LX44 minimum when;
3 dx2

t
-ij I (iii) Here; — = 3x2 -12x + ll
dx
e.
ne y.
iv

6+V3 % $
6-V3
IAL
at

maximum %

ir
=3 x- x----------- %
3 3
re

Co /
x
nc

=> Increases when;

6-V3 O lyuEli
<32
■$/ :
l 6 4/ 3
Ty
X< 3
ar

minimum
.le

6 +V3
or x>-------- Concave Concave
w

3 down for up for

w

6-V3 6 + V3 X<2 X>2

w

decreases when;
3 3~
(iv) Concave upwards when x> 2 and
concave down when x < 2. Fig. 2.8
Graph is sketched as shown in Fig. 2.8.

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y = (x - l)2(x - 2).

<») SOLUTION Here; y = (x - l)2(x - 2)
(i) Put y = 0 => x = 1,1, 2
(ii) y = x3 - 4x2 + 5x - 2

=> = 3x2 - 8x + 5 and ii. 6x - 8

dx dx2
when ^=0 x-1.5
dx
maximum when; x = 1 as = - 2.
dx2

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rr
minimum when;
5
x = - as
3
^ = 2.
dx2
-it
£tr
, (iii) Here;
dx
8x + 5 = 3(x - 1) x —
5
3. maximum
at x = 1 3 3
// o-
-c
5 O
=> Increases when; or 3’ minimum at

Decreases when;
, 5
1 < x < -. X x=5/3

(iv) Concave up when x > - and

3
4
"d
j
3

Concave down Concave up

tsi
. , 4 when x < 4/3 when x> 4/3
concave down when x < -.
3 . a)
.
Graph is sketched as shown in Fig. 2.9.
Fig. 2.9 - 3-4-
f- CL -
EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y = 3x2 - 2x3.
> SOLUTION Here; y = 3x2 - 2x3
3 y
-
=> x = 0, - when y = 0 ...(i) o - 3—

t
ne V9* -0 4-
e.
also — = 6x - 6x2 = 6x(l - x) \%
| maximum 0-
iv
dx \IP
at

= 6 - 12x = 6 (1 - 2x)
° |1/2 I1 r
i and
re

x
dx2 minimum
nc

whenx=0
=> maximum when; x = 1 as
I Y
ar

dx2
.le

...(ii)
and minimum when; x = 0 as «— Concave up —Concave down —►
§
w

dx2
w
w

x=1/2
w

y increases when; 0 < x < 1. Fig. 2.10

...(iii)
y decreases when; x < 0 and x > 1 I
1
Concave up when; x< -
2 ...(iv)
1
Concave down when; x> -
2
Graph is sketched as shown in Fig. 2.10.
macair.-n1 ru—win -firwi'cmvai

EXAMPLE <Q Sketch the graph for the function: fM = | x + 3| (x + 1).

(x + 3)(x + l); x>-3
SOLUTION Here; y = |x + 3|(x + 1) =
-(x + 3)(x + l);x<-3
x = - 1, - 3 when y = 0
+ 2x + 4; x > - 3 . d2y 2; x>-3
also; and —=
dx - 2x - 4; x < - 3 dx2 -2; x<- 3

. 55

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x—1_
y
;.IJZL
■.iXu
&
4-4- w
rra- maximum atx=-3
o
x
. .IT « " 2 1 2

1 /
co/ minimum at x= -3

. . J Concave/ down Concave up

x=-3
!
—
; 5: - i* Fig. 2.11
x < - 3 or x > - 2]
Increasing when
=> ...(ii)
decreasing when -3<x<-2 i
nzr
t
ne
maximum at x = - 3]
...(iii)
minimum at x = - 2
e.
iv

i. concave up when x < - 3

...(iv)
at

concave down when x > - 3

re
nc

Note Above example could also be solved by using transformations discussed in later part of
ar

chapter.
.le
w

I I ! i
EXAMPLE Sketch the graph for: fffi =
w

x2 + 3
w

x = - 1 when y = 0
J_ O SOLUTION Here; => 1
when x = 0
...w
y= 3

dy - x2 - 2x + 3 - (x + 3)(x- 1) Increasing when; - 3 < x < 1

...(ii)
dx (x2 + 3)2 (x2 + 3)2 Decreasing when; x < - 3or x > 1

maximum
1/2
1/3
I.l/T'
X
-5 -3 -2 O 1 2 3 4 5
-1/6
(-3,-1/6) minimum

Fig. 2.12
' 56

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Jy
Using number line rule for —, dec”-3 Inc" 1 dec"
dx
d2y 2(x3 4- 3x2 - 9x - 3)
also;
dx2 ” (x2 + 3)3

minimum at x=- 3 as;

d2y
dx2 36
1
I
0)
maximum at x=l as; 7
dx2
= -i<0
4
'
Note In above curve x-axis works as asymptote, i.e., the curve would never meet x-axis. For
7 S
detail refer chapter 3.
L.T X.^34-
Q, -
2'4 GRAPHICAL TRANSFORMATIONS

Here, we shall discuss the transformations as; - BU-

(i) /(x) transforms to /(x) ± a -3

t
(ii) /(x) transforms to /(x ± a). ne -
e.
(iii) /(x) transforms to (a f (x))
iv

(iv) /(x) transforms to /(ax).

at

(v) /(x) transforms to /(-x).

itf.
re

(vi) /(x) transforms to ~/(x).

nc

(vii) /(x) transforms to -/(-x)

ar

(viii) /(x) transforms to | /(x) |.

.le

(ix) /(x) transforms to /(| x |).

15 t
w

(x) /(x) transforms to|/(|x|)|. Where | • | means modulus or absolute value function.
0>
w

(xi) y = /(x) transforms to | y | = /(x).

w

(xii) y = /(x) transforms to | y| = | /(x) |.

(xiii) y = /(x) transforms to | y| = j /(| xj) |.

(xiv) y = /(x) transforms to y = [/(x)].

(xv) y = /(x) transforms to y = /([x]).
(xvi)y = /(x) transforms to y = [/([x])]. Where [ • ] denotes greatest integer less than or equal
(xvii) y = /(x) transforms to [y] = /(x). tox.
(xviii) y = /(x) transforms to [y] = [/(x)].

(xix) y = fM transforms to y = /({x}).

(xx) y = f(x) transforms to y = {/(x)}.
(xxi)y = f(x) transforms to y = {/({x})}. Where {•} denotes fractional part of x.
(xxii) y = /(x) transforms to {y} = /(x).
(xxiii) y = /(x) transforms to {y} = {f (x)}.

(xxiv) y = /(x) transforms to y = / 1 (x), /-1 (x) represents inverse of / (x).

TI
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Now,*we shall study the following cases as;
(i) When f(x), transforms to f(x) ± a. (where a is + ve)
i.e., /(x)---- > /(x) + a
2 shift the given graph of /(x) upward through 'a' units
again, /(x)---- > /(x) - a
0. - shift the given graph of /(x) downward through ‘a’ units.
“K g -

—I—7
o j—
Graphically it could be stated as:
y

■ -4-t^r y= f(x) + a
[a
4-i-l _ a a
a /
—► x where a > 0
o a /
!--zy=f(x)-a

TPtF Fig. 2.13

7
t
EXAMPLE (Q) Plot y = ex + 1; y = ex - 1, with the help ofy = ex.
~ > SOLUTION We know; y = ex ne
e.
(exponential function) could be plotted as;
iv
at
re
nc
ar
.le
w

x
O
w
w

Fig. 2.14
=> y = ex + 1, is shifted upwards by 1 Also y = ex - 1, is shifted downwards by
unit, shown as 1 unit, shown as

o
-H
Fig. 2.15 Fig. 2.16
. 1. J. J-...
58 .

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EXAMPLE Plot y = |x| + 2 and y = |x| —2, with the help of y = |x|.
rr
SOLUTION We know; y = | x| (modulus function) could be plotted as; mz
y=\x\=-x;x<0
y=\x\ = x;x>0 o
■ c
A-
O 1[ 2
£c
Fig. 2.17 - ®
fl)
=> y = | x | + 2 is shifted upwards by 2 units.
y
1-3 i-
y=|x| + 2 = -x + 2; y=\x\ + 2 = x+2;x>0
x<0
y=|x|=-x; y=|x| = x;x>0
x<0 2 2
2 2
fl)
[2
- 3

t
ne
2
X
- 0
e.
o
0
iv
at

Fig. 2.18
3u
re

also y = | x| - 2 is shifted downwards by 2 units.

nc

y=|x| = -x; y=|x| = x;

ar

x<0 x>0 Ml

0
.le

y=|x|-2=-x-2; y=|x|-2 = x-2;

5
w

x<0 x> 0
0
w
w

Fig. 2.19

EXAMPLE Plot y = sin-1 x; y = (sin-1 x) + 1 and y = (sin-1 x) - 1.

e SOLUTION We know, y = sin-1 x (Inverse trigonometric) could be plotted as;
y
a n/2
y=sin-1x; where-1£xS1 and
i
I -n/2 S yS n/2
i ------------- >x
O 1

Fig. 2.20 .1 L
59

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=> y = sin"1 x + 1, is shifted upwards by 1 unit.
and y = sin"1 x - 1, is shifted downwards by 1 unit.
! 4
■ .

1(1,n/2 +1) y=(sin'1x) + 1

■
i/2 + 1-
• x/2 ■ ■ ,'(1,it/2)y=sin"’x
■ r4 w -
£ - 1(1, nJ2- 1) y=(sin"’x)-1
a (-1, -it/2 +1 O
■x

to -
(-1.-7I/2)/ Z-n/2 I

I
■ -rc/2-} 1
(-K/2-1X/
♦ xii
.-i-t S j-4 Fig. 2.21
>——< i■ --TKX1Tr.* -r«.nrwiwmj—WPTO ■ ■ i ■
—I—i—<
(ii) f(x) transforms to f(x - a)
— Le., f(x)---- > /(x - a); a is positive. Shift the graph of/(x) through ‘a’ unit towards right
; -H p /(x) transforms to f(x + a).
•4±t Le., f(x)---- > /(x + a); a is positive. Shift the graph of /(x) through ‘a’ units towards left.

d ■I f Graphically it could be stated as

iv
4
e.
ne
t
y=f(x+a)
f /y=fW4y=f(x-a)
at
re
nc
ar

a x
.le
w
w
w

Fig. 2.22

EX AM PLE Plot y=|x|, y = |x-2| and y = |x + 2|.

@ SOLUTION As discussed /(x)---- > /(x - a); shift towards right.
=> y -1 x - 21 is shifted ‘2’ units towards right.
y
y=\x\=-x;x<0 y=|x-2| = -x+2;x<2 y=|x| = x;x>0
yr y=\x-2\ = (x-2);x>2
2 2

2 2

x
O 2 2

Fig. 2.23

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also y = | x + 21 is shifted ‘2’ units towards left.
y
y=|x+2|=-(x+2);x<-2 y= |x| =-x;x< 0 y=|x+2| = x + 2;x>-2 £l
ify=|x| = x;x>0
2
O
:c

-2 2 O
2

x I 5
&)

c
Fig. 2.24 3
EXAMPLE
7t
Plot y = sin (x - — andj - Ix+—
y = sin m
. 0)
2 I 2) 3
SOLUTION As we know; y = sin x could be plotted as; Q.

n n_ &)
2 2
2
3
t
ne y=sin(x-?t/2) W
e.
-2it. -K o kn IF Hk
40
iv
3y
y = sin(x+ k/4)/' \/2 A\ <2
at

30)
re

y=sinx y=!sin(x- n/4) K_ y= siin(x+n/4) y=sinx

2
nc
ar

Ml
.le

Fig. 2.25 0
3
w

EXAMPLE @PZot y = sin-1 x; y = sin-1(x-l) and y = sin-1(x + 1).

w

V)
w

y
SOLUTION We know;
it/2 (1,*/2)
y = sin-1 x could be plotted as shown in Fig. 2.26.
y = sin-1(x - 1) is shifted ‘1’ unit towards right.
x
and y = sin-1(x + 1) is shifted ‘1’ unit towards left. O 1

Shown as in Fig. 2.27. (-1,n/2)

4
y=sin-1 ;x+1)
Fig. 2.26 f-T
kJ2 y=qin
J -1x y=sin"’(x-1)

-2 O 1 2

1 1 -k!2

Fig. 2.27
6S

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(iii) f(x) transforms to a f(x)
y.
i.e., f (x)-----> a/(x); a > 1
y=f(x)
Stretch the graph of f(x) ‘a’ times along y-axis. 'y=^f(x)

(/)
fM--- > -fW; a> 1.
X a
a ■ Shrink the graph of /(x) ‘a’ times along y-axis.
(U
5 Graphically it could be stated as shown in
■: Fig. 2.28. Fig. 2.28

EXAMPLE ^^Pioty = x; y = 2x and y = -1 x.

2
4
Q SOLUTION As we know graph for y = 2x. (1.2)
■ 2 f
y=x
y = 2x; is stretch of /(x) ‘2’ times
along y-axis and y = x; is shrink of /(x) ‘2’
1 y=ix
5m/2)

t
times along y-axis. ne O 1 x
e.
iv

Shown as in Fig. 2.29. (> 1/2L

at

/
re

-2
/(-1-2)
nc
ar

Fig. 2.29
.le
w

EXAMPLE Plot y = sin x and y = 2sinx.

w
w

Q SOLUTION We know; y = sin x and /(x)->a/(x)

=> Stretch the graph of f (x) ‘a’ times along y-axis.
••• y = 2 sin x => stretch the graph of sin x ‘2’ times along y-axis.
y

f
y=2
2
y= 2sin x
y=1
1
y=snx
x
~K O nJ2 n

Fig. 2.30
Above curve is plotted for the interval [- it, n] as periodic with period 2 it.
62
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EXAMPLE @ 1
Plot y = sin x and y = - sin x
2
0 SOLUTION As we know;
oE
y = -/(x) I
a

=> shrink the graph of /(x)

1

1/2
= -g-fSin x
y=’sinx
r 50)
‘a’ times along y-axis. O n/2 *x

1 . -1/2
£
y = - sin x
2 (D
=> shrink the graph of /(x) 0
‘2’ times along y-axis. Fig. 2.31 3
CL
(iv) /(x) transforms to /(ax)
t -I
X
i.e., /(x)----- > /(ax); a> 1
y=/(ax) y=f(x> y=fty) Q)
3

t
Shrink (or contract) the graph of /(x) ‘a’
times along x-axis. ne (/)
e.
0
iv

i/< 1 a,
at

again fW —> f ; a> 1 x

O
39)
re
nc

Stretch (or expand) the graph of/(x) ‘a’

ar

■I
times along x-axis.
0
.le

Graphically it could be stated as shown in 3

w

Fig. 2.32. W
w

Fig. 2.32
w

EXAMPLE Plot y = sin x and y = sin 2x.

@ SOLUTION Here; y = sin 2x, is to shrink (or contract) the graph of sin x by ‘2’ units along
x-axis. Shown as in Fig. 2.33.
4
I l

Fig. 2.33

From above figure sin x is periodic with period 2 k and sin 2 x with period n.
6=

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•d EXAMPLE Plot y = sinx and y = sin^.

V)
0 SOLUTION
I
Here;
y=s,nfl) is to stretch (or expand) the graph of sin x *2’ times along

- x-axis. Shown as in Fig. 2.34.

a- y

E
a y=sinx
y= sin (x/2)

sd -2k -K n O _K k 3k 2k,
x
- SJ ST 2 2 2

S; -
“p r';~
Fig. 2.34
- Zj—J—1_

t
fx |
ne
From above figure sin x is periodic with period 2n and sin I- I is periodic with period 4k.
e.
iv

EXAMPLE Plot y = sin x and y = sin"1(2x).

at
re

y
Q SOLUTION Here; y = sin-1 (2x), is to shrink
nc

(or contract) the graph of sin"1 x ‘2’ times 2 y=sin-1(2x)

ar

along x-axis.
.le

_-4- sin~’(x)
4-4— Shown as in Fig. 2.35.
w

x
w

0 1
w

-r-F-
2

Fig. 2.35

EXAMPLE Plot y - sin --1 •

.3 J

$ SOLUTION To plot y = sin We should follow as;

.3 J
i (i) Plot y = sin x

(ii) Plot y = sin i.e., stretch graph ‘3’ units along x-axis.

X i
(iii) Plot y = sin — - 11, i.e., shift the graph (ii) by ‘3’ unit towards right.

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(i) Plotting y = sin x: (ii) Plot y = sin"1^^ : fl

- •
y
I y
0
jt
I____
rc
-5&
2 2
y= sin-1 j.
y=sip’’(x/3)
-- p*
X X
0 1 -3 0 3 — c “i

- ©
2 2 t fl) .
Fig. 2.36 Fig. 2.37 rid
I
(iii) Plot y = sin --1) :
.3
3
-3 -

t
y
ne W
e.
3 JO
iv
2
at

3
re

•+- X
:a
nc

-3 0 1 "2 3 4 5 6
ar

- ■!
-0
.le

3
-7
3
w

w
w

Fig. 2.38
w

(v) J(x) transforms to /(-x)

i.e., fM-----> /(-x)
To draw y = /(- x), take the image of the curve y = f(x) iny-axis as plane mirror.
OR
“Turn the graph of f (x) by 180° about y-axis.”

s
—
Graphically it is stated as;
y
y=f(-ri y=W
y=f&

y=f(-^

Fig. 2.39 65

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EXAMPLE ©Plot y = e~x.
© SOLUTION As y = ex is known; theny = e is the image iny-axis as plane mirror fory = ex;
X-i ■ I shown as;
w-
£-
a-
0 x
0

-i Fig. 2.40

_ EXAMPLE g) Plot the curve y = logc (— x).

0 SOLUTION Here; y = loge (— x); is to take mirror image ofy = loge x abouty-axis. Shown as;

€ y=loga(-x)
e.
iv y

ne
t
y=logax

x
at

H.0) .0)
re
nc
ar
.le

Fig. 2.41
w
w

EXAMPLE Plot the curve y = sin-1 (- x).

w

2
(9 SOLUTION Here; y = sin-1(-x); is the y=sin"1(-x) y=sin-1x
mirror image of y = sin-1 (x) about y-axis.
4- •>x
Shown as in Fig. 2.42. 1

2
Fig. 2.42

(vi) f(x) transforms to - /(x)

ie., f(x)---- > - /(x);
To draw y = - /(x) take image of y = /(x) in the x-axis as plane mirror.
OR
“Turn the graph of /(x) by 180° about x-axis.”

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EXAMPLE © Plot the curve y = - ex.

Q SOLUTION As y = ex is known;
0
I
.-. y = - ex take image of y = ex in the x-axis as plane
mirror. X

&

f c
Fig. 2.43

r so ■
EXAMPLE <3 Plot the curve y = - (log x).
y 3

Li
y=logx
@ SOLUTION As y = log x is given then y = - log x
is the image of y - log x in the x-axis as plane
mirror. - 0
l O

t
I
3
ne V)
e.
y=-log x
0
iv
at

Fig. 2.44
3
re
nc

EXAMPLE Plot the curve y = - {x}; where {•} denotes the fractional part ofx.
ar

9 SOLUTION As y = {x} is known;

.le

y = - {x} is the image of y = {x} about x-axis as plane mirror.

Or
w

3
w
w

I4
•4- —1“

y=«
x
-3
4*}

Fig. 2.45

(vii) f(x) transforms to - /(-x)

i.e., /(x)----- >-/(-x);
to draw y = - /(-x) take image of /(x) about y-axis to obtain /(-x) and then take image of f(-x) y-
about x-axis to obtain -/(-x).
fto —> - /(-x) nz
• 67 -
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rr
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I =» (i) Image about y-axis. (ii) Image about x-axis.
Graphically it could be stated as;
I

w
y=f(x)
fi. y=-f(-x)
*-4
re
7-t>
y=t«

.1' >-■

Fig. 2.46

6:- EXAMPLE Plot the curve y = - e~x.

-y-
t
$ SOLUTION As y = ex is known;
ne
e.
(i) Take image abouty-axis; for y = e"x.
iv
x
at

(ii) Take image of y = e x about x-axis; for y = - e

re

Shown as in Fig. 2.47.

nc
ar
.le

Fig. 2.47
w
w

EXAMPLE Plot the curve y = - log(-x).

w

Q SOLUTION As y = log x is known;

(i) Take image abouty-axis, fory = log(-x).

(ii) Take image of y = log(-x) about x-axis, for y = - log(-x).

I
y

y=log (-x) y= log x

y=-log(-x)

Fig. 2.48

1. i .1...
’ 68 .
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EXAMPLE Plot the curve y = - {-x}. (where { • } denote fractional part).
$ SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = {x}.
To plot y = - {-x} o
(i) Take image about x-axis. - E

i
(ii) Take image about y-axis.
y

1
I C :
y= {-*)
E0 H
0)
o - 3r
y=H-x}
b 2-

- a)
- 3

t
Fig. 2.49
ne w
e.
o
iv
EXAMPLE Plot the curve for y = - [-xl (where [ ■ ] denotes the greatest integerfunction.)
at

£ SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = [x].

30)
re

to plot y = - [~x]
nc

I (i) Take image about x-axis.

ar

y
.le

0
-3
w

- W +-•
w

♦ ►<
3
w

y^x]
1
2
- -- -•
-♦
1
X
-3 -2 O 1 2 3 4 5

-2 E
-3 y= [-•*]
-4

Fig. 2.50
f +

. 69

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(ii) Take image about y-axis.
y.
y=-!-*]
•----- I—
w 3

£-
gc
(U
2

oq -3 -2 o 1 2 3 4
x

---------------------------- ►

H - -3

Tit

t
Fig. 2.51
« w »»u—nil.- • -m i .>— - .-zr -a—-
ne ■— - - ——r ■ - - • — —. - • -. --| -n-j nt ■nm rra—f
e.
(viii) f(x) transforms to |/(x) t (where | • | represents modulus function)
iv

i.e., f(x)---- >|/(x)|

at
re

Here; y = | f(x) | is drawn in two steps.

nc

(a) In the I step, leave the positive part of /(x), {i.e., the part of /(x) above x-axis) as it is.
ar

(b) In the II step, take the mirror image of negative part of/(x). {i.e., the part of /(x) below
.le

x-axis} in the x-axis as plane mirror.

w

OR
w

Take the mirror image (in x-axis) of the portion of the graph of/(x) which lies below x-axis.
w

i -1—4—4- OR
Turn the portion of the graph of /(x) lying below x-axis by 180° about x-axis.
Graphically it could be stated as
Graph of /(x): Graph for |/(x)|:

y y

y=|f«l
tf
X
O 1 O 1
■’I——f— y=f(x)

Fig. 2.52 Fig. 2.53

_ 70 .
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Note Above transformation of graph is very important as to discuss differentiability of f(x> GJ

As from above example we could say y = f(x) is differentiable for all x e R - {0}.
But; y = | f(x)| is differentiable for all x e R - {- 1, 0,1} as, “at sharp edges function is not
differentiable." 0
c
EXAMPLE Draw the graph for y = | log x|.
i O SOLUTION To draw graph for y = | log x| we have to follow two steps:
P5X
0)
(i) Leave the (+ ve) part of y = log x, as it is --
(ii) Take images of(-ve) part of y = log x, i.e., the part belowx-axis in the x-axis as plane mirror/ “
- "I
Shown as: ©
Graph for y = log x : Graph for y = | log x|:
y.
y 4- 3J-

0
y=logx

y=|logx| 5
- &)

et
x - 3
O
.n 1
W
e
iv

0
at

Fig. 2.54 Fig. 2.55

re

which is differentiable for all x e (0, °°) which is clearly differentiable for all
3
nc

xe(0, "as at x = 1 their is a

ar

sharp edge”.
■■■
.le

EXAMPLE Draw the graph for y = |x2 - 2x - 3|. 0

w

3
w

0 SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = x2 - 2x - 3 = (x - 3)(x + 1) is a parabola; so to (0

w

sketch y = | x2 - 2x - 31 we have to follow two steps.

(i) Leave the positive part of y = x2 - 2x - 3, as it is.
(ii) Take the image of negative part of y = x2 - 2x - 3, i.e., the part below x-axis in the
x-axis as plane mirror shown as in Fig. 2.56.
Graph for y = x2 - 2x - 3 = (x - 3)(x + 1) : 12
I y* I
3 4——
2
LZ2Z
1 GX
O 1 2 3

-3 b
minimum atxn-gj
i D
----- -and y=-
(1,-4)

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Fig. 2.56
for more
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1-4 Graph for y = | x2 - 2x - 3 |:

vv
y
i4
I 4 KL4) I

CL-
(U -
0 I ~ 1 3
X

■tl Fig. 2.57

Clearly above curve is differentiable for all x g R - {- 1, 3}.

S:-
EXAMPLE Sketch the graph fory = \ sin x|.
@ SOLUTION Here; y = sin x is known.

t
ne
To draw y = | sin x |, we take the mirror image (in x-axis) of the portion of the graph of sinx
e.
which lies below x-axis.
iv

y
at
re
nc

y= |sin x|
ar
.le
w
w

Image of portion below

w

x-axis
Fig. 2.58

From above figure it is clear;

y = | sin x| is differentiable for all x e R - {nn; n e integer}.

(ix) f(x) transforms to f( |x|)

i.e., fM--- >/(|x|).
If we know y = f (x), then to plot y - | x|), we should follow two steps:
(i) Leave the graph lying right side of they-axis as it is.
(ii) Take the image of /(x) in the right of y-axis as the plane mirror and the graph of /(x) lying
leftward of they-axis (if it exists) is omitted.
OR
Neglect the curve for x < 0 and take the images of curve for x > 0 about y-axis.

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- 72
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I—;
Graphically shown as;
y

y=M y=/(!*!) -o
\ Neglected r e
/\
" \ X\ O
X X
fl)
/l Y*-"'?
Image of \
Z(x) about y-axisX'
whenx>0 -- ft
Fig. 2.59
:: w
- 3 -
EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y = log | x|.
0 SOLUTION As we know, the curve y = log x.
m
.*. y = log | x| could be drawn in two steps:
(i) Leave the graph lying right side of y-axis as it is.
- fl) I

t
■ 3
I (ii) Take the image of /(x) in the y-axis as plane mirror. ne - 0
e.
y y
iv

y=logx y= log 1*1 0

at

3
re
nc

O O •a)
ar
.le

-0
w

3
w

0
w

Fig. 2.60

EXAMPLE Plot the curve y = e|x|.

® SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = ex.
4
y. R
y=^
Image \ x'''
fory=/(x);x2 0\^

(1.0?
(1.0)
x x
O O

Fig. 2.61 Fig 2.62

.’. To plot y = e:1|x|, neglect the curve for x < Oand take image abouty-axis for x > 0. Shown as
in Fig. 2.62.
73 4
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EXAMPLE Plot the curvey = sin | x|.
® SOLUTION
__Ld i y y
W
neglected y= sin |x|

x
O

0
y= sin x y= sin |x|
§ Fig. 2.63

r>- EXAM PLE Plot the curve y = |x|2 - 2|x| - 3.

£ - • SOLUTION As we know, the curve for y = x2 - 2x - 3 is plotted as shown in Fig. 2.64.
y y
ipr
y=x2-2x-3 e.
ne
t 1 y=|x|2 —2|x| —3
iv
x
O -3'

I
1 '3 1 3
at
re
nc
ar
.le

(1.-4) (1.-4)
w
w

Fig. 2.64 Fig. 2.65

w

y = /(|x|), i.e., y =[x|2 - 2|x| - 3is to be plotted as shown in Fig. 2.65.

which shows y=|x|2 — 2|x| — 3is differentiable for all x e R - {0}.

(x) f(x) transforms to |/( |x |) |

ie., /(x)^|/(|x|)| y
Here, plot the curve in two steps;
y=f(x)
(i)/(x)----- »|/(x)| (ii)|/(x)|—>|/(|x|)| 1
OR
X
Ci) fW---- >/(|x|) o r1l2 1
(ii) /(|x|)—>|/(|x|)|., i.e., (viii) and (ix)
transformations.
Graphically it could be stated as shown in Fig. 2.66.
Fig. 2.66

... 74
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W y = l/(x)|:
X
(ii) y = |/(|x|)|: m
0
y= I'WI y=K(W)l

O
V 1/2
wz
-1 -1/2 o 1/2 1
X
rJ B
Fig. 2.67 Fig. 2.68 - ©
Q)
EXAMPLE Sketch the curve for y=||x|2-2|x|-3|. ---3 4-
© SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = x 2 - 2x - 3, shown as;
y

y=xz-2x-3 - fi)

t
- 3
ne -0 -
e.
x
iv
O 1 3 0
at

3
re

j3
nc

- Q)
J*
ar

o3
.le
w

Fig. 2.69
w

W
w

(i) y = x2 - 2x-3-> y = |x|2 - 2|x| - 3. (ii) y = | x |2 — 21 x | — 3 —> y = || x |2 — 21 x | — 31 ''

H
y
f (~1.4)| |(1.4) |
<5
■>

x
-3’ O 1 '3
—
O 3

-3,

-3-
(-1.-4) (1.-4)
—I—i—
Fig. 2.70 Fig. 2.71
Clearly, above figure is differentiable for all
x e R - {- 3, 0, 3}.
75
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<44
H-H EXAMPLE (|^ Sketch the graph for y = e,-kl _1
■

4 SOLUTION As we know the graph for y

£ ■
a
- £
©r X

] O

M § ,□ Fig. 2.72

■
J-
I- |-H
(i) y = e

y
_ 1
2
(ii) y = e
1
2
y
y= e-M_l
2

t
■1
ne
e.
1/2 yn
iv

-log 2
at

O log 2
x o log 2 y=e-M-l
re

-1/2
nc
ar
.le

Fig. 2.73 Fig. 2.74

w
w

i
w

(iii)y= e-W-l

1/2
y=|e-M_l|
i ! •• ►X
-log 2 0 log 2
4—k-i—
<2
’ Z

jzCz Fig. 2.75

(xi) y = f(x) transforms to |y| = f(x)

Clearly | y| > 0 =$ if /(x) < 0; graph of | y| = /(x) would not exist.
if /(x) > 0; | y| = /(x) would be given as y = ± f (x).
■
Hence, the graph of |y | = /(x) exists only in the regions where /(x) is non-negative and will be
reflected about x-axis only when /(x) > 0. “Region where /(x) < 0 is neglected”.
. 1 ...
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OR
r
(i) Remove (or neglect) the portion of the graph which lies below x-axis.
(ii) Plot the remaining portion of the graph, and also its mirror image in the x-axis. .1
Graphically it could be stated as shown in Fig. 2.76. 0
Graph for y = /(x) : • c
y
0)
4 _ .£
(1,1) y=JM (1.1) |y|=f(x)
1 1
- ®
1/2,
x
O 1/2 1 O

-2
neglecting
^\\\\\\\\X\\\ x \ x \ x''
^2
(1.-1) mirror image
about x-axis.
4t3
t
- 3 •
Fig. 2.76 ne - (/) -4
e.
-0 z
iv

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve |y| = (x-l)(x-2).

at
re

$ SOLUTION
3
nc

As we know the graph for => y = (x - l)(x - 2)---- > |y| = (x - 1)(x - 2),
ar

y = (x - l)(x - 2), is shown in Fig. 2.77. as shown in Fig. 2.78.

o'
.le
w

y J'a 3
w

W
w

-H-t-
O .1 3/2 2, 3
x
(3/2, -1/4)
-..7
Fig. 2.77 Image on x-axis,
when (x-1)(x-2) > 0

Fig. 2.78

EXAMPLE Plot the curve |y| = sinx

H
® SOLUTION Here, we know the curve for y = sinx.
I n 77

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y
• H-H
1

w 2n -TV
4£’
-4-j a-
Hi
J. £
□ i Fig. 2.79
y = sinx---- > |y| = sinx
y
I.:
4^-
7S:- X

neglected • I Image neglected image

Image neglected “
n______ 2 neglected

t
ne Fig. 2.80
e.
iv

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve |x| + |y| = l

at
re

Q SOLUTION As the graph for y = 1 - x is;

nc

y
ar
.le

J
w
w

—
w

O 1
y= 1 -x

Fig. 2.81
(i) y = 1 - x---- > y = 1 - | x |. (ii) y = 1 -|x|---- >|y| = l-|x|.

■—i—.
%
.-'-4-44- 1
■\|y|=i-M «”■ W+M = 1
1
x
f-
--- •*%
0 1 y=1-|x|
Image
4-
Fig. 2.83
Fig. 2.82
Clearly above figure represents a square.
iiti u » -imiunnrmmm'ni ' I-IM

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;?8.
I
 —r
Z
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EXAMPLE Sketch the curve | x| - |y | = 1.
© SOLUTION As the graph for y = x - 1 is known; pzn
0
: c z:
Hfi)
E
- (D
Q)
Fit. 2.84
3
(i) y = x - 1---- > y = | x | - 1 (ii) y = |x|-l----->|y|=|x|-l - fi.
y

- &) Zh
y= 1*1-1 3

t
O 1
X
ne V)
e.
0
iv
at

3
re

w
nc
ar

■I
Fig. 2.85 Fig. 2.86
0
.le

3
w

Vi
w

(xii) y = f(x) transforms to |y| = |f(x) |

w

i.e., y = /(x)-----> | y| = |/(x) is plotted in two steps.

y = fW—>y = l/(x)|

spiEE
(i)
(ii) y =!/(*) I—>|y| = l/WI J------ U-
Graphically it could be stated as;
y y y

V
y=W y=K(*)l |y| = W*)l

X x
O O

y=f(x)->y=|f(x)| y=K(x)H|y| = |f(x)| rn

(i) (H) (iii) 1
Fig. 2.87
79

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EXAMPLE Plot the curve for |y| = | e
SOLUTION Here; curve for y = e~x is shown as;

Q.-
(U “

•tq
§
Fig. 2.88

¥ (i) y = e

y= |e"'l
y =|e'x|
y
(ii) y = |e

et
1
remains same
-------------- ► x
.n
o
e
iv
at

Fig. 2.89 |y| = |e'xl

re
nc

Fig. 2.90
ar
.le

EXAMPLE @Plot the curve |y| = |ex-l|.

w

@ SOLUTION As we know the curve for y - ex is shown as;

w
w

X
O

Fig. 2.91

(i) y = ex y = ex-l. (ii) y = ex - 1---- > y = | ex - 11. '

\ 1 y. y=|e*-1|
1
1
x x
o neglected^F o

80 . Fig. 2.92 Fig. 2.93

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=s

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I (iii) y = |ex-11 |y| = |ex-l|-
L
1O
Ir Iw-
|y|=|ex-1|

I
- (D
Fig. 2.94
C a2

1
' a=
EXAMPLE Plot the curve |y| = sin x + — .
2 ..
® SOLUTION Here; we know the graph for y = sin x, is shown as fl) .
-

et
y e.n w
1 0
iv
at

x
3&)
re

x-2it -n O Tv r2re
nc

f4
ar

■■■ r—
.le

Fig. 2.95
§v>
w
w

(i) y = sin x-----> y = sin x + 1.

w

3/2 y=3/2
I

1/2 y= 1/2
o
y=-M2
-1/2 ■■■

Fig. 2.96

(ii) y = sin x + 1-----> y = sin x + -1

Ht
2

C 8i 4-
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y

3/2 ■y=3/2

w- 7V 1/2
y= 1/2
x
-2k O~ H 2k
■y=-1/2

y=-3/2

Fig. 2.97

(iii) y = sinx + - ---- >|y|= sinx + ^1

2
y
|y| = |sinx+-l|
y=3/2

y=M2

t
x
ne y=-V2
e.
I
iv
at
re
nc

i Fig. 2.98
7~T
ar

.4__ I.
(xiii) y = f(x) transforms to |y| = |f( |x |) |
.le
w

i.e., y = fW—> |y| = !/(*) I-

w

The steps followed are:

w

(i) y = fM —> y = | /(x) |.

il GO
(iiO
Graphically it could be stated as:
y = l/WI—*y=l/(l*DI
y = l/(l*DI—>lyl = l/(N)l-

f~r
rT"i

j—j
■ 4-pf—

•'4-
Fig. 2.99
J i I -
82 .

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i-

(i) y = /(x)—>y =|/00| (ii) y=|/00|----->y = 1/(1* DI

y J
-o
O
1

X fit
-J)
Z. c _
Fig. 2.100 Fig. 2.101 ■■ 0

(iii) y = l/(l*l)l—>ly l = l/(l*IH

y.

1
fed -Q)
x

t
O

ne - W—
e.
Hl
0
iv
at

Fig. 2.102
re

Q)
nc

EXAMPLE (0 Plotthe\y\ = e-M_ 12 ‘

ar
.le

SOLUTION Here; we know the graph for y = e~x. -0 -

->•5 —•
w
w

W
w

x
O

Fig. 2.103
1 1
(i) y = e (ii) y = e
2 2 2
y
y [~T

A12
a log 2
-1/2

Fig. 2.104
x

y=-1/2

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-log 2
O
1/2
>xjog2

—1/2

Fig. 2.105
x

I
. 83
4- i -
-p
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(iii) y = e'w-
J. -> y = e’|x|-- (iv) y = e-|x|-i ---- > |y | = e’W--
2 2 2
y 4
1/2 |y| = |e l’1-||
1/2
x X
-log 2 O log 2
O
-1/2
-1/2

Fig. 2.106 Fig. 2.107

EXAMPLE ^Plot |y| = |log|x||.

- SOLUTION Here; y = log x is plotted as;

y= i°ge*

t
ne
e.
x
O 1
iv
at
re
nc

Fig. 2.108
ar

(i) y = logx---- > y = log|x| (ii) y = log|x|---- >y =|log|x||

.le

y y
w
w

y=l iog|x| I
w

X
-1 \ o
neglected^ neglected

Fig. 2.109 Fig. 2.110

(iii) y =|log|x||—>|y l = |log|x||
y.
|y|=|i°9l*l

X
1

Fig. 2.111

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EXAMPLE Q) Sketch the curve |y| = ||x|2—3|x| — 2|.

SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = x2 - 3x - 2.
P4
y
0
d
V 1

Fig. 2.112
3
X

(i)y = x2- 3x - 2-»y =|x|2- 3|x|- 2 (ii)y =|x|2 - 3|x| - 2-> y = ||x|2
t'O)
- s
Est
L a
- 3|x|-2|. L-H .
- -
y y - a) -
t
ne -V)
e.
0
iv

X
at

3
re
nc

X
-3-10 1 3
ar

—
.le

-0-
w

Fig. 2.113 Fig. 2.114 -3

w
w

(iii) |y | =||x|2 - 3|x| - 2|

|y| = ||x|2-3|x|-2| Ht
X

H+
Fig. 2.115

85 .

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(xiv) y = f(x) transforms to y = [/(*)]; (where [ • ] denotes the greatest integer function)

i.e., /(x) —> [/(x)]

Here; in order to drawy = [/(x)] mark the integer ony-axis. Draw the horizontal lines through
, - : £ - integers till they intersect the graph. Draw vertical dotted lines from these intersection points; finally
CL ~ draw horizontal lines parallel to x-axis from any intersection point to the nearest vertical dotted line
7 ~ with blank dot at right end in case /(x) increase.
OR
;0 Step 1. Plot/(x).
tpSt
I- Step 2.
Step 3.
Mark the intervals of unit length with integers as end points ony-axis.
Mark the corresponding intervals {with the help of graph of /(x)} on x-axis.
§
Step 4. Plot the value of [/(x)] for each of the marked intervals.
■' eH
" •T I HE ~ Graphically it could be shown as:

3
•■tttt
2

t
r=<«
1
ne
e.
iv

o
at
re
nc
ar
.le

*1 *2 *3 *4 «5 *6X7*8
w

■ f
w

3 11/
w

2
■ H~r
3 !
M.
r ■ 0
,£J irrrrnTfO.
y=[fWl I
• tn- -2
•-U-U
*1 X2 *3 *4 *5 *6 *7 *8
-i-4—L- Fig. 2.116

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y = [sin xl

@ SOLUTION Here, sketch for y = sin x is shown as in Fig. 2.117.
-f—i—M

86 .

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y

1 0
j ■—>x
7Ct
-3rt ) -2n -n )O * j 2n 3n
—► y=sinx
r 0) f
.C -
Fig. 2.117 - ®
y = sin x -» y = [sin x] 4
y

KM #4.
t
r 3 i_
ne
X

(A -
e.
\.-*.y=[sinx]
iv

0
at

y_2£ it 3it 2n 5it 3n

—3k 5n —2it 3x —n y_
4
re

2 2 2 2 2
nc

Fig. 2.118
0) -
ar
.le

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y = [x2 - 11 (where [■] denotes greatest integer function).
§
w
w

• When-2<x<2.
-w-
w

SOLUTION Here y = x2 - 1
could be plotted as shown in Fig. 2.119. (i) y = x2 - 1-----» y = [x2 - 1].
4—j-

-9- L V 3-
/
yI I

4
4

£ /3 3 X
X -2 O
-2 /2-1 O 1 72^3 2

->

y=[x2-1];-2SxS2
Fig. 2.119

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Fig. 2.120
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EXAMPLE Sketch the curve; y =[y]2- x2]; where [■] denotes the greatest integer
function.
& SOLUTION We know, y = yj2-x2 represents a circle for y > 0.
£- Shown as in Fig. 2.121.
q. -
g 2

po3 i V2

1
y=^2-xz
0
*-x
-V2 1 k/2
■

tttr Thus, the graph fory = [J2-X2]

y

Eft;
t
<2
ne
e.
V2-X'
iv

X
at

-V2 0 1
re
nc

Fig. 2.121
ar
.le

(xv) y = f(x) transforms to y = f([x])

w
w

Here, mark the integers on the x-axis. Draw vertical lines till they intersect the graph of /(x).
w

From these intersection points draw horizontal lines (parallel to x-axis) to meet the nearest right
vertical line, with a black dot on each nearest right vertical line which can be shown as in Fig. 2.122.
y = fM
y
U-L

x
-5 -2 O 1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 2.122

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y = /([*])

-2 4 5
y=f(W)

X
fit
t C
3
Fig. 2.123 •- §ft, r-
OR
y = f(x)---- > y = /([x])
Step 1. Plot the straight lines parallel toy-axis for integral values of x _ ft) -
et
(say-3,-2,- 1, 0,1, 2, 3,...) .n
Step 2. Now mark the points at which x = - 3, x = - 2, x = -1, x = 0, x = 1, ••■°n the curve. w
e
Step 3. Take the lower marked point for x say ifn<x<n + l then take the point at x = n and
iv

0
at

draw a horizontal line to the nearest vertical line formed by x = n + 1, proceeding in this way we get
re

required curve.
3
nc

Plot the curve y = e[xl.

ar

EXAMPLE
. .. .
.le

• SOLUTION Here the graph for y = e is shown as;

0
w

3
w

y 'y=ex 0 -
w

TTT
f“H

I
X
-3 -2 O 1 2 3

Fig. 2.124

EXAM P L E Sketch the curve y = sin[x] when -2n<x<2n.

• SOLUTION The curve for
y = sin[x]; could be plotted as shown in Fig. 2.125.
T

89

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y

—j—*—I—r
-H-W~
X
-4 -3^-2 4 5 6
CL2 -6 -5 2 3
y=sinx
(U "
. -j—f--u— iT -
:HOu Fig. 2.125
y=sin [x]

: 1
id EXAMPLE Sketch the curve for y = cos[x]; -n < x< n.

fl ■ JS —

"f j1 fl
_ V SOLUTION The curve for y = cos[x] could be plotted as;
y
y=cos [x]

t
ne
e.
2 3 n
iv
-2 0 1
at
re
nc
ar

Fig. 2.126
.le
w
w

EXAM PLE Plot the curve y = [x]2; -2<x<2.

w

SOLUTION The curve for y = [x]2; -2 < x < 2 could be plotted as;
y

/y=*2
4

—y=M2
1
,-t-R
O 1 2
Fl

Fig. 2.127

(xvi) y = f(x) transforms to y = [/([x])]

Here, we should follow two steps;

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(i) y = fW —> y = AW)
(ii) y = AW)—>y = (AW)]
EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y = [sinWi where [■] denotes the greatest integral function 0
when 0 < x < 7L
c
SOLUTION Here; first we shall plot the curve fory = sin[x], when x e [0, n]. 5
y y
y— y= sin [x]; 0 < x<, n C
sin 2 sin 2
sin 1 sin 1 - 0

Is
sin 3 sin 3

2* 3 n" x
O 1 2 3 k O 1

y=[sin[x]];O<x<ir
Fig. 2.128 - ■n
&)

t
From above figure we conclude that; 3
when 0<x<n => y = sin[x] e [0,1). ne (A
e.
Oh
iv

=> y = [sin W]--- * 0 for all 0 < x < n.

at

3
re
nc

EXAMPLE Plot the curve y = [e[x]]; when- 4< x < 2.

ar

$ SOLUTION Here to sketch y = [e[xl], we should follow the steps as; Ml

.le

(0 y = e* 0
3
w

(ii) y = e[xl
w

(iii) y = [etx]] 0
w

(i) y = ex (ii) y = etx]

y. y
(2. e2)
4

3 e~2.7 ■

2 r(1.e)
pi V

-2
e

O
(0.1)

1
(l.o)

2
x
m
-3
(0,1)
(-3, 31
e3

-4 -3 -2 O 1 2

4—f—
Fig. 2.129 Fig. 2.130

91

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a
i i-Ti
(iii) y = [e'x1]; from Fig. 2.130.

0<etx) <1; x < 0

y

31 c
_ elxl=i
J* I — ; 0<x<l e
e[x) = 2.7 ; l<x<2 I t y=[e1'1)
-+ a- 1 1
Thus; y = [e(x)]
' :■
fo 0; x<0 -3 -2 O 1 2
x

3 zM: =>y = 1; 0<x<l shown as in

2; l<x<2
Fig. 2.131. Fig. 2.131

t£ Graph fo., y = [e[x]]; when x < 2.

p
--r (xvii) y = /(x) transforms to [y] = f (x) / Graph of Candles
Here, to plot [y] = /(x); we check only those points for which /(x) e integers, as [y] g integers

t
ne
for all x.
—I Thus; [y] = f (x) represents only integral values ofy. Here, domain of /(x) are set of values ofx
e.
for which /(x) g integers.
iv
at

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve;

re
nc

[y] = sin x.
ar

Q) SOLUTION As we know; - 1 < sin x < 1 but since; [y] = sin x.

J
.le

=> sin x = - 1, 0,1 are only solutions;

w
w

or x= e Domain of [y] = sin x.

w

I
i
Thus, [y] = sin x is shown as in Fig. 2.132.
Graph for y = sin x :
y

EE -2k -n k _j ■. on k 7 2k
x

~2 \!/ f M/
I

T
34
Fig. 2.132

—1
92 ’

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Graph for [y] = sin x :
y
rnq._
+0
1 ■tc -r
(-3tt, 0
F7 o (0. 0) B
(n.O)
I D
(2n. 0)\
\
X
FW
r it
(4-( [y] = sin x ■ c ■

j4-®
Fig. 2.133

From above figure, (the points marked 0, A, B, C, D, E, A', B', C', D', E'is the graph for
candles), or graph for [y] = sin x.

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve [y] = sin X

5: S:...
t
ne
: £) SOLUTION As we know the graph fory = sin'1 x; shown as in Fig. 2.134 and 2.135.
-(/) L-k
e.
Graph for y = sin-1 x; Graph for [y] = sin-1 x;
:0
iv

y 4
at

2-
4T
re

k/2
nc

1U2___
C (sin 1,1)
m/
ar

i / 1
.le

x
—1 siij»(—L Io sin 1 1
w

+
_____E (0.0)—i—i-
-sin 1 ’ o
x -3
w

sin 1 1 Xw-n
w

-n/2
A ___
(-sin 1,-1)
-nJ2

Fig. 2.134
Fig. 2.135

From above figure, [y] = sin x.

(xviii) y = f(x) transforms to [y] = Lf(x)] lI'jTl

As we have earlier discussed y = [/(x)], i.e., transformation (xiv), and we know [y] implies
only those values of x for which /(x) e integer.

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve; [y] = [sin x].

£) SOLUTION To sketch the curve [y] = [sin x] we first plot y = [sin x]. I
1

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(i) Graph for y = [sin x]
y

2
w w Y

£
a -3rt
X

o
Fig. 2.136

(ii) Graph for [y] = [sin x]

S:
2 L L
(5ti^2, 1)

Em
(-3n/2,1) 1 'n/2

t
-3n I IT ~2n ne x
e.
iv
at
re
nc

Fig. 2.137
ar
.le

From above figure it is clear [y] = [sin x] is periodic with period 2rc.
.■ wto >i ■i tv. i rirriir ir i.mb.*-.. .-3 • >lltrr-..i ^r^.« jb MiawlM
w

(xix) y = f(x) transforms to y = f ({x}); (where { } denotes fractional part of x,

w
w

i.e., [x] = x - [x])

fM---- > /({X})
Graph of f(x - [x]) or /({x}) can be obtained from the graph of /(x) by following rule.
“Retain the graph of /(x) for values of x lying between interval [0,1). Now it can be repeated for
rest of the points, (taking periodicity 1).
New obtained function is graph fory = /({x})”.
Graphically it could be stated as;
Graph for y = /(x) Graph for y = /({x})
y y neglecting

y.

Fig. 2.138
94 Fig. 2.139

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EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y = ({x} - I)2.
^SOLUTION Here, we know the curve fory = (x-1)2 shown as;
Graph for y = (x - I)2: Graph for y = ({x} - l)2 : 0
y y c
y=(x-1)2 50)
-2 -i o
1
1 ~2
x
-3 -2 ~
' O 12 3 4
(M-1)2
----- ?
(D
Fig. 2.140 Fig. 2.141 a)
Now; to plot y = ({x} - l)2 retain the
3
graph for the interval x e [0,1) and
fi.
repeat for length ‘one’.

EX A M P L E Sketch the curve |y| = ({x} - l)2.

3

t
^SOLUTION As discussed in above example y = ({x} - I)2.
ne
Thus, |y| = ({x} - l)2 is image of ({x} - l)2 on x-axis whenever ({x} - I)2 is positive.
0
e.
0
iv
Graph of | y | = ({x} - I)2 :
at

■T
3a)
re
nc
ar

x ■■a
.le

0
3
w

to
w
w

Fig. 2.142

EXAMPLE Sketch the graph ofy =

^SOLUTION As we know 2X is exponential function and we want to transform it to 2X -[xl, it

retain the graph for x e [0,1) and repeat for rest points.
Graph for y = 2X Graph for y = 2{x>
To retain graph between x e [0,1).
y y
y=2x
I I 2
Z Illi
2

1 1
x
X -3 -2 O 1 2 3 4
O 1

Fig. 2.143 Fig. 2.144 95

— .»«•—r- w ■ ■ i—11 ii. ■» m iw Kxwr.<**-w

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(xx) y = f (x) transforms to y = {/(x)}
Here, plot the horizontal lines for all integral values of y and for the point of intersection on
y = /(x) plot draw vertical lines and translate the graph for boundary y = 0 and y = 1.

J" EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y = {sin x}. (where { •} denotes the fractional part of x).
— (^SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = sin x. Shown as.
(U “ , Graph of sin x :
' *tt h. ~i y
x o I
1
—I - = sinx

I Fig. 2.145

t
ne
As to retain the curve when 0 < y < 1; and shift other sections of graph between y = 0 to y = L
e.
iv
Graph for y = {sin x} :
at

y.
re
nc
ar
.le

ymlWf3
w
w

i I
w

Fig. 2.146

2 EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y = {x2}.

- (W SOLUTION As we know the curve y = x2, is shown as:

I
5

2
J
1

d LL
I I «
-2-<3-<2 -1 O 1 <2<3 2
x

4—^96 .

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Fig. 2.147
for more
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-

Now to sketch y = {x2}; retain the graph for 0 < y < 1 and for other intervals transform the
i graph between 0 < y < 1.
y

5
-• E T
4
A —w
5;
— H
3
\
Translated "'CT
< between
0Sy<1 —©

-2-V3-V2 -1 0
w
1 V2V3 2
x
tfl)Z

EXAMPLE
Fig. 2.148

Sketch the curve y = {ex }.

s
-3-E
t
$ SOLUTION As we know the curve y = ex; ne -W -
e.
0
iv

shown as: Graph for y = {ex} :

at

To retain the graph for 0 < y < 1 and transform

•13
re

the others to 0 < y < 1.

3
nc

y "fl)
ar

2 / ■I
3
.le

1
-10
Transformed
{3-r
w

2
r—- between
w

1 0Sy<1
w

O log 2 log 3 Retained y={ex}

O log 2 log 3
Fig. 2.149

Fig. 2.150
m n—wmi - ini.- mn—r-r —

(xxi) y = f(x) transforms to y = {f ({x})}

Here, we have to follow two steps :
(i) Draw the graph for y = /({x}).
(ii) /({x})-----> {/({x})}

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y = {e{x>}.

© SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = ex, is plotted as shown in Fig. 2.151. 'it
. 97 L
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i Graph for y = ex: Now to sketch y = e{x} retain the graph for
y = ex between 0 < x < 1 and repeat for entire
real x.
Graph for y = e<x}:
W
£ e
Q.
ft 1
e
0 0 1
X
1

~I Fig. 2.151 —2. O 1 2 3

X

- Fig. 2.152
Graph for y = {e{x>}:
y

t
e
7 ne 7 7 7 7
e.
r\
2
iv
at
re
nc

y={ew}
-------
ar

-3 -2 -1 -log 2 O log 2 1' 2 3 4

.le
w

Fig. 2.153
w
w

Here, we know the graph for y = e:<x}, now to plot straight lines 11 to x-axis for integral values ofy
and retain the graph for 0 < y < 1 and transform the others between 0 < y < 1.

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y = {sin{x}}.

O SOLUTION As we know the curve y = sin x; is plotted as;
Graph for y = sin x :

sin1
x
Oj 1 A 2tc
2

Fig. 2.154

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Graph for y = sin{x} :
y

0
c '
/ 5
-3 ,-2
Sc
S
Fig. 2.155 &
3
Graph for y = {sin{x}} : fi.
From above figure
y = sin{x} => 0 < y < 1.
bh
■ s
y ... 3

t
ne
e.
sin1
0
iv

y={sin {x}}
at

j3ED
re

-3 -2
nc
ar

■■I
.le

Fig. 2.156 0
3
w

w
w

So, the graph of y = sin{x} and y = {sin{x}} are same.

w

(xxii) y = f(x) transforms to {y} - f(x) -

Here; retain the graph of y = /(x) only when y = /(x) lies between y g [0,1) and neglect the
graph for other values.
Graphically it could be stated as; tt-
4 neglected

4----
Graph fory= f(x)
i
—U-
Graph for {y} = f(x)
--------->x

Fgi. 2.157 i .

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EXAMPLE Sketch the curve {y} = x2.

H
i SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = x2, is plotted as:
4-444 Graph for y = x2: Graph for {y} = x2:
44-0)4
4-4-.Er y

4— .oE

§ X
{y) = x2
4------------- X

■■4M-
i-h-Sh-
; O 1 1

Fig. 2.158 Fig. 2.159

Em44 EXAMPLE Sketch the curve {y } = sin x

t
i
ne
(|| SOLUTION As we know the curve y = sinx, is plotted as shown in Fig. 2.160 and 2.161.
e.
Graph for y = sin x :
iv
at

y
re
nc
ar
.le

X
0, K 2k 3k'
w
w
w

~ri~r I
■TFF Fig. 2.160
Now to sketch {y} = sin x: We retain the graph for 0 < y < 1 and neglect the graph for other
values.

ff+J
■ 4—I—p
Graph for {y} = sin x :
y

•'trr

stn neglected
U 4-1-
Fig. 2.161
L
-j-,’ 100.
;4-J-
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(xxiii) y = f(x) transforms to {y} = {/(x)}
rt
As we have earlier discussed y = {/(x)} (i.e., transformation (xx), which shows y = {/(x)}
belongs to [0, 1) => {y} = {/(x)}. Thus, the graph ofy = {/(x)} and {y} = {/(x)} are same.
0
EXAMPLE Sketch the curve {y} = {x}.
(^SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = x. Graph for y = {x} : 3fi) ’
i y y
-
1
: _c.
1 T“ ©

X y= W
-2 O 1
x

I?3
-3 -2 o 1 2

-2
-- 3
t
Fig. 2.162
ne Fig. 2.163
to -
e.
Graph for {y} = {x} : From above figure we can seey = {x} attains all values between [0,1).
iv
at

Thus, graph remains same.

re

y
*
nc

•4
ar

■I
.le

i0
J=w -3
w

to
w

X
o
-3 -2 1 21
T
w

Fig. 2.164
—
EXAMPLE Sketch the curve {y} = {cos x}.
SOLUTION As we know the curve y = {cosx} is plotted as shown in Fig. 2.165.
y

x
3n 5it
2 2

Fig. 2.165 1.L

■101

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From above figure; y = {cosx} lies between [0, 1), which shows y = {cosx} and {y} = {cosx}
are same.
•4-L.l Thus, graph for {y} = {cos x}:
y

Q.
g; (y) = {cos x)

0 ii -I i1
?s:
...4 J Fig. 2.166

(xxiv) y = f(x) transforms to y = /-1(x)

As discussed in chapter 1. y = f'1 (x) is the mirror image of y = /(x) about y = x.
OR
’ -i " T
“Interchange x and y-axis when function is bijective.”

t
r Graphically it could be stated as :
i y ne l y = fM
e.
iv
at
re
nc

o —-------------
ar
.le
w
w
w

Fig. 2.167

2;4 SKETCHING h(x) = MAXIMUM {f(x), g(x)} AND h(x) = MINIMUM {f (x), g(x)}

(i) h(x)-maximum {f(x), g(x)}

/(x); when /(x)> g(x)

hW =
g(x); when g(x) >/(x)

Sketch f(x) when its graph is above the graph of g(x) and sketch g(x) when its graph is above
the graph of /(x).
(ii) h(x) * minimum {f(x), g(x)}
■

/(x), when /(x) < g(x)

=> h(x) =
g(x), when g(x) < /(x)
-I—
Sketch /(x) when its graph is lower and otherwise sketch g(x).
J 102.

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Note One must remember the formula we can write; n
max{f(x), g(x)} =
fto + g(x) [ I W) ~ g(x)
2 2
f(x) + g(x) fw- g(x) 0
min {f(x), g(x)} =
2 2 - c
OR = fi)2
"To draw the graph of functions of the form y = max {J(x), g(x)} or H
y = min {/(x), g(x)}.”
We first draw the graphs of both the functions f (x) and g(x) and their points of intersections. Is
Then we find any two consecutive points of intersection. In between these points either
/(x) > g(x) or /(x) < g(x), then, in order to max{y(x), g(x)} we take those segments of /(x) fi) ■
for which J(x) > g(x), between any two consecutive points of intersection of /(x) and g(x).
Similarly, in order to min {f (x), g(x)}, we take those segments of /(x) for which
/(*)< g(x), between any two consecutive points of intersection of /(x) and g(x).

EXAMPLE (Q) Sketch the graph ofy = max {sinx, cosx}, V xe

- fi)

t
3
($ SOLUTION First plot both y = sin x and
ne y
W
e.
y = cos x by a dotted curve as can be seen
1
iv

from the graph in the interval (-n, ) 0

at

,-/B\
re

and then darken those dotted lines for

TH n\ X 3
nc

which /(x) > g(x) or g(x) > /(x). 2 ' \Q 2

ar

From adjacent figure the point of

.le

intersections are A, B, C. 0
w

3
w

Fig. 2.168 V)
w

Graph of max {sin x, cos x}

y 4 • -
t ~r
iH
y=max. {sin x, cosx} t-4
B
----- H n x
O n_ '3n X... ..
2 2 2
C
A
f -
■

Fig. 2.169

EXAMPLE Sketch the graph for y = min {tan x, cot x}. £

SOLUTION First plot both /(x) = tan x and g(x) = cot x by a dotted curves as can be seen from
| the graph and then darken those dotted lines for which J(x) < g(x) and g(x) < /(x).
1 I
103
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y I I I
I I I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
-4-- 4 I
X
t
I I
I I
I I
I I
» I
I

X V I X I X I
X I
£ X
X
X
X /
I X
X /
II
\ I

U' -n _2L
D
n 3n

A 'A A
2 2 2

x
■ >. i
Fig. 2.170

From above figure we obtain the graph of min{tanx, cotx}.

t
Graph of min {tan x, cot x} :
y ne
e.
iv

1
at
re

X
n
nc

_3n -n _A O 2L 3rt
2_________ 2_______ __________2 2
ar

ZV7O
.le

*•
-
w
w
w

Fig. 2.171

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y = min {| x |, |x - 11, |x +11}.

i-U- £) SOLUTION First plot the graph
44-H for:
zy=|x+1|
xy=M
y=|x|, y = |x-l|, y=|x + l|
by a dotted curve as can be seen
from the graph and then darken
* those dotted lines for which
| x | < {| x — 11, | x + 11}j
|x-l|<{|x|,|x + l|}
’• and | X + 1 | < { | X |, | X — 1 |}.
t Graph for
■ y = |x|, y=|x-l|,y = |x + l|.
Fig. 2.172

' 104
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As from the above curve graph fory = min {|x - 1|, |x|, |x + 1|} is plotted as;
FT;

-cn
o
~ Q) 21
or ;2 C H
2

Fig. 2.173
X-- 3 -
t 0)
From above figure; - 3
-(x + 1); x< -1

(x + 1) ; - 1< x<--
2
p fl)

t
-(x) --< x< 0 -+-3-H-
min {| x — l|,|x|,|x + l|} = ne
2
~V>
e.
(x) 0<x<- i*..-
0
iv

2
at

(1-x) ; i<x<l

i
re

2
nc

(x-1) ;
ar

u
.le

2«5 WHEN f(x),g(x)----- > f(x) + g(x) = h(x)

O1-
w
w
w

There is no direct approach; but we can use following steps if minimum or maximum value of any
one is known.
Step 1. Find maximum and minimum value of g(x) say; a < g(x) b.
Step 2. Plot the curve h(x) = f(x) + g(x) between /(x) + a to /(x) + b.
i.e., f(x) + a < h(x) < f(x) + b
Step 3. Checkg(x) = 0 => h(x) = /(x). T
Step 4. When g(x) > 0 h(x) > /(x).
Step 5. When g(x) < 0 h(x) < /(x). f j‘

EXAMPLE Plot the curve y = x + sin x.

SOLUTION Here, y = x + sin x = /(x) + g(x)
■=R
as we know; g(x) = sin x g [- 1,1]
x-l<y<x+l
=> To sketch the curve between two parallel lines y = x + 1 and y = x - 1 (called bounded limits)
also; g(x) = 0 => y = x ...(ii)
g(x)>0 =s> y = x + sinx>x ...(iii)
1_.L _L1
,'105_ .

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g(x)<0 => y = x + sinx<x ...(iv)
Using Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), we get

/z<
y=x+1x '(3n/2,3n/2-1)
='23+-'—*'
y
'(n/2, +

r -3n/2 -n -n/2 /-1 z,4(o,o)/i n/2 n 3n/2

/ /-\/

(-7t/2,-7t/2-1)

t
-of
(-3n/2, -3n/2 +1^
ne
e.
iv
at
re

Fig. 2.174
nc
ar

2:6 WHEN f(x),g(x)---- > f(x) g(x) = h(x)

.le

-+-+-r
w

There is no direct approach but we can use the following steps if minimum and maximum of any
w

one is known.
w

Step 1. Find the minimum and maximum of any one of them say a<, gM<b.
Step 2. From step 1; a /(x)< h(x)< h /(x)
•j.z Step 3. Check g(x) = 0 => h(x) = 0.

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve; y = xsinx.

($SOLUTION Here; y = xsinx;

j± where, - 1 < sin x < 1 y=xsinx

44
T I
4—
-x< y< x ...(i)
also; sinx = 0
~H4 x = - 2n, - n, 0, n, 2 k, ...

-H- -j- y = 0 when x = - 2n,-it, 0, n,...

Fig. 2.175
1.1 IJ
106 .
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n 5n
and y=x when x = —, —, ...
2 2 1 .
y = -x when
n 3n
x = —, —, ...
2 2 -o+
I
EXAMPLE © Draw the graph of the function y =
sin x
.
1 1
(^SOLUTION As we know; -1 < sin x < 1 => y=------ lies between - - to -.
2C ;
1 1
or to sketch the curve where — < y < — ••■(i) - 0 -1-
X x
Here at x = 0; y is not defined but as;
sinx
:: art
x-----> 0 y =— 1 -(ii) -3 -
X
also; y = 0 at x = nn; n e z - {0} -(iii)
Using Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii), the curve could be plotted as;
4
i i
-ft)

t
ne
i i
^y=1/x
y=-1/xjf
e.
\
0-
iv

/ \
at

/ \
30)
re
nc

X
5k/2 3k\^_
ar

fit -5k/2 -2k -3nJ2 -n/2 O k/2 k 3nJ2 !k

sinx - —
.le

y=—
0-
w

/ 3
w

I
I 0 -
w

l
I

Fig. 2.176

EXAMPLE (^^Draw the curve: y = e~x sinx

(^SOLUTION As we know; y=e’x*'Nx
y.

-1 < sin x < 1

y = ex sinx ... A""
y = es\r\xl i

<y<.e~x ...CD x
—2rc —k \ O K 4k “
3k
Thus, y is bounded between
y=-e A and y = e V
Shown as in Fig. 2.177;
Xy=-e"x
107 .
Fig. 2.177
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4—

- (/)
X- EXAMPLE (£T^) Sketch the curves of the following :
Q. i (i) y = Jx - [X] (ii) y = [x] + fx - [x]
r G - ; .--------
(Hi) y = | [x] + fx - [x] [; where [ •] represent greatest integer function

H-
0.® SOLUTION (i) As we know that;
0 < x - [x] < 1 for all x e R.
Also, for any x g [0,1), we have
Zt § J x2 < x< Vx
x - [x] < yjx - [x]
when - 1 < x < 0
x , when 0< x< 1
Now, y = Jx-\x] =
'x - 1, when l<x< 2

t
I
j y/x- 2, newhen 2< x< 3 ... and so on.
e.
Thus, from above we have to plot;
iv

y = Vx, when 0 < x < 1

at

i
re

j y= x- when 1 < x < 2

nc

(i.e., same as shifting Vx towards right by 1 unit.)

ar

y= X- when 2 < x < 3

.le

(i.e., same as shifting Vx towards right by 2 units)

w

the curve fory = ,]x - [x] is periodic with period ‘1’. Shown as in Fig. 2.178.
w
w

y
f—
1

i X
-3 -2 -1 O\ 1 2 3

Fig. 2.178
A—j-
(ii) As we know; y = [x] + Jx - [x]
-1, when -1 < x < 0
x , when 0 < x < 1
=> y=
1 + yjx - 1 , when 1 < x < 2
2 + 'x - 2 , when 2 < x < 3 ... and so on.

108

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Thus, the graph for y = [x] + Jx - [x] is obtained by the graph of y = yjx - [x] by
translating it by [x] units in upward or downward direction according as
! [x] >0 or [x] < 0.
y. o
i 4

3
/l + [Vx^3

2+VX-2
I
2
- c
1 + Vx^1
1
®

-3 -2 o 1 2 3 4 5
x
3
5
>lx+ 1

4 n3
-3
t
ne
e.
Fig. 2.179
JO
iv
at

Thus, the curve for y = [x] + Jx - [x]

re

From above curve we could discuss that;

nc

b
y = [x] + t/x - [x] is continuous and differentiable for all x. &)
ar

(iii) The graph for y = | [x] + ^x - [x] | is obtained by reflecting the portion lying below x-axis of the
.le
w

graph ofy = [x] + ^x - [x] about x-axis and keeping the portion lying above x-axis (as it is).
w

Thus, the graph for y = | [x] + -]x - [x] |.

w

..
x
-3 -2 O 1 2 3 4
i
!
i
Ii
Fig. 2.180
109
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TJ—i
in EXAMPLE
(^SOLUTION Here;
Sketch the curve y = (1 - x273)372.

4 (i)
u.
I
(a) /(-x) = /(x) .•. even function or symmetric about y-axis
x = 0 => y = 1 1
(b) When ...(ii)
y = 0 => x = ± 1]
i-r
r.— (c)
Domain e [- 1,1] 1
...(iii)
Range e [0,1] J
t dy
4- (d)
— > 0 when x 6 [- 1, 0]
dx ...(iv)
— < 0 when x 6 [0,1]
\ I
dx
d2y
(e) —4 > 0 when x e [- 1,1] ...(V)
dx2

r From above;
y
J
t
ne
e.
iv
y=(1_x2/3)3/2
at
re

► O 1
X
nc

TO
ar

Fig. 2.181
.le
w

EXAMPLE ((^Sketch the graph for y = (x - l)x2/3.

w
w

1ZLL_ (^solution In y = (x - Dx273

(a) Not symmetric about any axis or origin. (i)
asx = 0=>y = 0 ]

i
(b) ...(ii)
as y = 0 => x = 0,1
Domain e R|
(c) ...(iii)
Range e R J

TO
:4-i—I— (d)
^ = x 2/3
dx
2(X - 1)
3x173
5x-2
3x173
dy 2
— > 0, when x < 0 or
dx 5 ...(iv)
dy 2
— < 0, when 0 < x < -
dx 5

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x1/3 • 5-(5x-2)|(x)-2/3
y
d2y 1 y=(x-1)x2/3
(e)
dx2 3 x273
0
!
lOx + 2
9x4/3
o
1
x ■ I
d2y 2
—y > 0, when x< — or x> 0
dx2 5 rr-
d2y 2
—y < 0, when — < x < 0
dx2 5 Fig. 2.182
.2/3
Thus, curve for y = (x - 1) x is shown in —
Fig. 2.182. ,-i a
EXAMPLE Draw the graph for:
(i) y = |l-|x-l|| (ii) |y| = |l-|x-l||
Q)

t
43
ne
SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = x - 1
4 -
e.
iv

1-0
at
re

I
nc
ar
.le

40 -
w

t 5-
w

W-
w

Fig. 2.183

(a) y = (x — 1)-----> y = |x- 1| (b) y = |x— 1|----->y =-|x-l|

y

T j—f~

X
O
— -

x'" +-H
Fig. 2.185
Fig. 2.184
m
in
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i -
■

-i-H (c) y =- |x- 11---- > y = 1 —|x— 1| (d) y = 1 - | x - 11----> y = 11 - | x - 111

4-1— y y
'-14
1 y=|i-|x-i|l

X X
O 1 2
O 1 2

Fig. 2.186 Fig. 2.187

(e) y = |1 - |x — 11| |y | = |l-|x-l||

y

(1.1) M = |1 -|x-1||

t
ne x
e.
-J—•

f-
iv
at
re
nc

Fig. 2.188
I.
-
ar
.le

EXAMPLE Draw the graph for:

w

(i) y = 2-—^— (ii) y= 2- 1 1

(W|y| = 2-
w

“—i—I— |x-l| |x-l| |x-l|

w

(^SOLUTION We know the graph for y - — is shown as;

■
x
y

;J .
-H-H
44+i 1

.ifrh 1
X

Fig. 2.189

112

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1
| (a)y = ±_> 1
y=_^ i_____
(b) y = ->
x x-l x-l 1.
y. y.
O

X
O 1
X
j: &)
! 1 2
(0,-1?
T®
s
_..

Fig. 2.190 Fig. 2.191

i 1 1 1
(c) y = *y = - (d) y = - >y=2-
|x-l| |x-l| |x-l|
- a> -
y y=2-i^u
t
3
ne V)
e.
iv
at

x
3a>
re

o 1
nc

(0,-1)
ar

Ml
.le

Fig. 2.193 0
w

3
w

Fig. 2.192 W
w

1 1 1
! (e) y = 2 - *y = 2------ - — (f) y = 2- —>|y| = 2-
|x-l| |x-l| |x-l| (x-l|

y 1
y
|x-1|l

i
■:

o
o 3.
-
2

Fig. 2.194 Fig. 2.195

L 113

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EXAMPLE© Sketch the graph for:
(i) y = e'x' - e-x (ii) y = |1 + e'x' - e"x
(iii) |y| = |1 + e|x| - e (iv) |y | 11 + e|x| - e
^(SOLUTION
■ (i) Here y = e■W-e
!
ex - e ; x> 0
=> y=
e - e ; x< 0
ex - e“3 xiO
y=
0 ; x< 0
To discuss; y = ex - e"x
(i) when x = 0 => y = o (it passes through origin)
(ii) when y = 0 => e 2x -1 = 0 => x = 0
L (iii) /(-x) = -/(x)
as y = /to = ex - e’x
4

t
=> /(-x) = e"x - ex = - /(x);
J ne
it shows y = /(x) = ex - e is odd function, Le., symmetric about origin.
e.
(iv) y = ex - e-x
iv
at

=> ^ = ex + e~x e2* +1 > 0 for all xeR.

x
re

dx ex
I !
nc

y is increasing for all x.

ar

d2y _ / P- -1
(v) —7 = e - e
.le

dx2 ex
.!.
w

d2y ,. .
w

■-
=> —<- > 0 when x > 0; concave up and increasing.
dx2
w

s
~rr
...
d2y
also —y < 0 when x < 0; concave down and increasing from above discussion
dx2
y = ex - e"x; is plotted as shown in Fig. 2.196.
Recall: Increasing

O 1
M3 4-
/<?
- ';xe R
Fig. 2.196
’ i. 1 z
_J 114
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Now; y

y=e*-e'x;x>0
ex -e x> 0
y = e|x| - e
0 x< 0.
y= ew- e‘x

FT
o
Thus from Fig. 2.197. y=O;x<O
(0.0)
x
FtB
Fig. 2.197 --pcH-
(II) Plotting of y = 11 + ew - e-x|
(D
y.
4
13fi.
y= 1;x<0 1
y=1+e’f-e"*;x>0

1
y= |1+ dx'-e"x|

1' —

-Pft)—
-3 —
t
x
ne
X
O
O 4-0—
e.
iv

Fig. 2.198 Fig. 2.199

at
re

t3-
From above Fig. 2.198.
h-
nc

y = e|x| - e -----> y = 1 + -e
ar

-e ; x> 0
'5-
.le

=> y=
1 ; x< 0 i-3
w
w

Thus, the graph for; y = |1 + e'x' - e «-

w

is same as; y = 1 + e'x' - e {as y > 1 for all x e R}

Graph for y = |1 + e'x' - e~x | is shown in Fig. 2.199.
(III) Plotting of | y | = 11 + ew - e-x| +-r—
y.
S
y= 1;x<0 1
y=1 + ex-e'x;x£0
p4 4
x
O

y=-(1 +e’-e"’);x20

-
Fig. 2.200

lisj-
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- (iv) Plotting of | y| < |1 + ew - e x| X
y=1 + ex-e"x;x>0
■.rm From above figure check any point say /
(0, 0)
w y=1;x<0 1
=> 0 < 111 (True, thus to shade area |y|<|1 +
Q.- towards (0, 0). (0,
-------- ►*

(U From given figure shade part represents

□~ the area bounded between two curves.
A
y= —(1 + e*-e x); x>0
Fig. 2.201

> 1
EXAMPLE Sketch the curve of the following:
—+—i---- j— I (i) k + y|>l (ii) | x - y | < 1
(Hi) |x| + |y|< 2 (iv) |x|-|y|>l
(^SOLUTION

t
i (i) Here to sketch, |x + y|>1
e.
ne
we know; | x + y| > 1
iv

I—
at

x+y> 1
=>
re

x+y<-l
nc

or x+y>1
ar
.le

I - and
2
w

First we shall draw the graph for

w

x + y = 1 and x + y = - 1, now we
w

shall consider any fixed point say

(0, 0) and check x + y > 1 and
x + y < -1 holds or not.
As; x + y>l => 0>l (false),
shaded part is away from origin,
m again as; x + y < - 1
=> 0<-1 (false)
Fig. 2.202
.-. Shaded part is away from origin
shown as in Fig. 2.202.
(ii) To sketch |x-y|£l
we know |x-y|<l
-1 < x - y < 1
=> -l-x<-y<l-x
I
116 .

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or (x - 1) £ y < (x + 1) yk
■

I
Thus, to plot y between (x - 1) to (x + 1).

In figure shaded parts is towards origin as; 1

&
.O '
putting any fixed point say (0,0); in | x - y| < 1.
=> |0- 0|< 1
z1. x rI I

I
=> 0<l (true)
I
u
r®
I |x-y|<i f o 'f
■ (iii) To sketch | x | +1 y | < 2 Fig. 2.203
Here; |y | = 2 - |x | is plotted as;
y

2,
|y| = 2-|x|
-ft) —

et
-3 -T-
e.n x
-2 O 2
of
iv
at

y=2-x y=2- |x|

-2
3o
re
nc

(Hi)
ar

Fig. 2.204
5—
.le

y
w

From above graph of|y | = 2 - |x |, we can check shading of 3

w

2
i
0
w

|y|<2-|x| or |x| + |y|<2.

X
as at (0, 0) => 0< 2 (true) -2
shading towards origin; shown as in Fig. 2.205.
-2' |x| + |y|<2
(iv) Sketching of |x | - | y | > 1
To sketch | x | - |y | > 1; we proceed as: Fig. 2.205

y = (x-l)-»y = |x|-l-»|y| = |x|-l->|x|-|y|£l

I y

y=x-1

X
O 1

(i) (•i)
117

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y y
I—i—■
Iy| = |x|-1

O 1
—
►-Vo-rf X

(iii) (iv)
--
Fig. 2.206

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve;

u SOLUTION
(i) |x + y | + |x-y |< 4
(i) As we know;
H|-|y|; |x|>|y|
l*-y| = -(|x|-|y|); |x|<|y|
(ii) |x + y | + |x-y |>4

4
2

t
Thus; |x + y| + |x - y| < 4 ne
e.
lx + y + x - y < 4; |x|> |y | x
iv

2
[x + y - x + y < 4; |x | < |y |
at

|x+y| + |x-y|<4
re

|2x<4; |x|>|y|
nc

=>

E [2y < 4; |x|<|y|

ar
.le

or |x + y | + |x-y |<4 Fig. 2.207

w

=> |x|£2 and |y |£ 2

w
w

Thus, to shade the portion when -2 < x < 2 and -2 < y < 2. Shown as in Fig. 2.207.
(ii) Again; |x + y| + |x-y|>4 => |x|> 2 and ’ |y | > 2
Thus, to shade the portion when x < -2 or x > 2 and y<-2ory£2. Shown as in
Fig. 2.208.
y.

IIIIIIIIIIIIM
X

ti~r O

IIIIIIIIIIIHIIII '
|x+y| + |x-y|>4
Fig. 2.208
118
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EXAMPLE Sketch the curve for;
(i) 2|x||y | + 2|x|-1 <1 (ii) 2,x| |y| + 2|x,_1 < 1; |x | < i and |y | a. 2
(^SOLUTION (i) Here 2|x| | y| + 2|x|-1 < 1 => 2lxU|y| + M<l ;c •
=> |y| + l<2-'
i<2'wx> EH
Thus, to plot |y| + ^^2_'x|, we proceed as;

y = 12~x
1’

2
-----> y = 2-|x| - - ------> |y| = 2-|xl - -
2 2
|y|<2-N-i 3
(i) Cii) (in) (iv) : a)
Shown as;
f-3 —

H
:3±
t
-3--H
ne x W -k;
e.
O
0
iv
at

-4—!.
Fig. 2.209
3
re
nc

y
ar

■■1—4—;
neglecting
.le

1/2
0 --
3
w

ImagexQ
w

x -^1 O x 0-H
w

O 1 1
^1/2 ^1/2

1 (ii) y = 2-'x> -
H
(i) y = 2
2
y

1/2 1/2

X X
O 1 1

-1/2 -1/2

(iii)|y| = 2-'xl-j (iv)|y|<2-'x'-j L_L

Fig. 2.210

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Here, figure (iv) is shaded towards origin as putting x = 0, y = 0 in |y| < 2_|x| -

I
0< which is true, therefore, shaded towards origin.
=> 0<l-- or 0<-,
2 2
(ii) Plotting of 2|x||y | + 2|x|'1 <1; y

|x|<| and |y|s|.

y=1/2

from above figure; x

1
2|x||y | + 2|x|-1 < 1
2|x||y| + 2|x|-1S1;‘*Z
y=-1/2
and | x | <
Fig. 2.211.
1
2’ |y|4 shown as in |x|<-| and |y|s-| X=-1/2 x=1/2

Fig. 2.211

EXAMPLE @ Sketch the graph of the function:

t
/(x) = log2(l - x2)
ne
e.
o SOLUTION Here, log2 (1 - x2) exists when, -1 < x < 1
iv

i.e., doman e (-1,1) (i)

at

; and range e (-■», 0]

re

' as x-- >±1 => y---- >- oo ...(ii)

nc

differentiating y = log2(l - x2),

ar

= C"2 *)- • (log 2e) = 2 log 2 e x

.le

we get
dx 1-x2 (X2 - 1)
w
w

Using number line rule;

w

o 1
dy
— > 0, when -1 < x < 0
dx (iii)
dy < 0, when 0 < x < 1
—
dx
y
d2y -21og2 efl + x2)
also, < 0 for all x e (- 1,1)
d?~ (1-x2)2
O
y = logfl - x2) is concave down forx e (-1,1)} ...(iv) x
-1 o 1
from above results we can draw
c
iff
y = log2(l - x2) as shown in Fig. 2.212.
cfs 11
I V= log2 (1-x2)
Fig. 2.212
+-! 120
L
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EXAMPLE Sketch the graph of y = log(sinx).
O SOLUTION Here;
(i) y = logfsinx) is defined, when sinx> 0 => x 6 (2n7t, (2n + l)rc).
(ii) Since, sin x is periodic with period 2n.
.■. to discuss y = log (sin x), when x g (0, k) as exists when x g (0, it) and then plotted —
for entire number line.
: (iii) as x---- > 0 y = log(0) = - oo.
n 4— E -ifi
as y—>0

—-— cosx = cotx

sin x-----> 1 x = —.
2
s
dx
=>
sinx
dy n ,
— > 0 when X G I 0, —
§
dx I 2.
dy _ . K
— <0, when xg — , tt
u-il
d21 y = nnca/l
dx 2
I S zn
t
—
(v) ____ —
- cosecV*2 x O< 0£"»»•for
oil
allV Z"x ffl
e (0, it)
ne
_ — — WUW ✓X. 'x W 1VI Uil X— J

dx
e.
Thus, increasing and concave down x g (0, rc/2)
iv

decreasing and concave down x g (rc/2, n).

at

and to plot the curve only when x g (2nn, (2n + 1) n). Shown as in Fig. 2.213.
re

I y
nc

t f*
ar

0 !
.le

5
w

-2n 3rt
w

5y
2 *>
w

Fig. 2.213

EXAMPLE Sketch the graph for

y = - logsinx e. I
OSOLUTION (i) Here, y=-logsinx e =----------- is defined when,
logesinx
sin x > 0 and sin x * 1.
p-H
i.e. xg (2nn, (2n + l)n) - {2nn + n/2}; ne N
1.111
* 4 M

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(ii) y = ----------- is periodic with period 2n,
H-4— log e sinx
/. to discuss the graph for x g (0, k) - {n/2} and sketch for the entire number line.
dy 1 1 ^=+ COtX
(iii) A — = +-------------- • —----- cosx
dx flog sin
Qog x)2 sinx
sinx) dx (log sinx)2

or — > 0 when xg|0, —I

T~ dx . 2)
jZ dy n .

I
— < 0 when —, nXG
dx .2 J

(iv) A=+
dx2
(log sin x)2 ■ (-cosec2 x) - cot x• 2 (log sin x) ■ cot x
(log sinx)4
{(log sinx)2cosec2x + 2 Qog sinx)cot2 x}
Qog sinx)2
>0. for — n). - (M
- all x g (0, —
=>
dx2 [2.
l2j

t
ne
increasing and concave up x g P, k
1
e.
Thus, y = ---------- =>
log sinx
iv

decreasing and concave up x g (o,

at
re

y
nc
ar

1
y
.le

logesin x
w
w
w

-2n -Jt 7t O pt 7t 3n 2rt 5n 3n

-T 2 2 2 2
y=-logsinxe
Fig. 2.214

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve:

(i) Ly] = cosx; x g [-2n, 2 it]
(ii) [7] = [cosx]; x g [-2n, 2k]; where [■ ] denotes greatest integer function.
(^SOLUTION As we know; y = cosx could be plotted as;
K
1

-2rc _3r? .A 0 A1 ~n '3n 2n

2 2 2 2

m
Fig. 2.215

I ;
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(I) Sketching of [y] = cosx
. „ , , „ 3k k _ k 3k „
From above curve cosx = -1, 0,1 when x = - 2k,------ ,-k, - —, 0, —, k, —, 2k
2° 2 2 2
■ o
=> [y] = cos x is possible only

when x e j± 2k, ± ± n, ± 0
i____ ■. c \

1 .: Q)
Thus,
-2k _3k jt o K T 3>t 2k
X-r - c
= -
COS X = - 1 2 2 2 2

cos x = 0 => 0< y < 0 fi)

-2 r~
COS X = 1 => l<y<2
Thus, [y] = cos x is plotted as
shown in Fig. 2.216.
[y] = cos x

Fig. 2.216
5
- fi)
-3
t
(ii) Sketching of [y] = [cosx] ne - (0
e.
First to plot y = [cosx]. Shown as;
10
iv
at

3
re

v
nc

*(-2n,1) ’■(0,1) * (2a, 1)

ar

4 ■■
x
.le

-2n _3k -T~& n 3n 2k 0

2 2 2 2
w
w

(0
w

Fig. 2.217

From above figure y = [cosx]

K 3n
2 2
K 3n
y= 0 ; 0<|x|5— and —<|x|<2k
2 2
1 ; |x| = 0, 2k 4—t-r-
4--*-4--
t I t-
Thus, when y=0 => [y] e [0,1) +•
y=l => [y] e [1, 2)
I-
y = -i [y] g [- 1, 0)

1 _L
123
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Thus, graph for [y] = [cos x]
y
r2
1
(-2n,1)

-i^xc 0<x^- SX<2n

0- —2 it < x 2 2 2

1 _3l 2n<x<y
2

Fig. 2.218

m-
zz~
EXAMPLE Sketch the curves
(i) y = 4-[x]
4— (ii) [y] = 4 - [x]

t
(Hi) [|y |] = 4-[|x|]
ne ‘ •* V;
e.
(^SOLUTION As we know;
iv

(i) y = 4 - [x] could be plotted with in two steps;

at
re

y - 4 - x---- > y = 4 - [x]

nc
ar

y
.le
w

4 4
w

-3- -3-
w

4- 4

2 -To 3 4s 1o 3
45—
5
<

-3-

y=4-[x]
(i) (ii)
Fig. 2.219

(ii) Since, we know from above curve y = 4 - [x]

=> y e integer, thus, on taking integral part, say
[y] = Z => Z<y<(Z + l)

'124.

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Ih
Graph for [y] = 4 - [x]

0 I
Included
-4J
-3-
■■ Excluded 111»r
4-
x
-3 -2 O
-4
1 2 3 1. ® F.
and so on
-3
[y]=4-[x]
Uq.4-
■FjF-
Fig. 2.220

In above curve lower boundary are included and upper are excluded. - a)
t
(iii) To sketch [|y|] = 4- [|x|] ne 40
e.
From above figure we can say; 4 —
iv

0
at

[y] = 4 - [x]-----> [y] = 4 - [ | x | ] [|y |] = 4-[|x|]

re

4 2
nc

5
£
ar
.le

~4

■■ I-v>
w

-3

■
w

-2
w

—4
If l I5 X
-5 -4 j3 |2 4l°
-4
1 2 3 4
Illi
— -j—
---- |—i—
-3 " t 'i "
■■ -5

[|y|]+(Wl=4
Fig. 2.221
3-4-4
EXAMPLE @ Shade the region whose co-ordinates x and y satisfy the equation.
cosx-cosy>0
^SOLUTION Here, cosx-cosy>0 can be written as, 2sin x + y sin •- 1—f
2
-125-1—
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H
x+y y-x
=> sin sin >0
I 2 2

4 This inequality holds true for all points,

r,
&-
i.e.,
fx + y ( y — x i
I when sin I—^-1 and sin I ■■ ■ I have same sign.

(x + y y-x
sin ---- — > 0 and sin - ----- > 0
h
I 2 2
0“ (x + y y-x
or sin < 0 and sin - ----- < 0
I 2 2
st or
x + y > 2nir and y - x > 2nn
x + y < 2nn and y - x < 2nn
[y > 2n7t - x y < 2nn - x
or
y > 2mt + x y < 2nn + x where n e z

£ Here,- the equation x + y = 2kn represents a system of parallel straight lines corresponding to
different values of k.
Say k = 0,1 => y=-x and y=-x + 2n.

t
ne
i.e., the set of points whose coordinates satisfy the inequality
e.
0< x + y < 2n
iv

Similarly, for general points: 2kn < x + y< (2k + l)rc ...(i)
at

x+y
re

Now, the set of points which satisfy sin >0.

2
nc
ar

y. j
.le

,8n
w
w

X6n
w

tn71
r
y-x=2nn
------------->x
[6 ftl - cos x > cos y

j'r-6n

'x+y=2kn
Fig. 2.222

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=> 2rtn < X + y < (2n +1) n

2
=> 2(2nn)< x + y < 2(2n + l)7t -(ii)
=> only those points of x, y which satisfy Eq. (ii). 0
Similarly, 2(2p - l)ic< y - x<2(2p)rt
From above results, graph for cos x > cos y is shown in Fig. 2.222.
-(iii)
if
EXAMPLE Q Sketch the curve
^SOLUTION As to sketch, x273 + y273 = a273.
x.2/3
273
+ y273 = a273

; (i) Curve is symmetric about y-axis (as when x is replaced by (- x) curve remains same)
Ii ■
I 3 ■
: (ii) Curve is symmetric about x-axis (as wheny is replaced by (-y) curve remains same).
1 (iii) Curve is symmetric about origin (aswhenxisreplacedbyyandybyxcurveremainssame).
+-□ '
I (iv) When,

(V)
when,

or
x = 0 => y = ± a
y = 0 => x = ± a.
y2/3 =(a2/3 _x2/3),

y2 = (a273 - x273 ) 3;
feS
2y—= 3(a273-x273)2 ^-|x’173 -3J
t
differentiating both sides,
dx k
ne - 0-
e.
=> — < 0 when x > 0, y > 0 [to discuss 0 < x < a and to take symmetry for rest of
;o;
iv

dx
at

graph using Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii)].

3
re

y — = - ■l/3(a2/3 - x273 )2
nc

(vi) From above

dx ■J 0)
i*
ar

Differentiating again, we get;

:o '
.le

d2y ■1/3
•Xa273 -x273 )f--x-173+ ^x^73 (a273 -x273)2
.3
w

yT^
dx
+ I 3 3
w

4 0
w

= 4x-2/3r„2/3 - x273 )
3
(a
_ 1 y-2/3
+ lx^73 (a273
3
-x273 )2
r
(a273 -x273 ){4+x-273 (a273 - x.2/3)}
3
az­
+ ve whenever; 0 < x < a and y > 0. decreasing and
dx2 concave up
Thus; when 0 < x < a and y > 0 X
O a
^<0 and ^>0, ^3+/3=a23
dx dx2
i.e., decreasing and concave up.
.-. Graph for x2/s + y2/3 = a2/3 Fig. 2.223

Note Above curve is known as Astroid represented by the following parametric equations:
x = a cos31
0St a>0
y = a sin3 t
L.l 1
127

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Eliminating cos t and sin t from above equations, we get x273 + y 2/3 = a273.
where the quantities x andy are defined for all values of t. But since, the functions cos31 and sin31 are
tm j periodic with period 2n, it is sufficient to discuss the curve for t e [0, 2n].
- , w- Domain of function e [0, 2n]

J ifi Thus,
Range of function e [- a, a]

— = - 3a cos2tsint
dt
...(i)

Now, ...(ii)
dy =
— = + 3a sin21 cost
■«-
dt ~

w Here, i = 0 =» t = 0,2
8rt, —, 2n.
dt dx 2 2
- tant ...(iii)
Li 4s- dx
d2y _ 1
...(iv)
dx2 3acos4tsint
From Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), we construct a table;

t
Range of t Domain (x) ne
Range (y) Sign of Sign of ^4
e.
dx dx
iv

0< x< a 0< y < a +

at

0<t<-
2
re

-a<x<0 0< y < a + +

nc
ar

3n -a< x<0 - a<y< 0

n<t<—
.le

2
3n 0< x< a -a < y < 0 +
w

—<t<2n
w

2
w

On the basis of above information we can sketch y

x = a cos31 a- Astroid: x2/3 + y2/3 = aa3
. orx=acos3t
y = bsin31 y=asin3t
Students are adviced to convert the cartesian into —--------- *-x
O a
parametric if possible.

Fig. 2.224

EXAMPLE © Sketch the curves:

ex + e ex -e ex -e ex + e'
(i) y = 2~ (ii) y = (iii) y = (iv9 y -
2 ex + e' ex - e
ex + e~x
SOLUTION (i) Sketching of f(x) = y =
2
(a) /(-x) = f (x), /. even or symmetric about y-axis ...(i)

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(b) When x = 0 => y = 1 ...(ii) ,-C

dy _e-x -1
j Differentiating, we get;
dx 2 2ex
0
I
d2y ex + e e2* + 1
=>
d? F 2ex
dy e* + e~x - —
— > 0 whenever x > 0 2
fi) __
dx
I•■I
From above;
dy
— < 0 whenever x < 0
...(iii)
c
dx - ©
> 0 for all x^ 1
i -(iv) " fi)
dx2 J x
-L--3 ..
I Thus, from Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) graph of
O

ex + e~x . Fig. 2.225

y =------ -------- is;

ex- e~x
(ii) Sketching y =

t
ne
2
(a) /(-x) = - /(x),
e.
y g*~ e
iv
.-. odd function or symmetric about origin ...(i) 2
at

(b) x = 0 => y = 0 ...(ii)

re

dy ex + e 3
nc

Cc) > 0 for all x

dx 2 x
©
ar

...(iii) o ■ii
.le

d2y ex - e~x - 0
w

(d)
dx2 2~ 3 -
w

0 -
w

i: d2y
—> 0 when x > 0
dx2 Fig. 2.226
...(iv)
d2y
dx2 J
From Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) graph of y =

e* - e"x
ex -e
2 ir~.
• (iii) Sketching of y =
ex +e-x
(a) /(-x) = - /(x), odd function or symmetric about origin .-(i)
(b) as x = 0 => y = 0 ...(ii)
Domain e R !
(c) ...(iii)
Range g (- 1,1)J

(d) — > 0 for all x e R ...(iv)

- 44
dx J
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•f
y
A2y
.., _ . ... —\ <0 for x > 0
dx2 1
(e) ...(V)
d 2y e’-e"
—4- >0 for x < 0
w dx2
to
£
fiL- From Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v) graph of
(U - ex - e
y = —— is shown as in Fig. 2.227.
e +e
i o —- e +e Fig. 2.227

•s - (Iv) Sketching y =
ex-e~x
I I: (a) = - /(x), odd function or symmetric about origin
as x-----> 0; y--- > «>'
(i)
y
(b) as y---- > 1; x----> <» ...(ii) \ ex+e"x
y-----> -1; x-----> - °°
Domain e R - {0} 1 1
(c) -.(iii)
Range e R - [- 1,1]J

t
■ ■■

(d)
dy . . .. _ .
— < 0 for all x e R - {0} -(iv) ne O
e.
dx
iv

d2y
at

—v >0 for x > 0

re

dx2
(e)
nc

^<0 forx<0 Fig. 2.228

ar

dx2
.le

ex +e
From above information, graph for y = as shown in Fig. 2.228.
w

e* - e
w
w

Note 1 x- e-x) and

In many applications we come across exponential functions of the form -i(e
2
-|(e'+ e"x) known as "hyperbolic functions” represented by;

ex - e‘x
sin hx =
2
...(>)
ex + e"x
cos hx =
2
called hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine.
ex - e“x
tan hx = —------ -
e +e
also, •••(ii)
e* + e~x
cot hx = —------ -
ex - e‘x
called hyperbolic tangent and hyperbolic cotangent. Where if; x = cos ht, y = sin ht
=> x2 - y2 = cos2 ht - sin2 ht = 1 {Using Eq. (i)}
which is equation of hyperbola.
qx — e”x ex + e
Thus, sin hx =---------- and cos/ix = are hyperbolic functions.
2 T"
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EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y = 2sinx + cos 2x

(^SOLUTION Since, the function is periodic with period 2n, it is sufficient to investigate the 1
function in the interval [0, 2n].
dy
(a) = 2cosx - 2sin2x = 2 (cosx - 2sinx cosx)
dx

dy n
dy
— = 2cosx(l - 2sinx)
dx
n n 5tc 3n
J
Here, 4- C
dx 6 2 6 2
(b)
d^y =
dx2
- 2 sin x - 4 cos 2x t®
(&)... , 3 4- 5
= - 3< 0 where y = —
n
6
2
t*
n. n
H
at x = — is maximum at x = —. = 2> 0;
6 6 . 0)
s
atx = —

t
2

ne
e.
at x = — is minimum at x = where y = 1 y
2
:o
iv
at

5n d^y 2
at x = — we have, = -3<0 3/2 —
3
re

6 dx2 1f
nc

3
and (maximum)
ar

J= 2 O n n 5« it 3n 2n ■1
.le

3n
6 2 6 2
0
3
w

at x = —, we have, 6> 0
2 W
w

dx2 -2
w

and y = - 3 (minimum)
-3
Thus, curve for y = 2 sin x + cos 2x; y = 2sinx + cos 2x
Fig. 2.229

EXAMPLE (go Sketch the curve y = e~x2 (Gaussian curve)

2
(ft SOLUTION As the curve y = /(x) = e~ 1
(a) Symmetric about y-axis {as f(-x) = /(x)} ...(i)
as x 0 => y-----> 1
(b) ...(ii)
asy 0 =$ x-----> ± °°

— < 0 => x> 0

e~x2 (-2x) => dx ...(iii)
(0
dx
— > 0 => x< 0
dx J
h-
.131

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(d) - 2e,-*2 - 2x(- 2xe -x2) = 2e:*2 (2x2 - 1)
r’tj dx2
tit 4 d2y 1 1

I
4-4- a ■
=>
dx2
d2y 1
2
1
2
...(iv)

dx2 2 2
ft fl ~ y
(e) y = e-xl assumes maximum at
1 y=1

i and
x = 0 => y = 1
Domain g R
Range g (0,1]
...(v)
__ X____
___ x
-1/V2 O 1/V2
From above discussion;
Fig. 2.230

t
ne
EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y = e.
iv

Domain g R
s SOLUTION Here; (a) ...(i)
at

Range g [- 0.5, 0.5]

re
nc

(b) /(-x) = - /(x), hence, /(x) is odd, symmetric about origin ...(ii)
ar

(c) When x = 0 => y = 0 ...(iii)

.le
w

1-x2 +
(d)
w

I 1
dx (1 + x2)2
w

Fig. 2.231
dy
— > 0 when - 1 < x < 1
dx ...(iv)
or
dy
— < 0 when x<-l or x>l
dx
From above maximum at x = 1 and minimum at x = -1} ...(v)
d2y 2X (x2 - 3) + - +
(e) —i------------- 1----------- —t-------------►
'-2')13
dx2 ~ (1 + x -V3 0 -V3
i Fig. 2.232
d2y
—y > 0, when x e (-73, 0) and (73, «>)
dx" ...(Vi)
d2y
—y < 0, when x e (- «>, - 73) and (0, 73)
dx
?
x
From above conditions graph for y =

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i
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U

y.
s 1-
Ct05) |
0

p
0.5

3^3___
'"^CreI
'«4'ra'®4>
x
----------- -SgCret 7o 1 <3
■^9
(-V3,-<3/4)'''
(-1,-0.5) -0.5

Concave up Concave down ' Concave up

Concave down
■3
Fig. 2.233
I
?
In above figure :
x

< x < — V3
-V3<x<-1
dy/dx d2y/dx2

+
te
- Q) -
-3 •••
et
- 1< x<0 + .n + - W
0< x< 1
e
-0 -
iv

1< x< V3
at

+ 3
re

V3 < X < oo
nc
ar

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y2=x3. (Semicubical parabola).

io r
.le

f SOLUTION To plot the curve we discuss;

i3
w

(i) Symmetric about x-axis (as y-----> - y curve remains same).

W
w

(ii) Domain e [0, <»)

w

(iii) Range e R.
Here, to plot y2 = x3 => y = -Jx3 and y = - -^x3, we draw y = x3 and take
image about x-axis for y = - -fx3. (i.e., to discuss curve when x, y > 0).

(iv) — =-x1/2= - Vx > 0 forallx,y>0.

dx 2 2 y
d2 v 3 y=(x3/2)
(v) —y = —— > 0 for all x, y > 0.
dx 4Vx
=> Increasing and concave up when x > 0.
From Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v). x
O
1—r
x y dy/dx d2y/dx2
y=-(x3'2)
+ + + +
Fig. 2.234
+
1 1 1
133

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Note In above curve y2 = x3 (semicubical parabola). For x = 0 we have y = 0 and / = 0, thus, the
branch of the curve has a tangent at y = 0 at origin. The second branch of y = - 7? also
passes through origin and has the same tangent y = 0. Thus, two different branches of the

ra
i-4- !• curve meet at origin, have the same tangent, and situated at different sides of origin. This
is known as cusp of first kind.

EXAMPLE @
Sketch the curve: y 2 = x4 - x6.
3

Sr (^SOLUTION Here; y = ± x2yjl - x2 ■

0 Thus, to plot the curve for y = x2^l - x2 and take image about x-axis.
i
Fs (i) Symmetric about x and y-axis.
(ii) Domain e [- 1,1] I
2 2

£ (iii) Range e -

Civ) When
3V3’ 3^3. ’
x = 0 => y = 0

I
4H- y = 0 => x = 0, ± 1.
dy
(v) 2y = 4x3 - 6x5 = 2x3(2 - 3x2) = 2x3(V2 - V3x)(V2 + V3x)

t
ne
dx
dy
JI
e.
=> — > 0 when; 0 < x < and y > 0.
iv
dx
at

f— dy
— < 0 when J|<x<1 and y > 0.
re

dx
nc

Here, we are sketching the curve only when x, y > 0 and then take image about x andy-axis.
ar

u d2y
JI
.le

(vi) —v > 0 when 0 < x < and y > 0.

dx2
w

d2y , [2
w

—< 0 when J- < x < 1 and y > 0.

w

dx2
From above discussion.
y. Concave up and increasing
r— Concave downward increasing
2 Concave down and decreasing
■r — By symmetry 3^3

H-H
t—I—f—
2
By symmetry
3?3l
^2 V2
3 5 5 3
Fig. 2.235

Note At the origin (as the singular point) the two branches of the curve corresponding to plus
and minus in front of the radical sign are mutually tangent. Known as point of osculation
or tacnode or double cusp.
! i !
134

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I
I
I
-
o "1
»sinx
1. Sketch the curves; (where (■] denotes the (vi) y = 2‘
greatest integer function).
! (vii) y = log2(|sinx|)
(i) y = |2-|x-1|| (viii) |y | = log2| sinx | W
4
(ii) y = 2-
|x-1| (ix) y = iogslnxQ) i c
(iii) |y| = 2 —
4
|x-1|
1^(2)
(x) |y|=log.
S
4
0)
(iv) y = 2-
|x-1| 3. Sketch the curve y = sin'
1-x2 - 3t |
- Q.
4 2x
M |y|= 2- 4. Sketch the curve y = —
|x-1|
(vi) y = |e,x|-2| 5. Sketch the curves; - a>

t
(vii) |y| = |elx'-2| (i) y=x2-2|x| (ii) y = e“ix| • 3
(viii) y=x-[x] ne
(iii) y = e*x| (iv) |y|=x (/> - I
e.
4
(ix) y = 7x-M
- 0b
iv
(v) y =x3 -x (vi) y2=x-1
at

(x) y = (x-[x])2 6. Construct the graph of the function

3
re

(xi) |y|=#-W y = f(x -1) + f(x + 1)

nc

(xii) |y| = (x-[x])2

where f(x) =
1-|x|, when |x|^1
£
ar

when |x|> 1
(xiii) y = |x-1| + |x +1|
.le

(xiv) |y| = |x-1| + |x + 1| 7. Sketch the curves; 0

w

(xv) y=[|x-1|] (ii) y =

1 13
43
w

(xvi) |y| = [|x-1|] |x|-2 L»

w

(xvii) y=x + [x] 1 <lv| |y|’|kFi +■■ ■

(iii) y =
(xviii) y = |x| + [|x|] |x|-2 4-4
(xix) |y| = x + [x]
(xx) |y| = |x| + [|x|]
8. Find number of solutions of 2cosx = |sinx|.
When x e [0,4n],
F
2. Sketch the curves; 9. Find the number of solutions of;
(i) y = >/sinx sinnx = |log|x||.
(ii) |y| = Vsinx
10. Sketch the curve
(iii) y = |sinx| + |cosx| sin2x
y =------- + cosx.
(iv) |y| = cosx + |cosx| ’ 2
(v) y = sin2x-2sinx

..........
8. 2 solutions, 9. 6 solutions. .. &
Et±i
. 135 L;.
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-/--r
1 ff ?

g# Remark 1

Absolute maximum
No greater value of /any where.
Also a local maximum
jZtfeC
Local minima
No greater value of /near by

y= f W
_ Local minimum
No smallervalue of /nearby

Local minima
No smaller v< lue of /near by
Absolute minima-/.
No smaller value of f any w here.
Also a local minimum

et
4—
a c
e
e
.n d b x-axis
Local vs absolute (Global) Extrema
iv

Fig. 1
at

U4
re

Remarks
nc

Absolute maximum
ar

-Jr— /'undefined
.le

Local maximum y=r«

w

/'=0
w
w

No extremum
/'<o xZi/=o
f>o
No extremum f'>0
4- /'=0 r- f<o
Local minimum

f>0
f=0
Absolute minimum Local minimum

TTr a Ci c2 c3 c4

Local vs absolute (Global) Extrema

c5 b x-axis

Fig. 2
' J'J’Z
Remarks
The First derivative Test for Local Extreme Value

ttC (i) If/' changes from positive to negative at C (/' > Ofor x < c and /' < Ofor x > c), then/has
a local maximum value at c.
TXT
136.

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Local maximum Local maximum

■f-

x= c x-axis x= c x-axis
(a)/'(c) = 0 (b) f'(c) undefined

I
Fig. 3

(ii) If f' changes from negative to positive at c (/' < 0 for x < c and f' > 0 for x > c), then/ has
a local minimum at x = c.
4 - ® -4—1
f'<0

J
X^-^/So
Local [minimum Local [minimum
x=c x-axis x=c x-axis
(a)/'(c) = 0 (b) /'(c) undefined

t
ne
Fig. 4

¥
e.
(iii) If f' does not change sign at c (/' has the same sign on both sides of c), then/has no local
iv

extreme value at c.
at

4-0 -Z
re

■ii
nc

no extreme ynoextreme
ar
.le

f'>0 I

is
w
w

x=c x-axis x= c x-axis

w

(a)/'(c) = 0 (b) /'(c) undefined

Fig. 5 -O-’
(iv) At a left end point ‘a’: If f' < 0 Local maximum ,C_LJ
(/' >0) for x > a, then f has local Local minimum, /'>0
maximum (minimum) value at
x = a. x=a x-axis
x=a x-axis
Fig. 6

(v) At a right end point ‘b’: If f' < 0 (/'> 0) for x< b, then f has local minimum
(maximum) at x = b.
8 ■■I
Local maximum
■□t
(fl
Local minimum'

x-axis x= b x-axis
Fig. 7
.137
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ASYMPTOTES,
J SINGULAR POINTS AND
0
ff
CURVE TRACING
I JR In this chapter we shall study:
Plotting of Rational and Irrational functions.

S: - Intersection of Curve and Straight line at Infinity.

4>! ASYMPTOTES

t
ne
A straight line, at a finite distance from origin, is said to be an asymptote of the curve y = /(x), if
e.
the perpendicular distance of the point P on the curve from the line tends to zero when x ory both
iv

tends to infinity.
at

OR
re

A straight line A is called an asymptote to a curve, if the distance 8 from the variable point M of
nc

the curve to this straight line approaches zero as the point M tends to infinity. Shown as:
ar

y y
.le
w

A
w

M
w

77 t

Curve 4
x x
0 0

Fig. 3.1
Mathematically

Let y = /(x) be a curve and let (x, y) be a point on it.

--
Tanget at (x, y) is given by;
Y-y = (X - x)
dx
UZE — ■X + (y~x~
Y=— ...(i)
dx ( dx
- ‘ 138-

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Now, if asymptote exists, then
dy , dy )
=> — and y - x — ---- » finite limit say m and c LI.
dx . dx I > L- - ;n.
dy , x dy
Say
dx
m and y
y------- —
dx
c - io
Eq. (i) reduces to, Y = mX + c is asymptote of equation.
Now we shall discuss the following cases
3- i
(i) Asymptote parallel to x-axis.
(ii) Asymptote parallel to y-axis.
(iii) Asymptote of algebraic curves or oblique asymptotes.
T-» -1
a
(iv) Asymptote by inspection.
(v) Intersection of curve and its Asymptotes.
(vi) Asymptote by Expansion.
Bu
(vii) The position of the curve with respect to asymptote.
3.1-(i) AsymptoteparalleltO’X-axis 5*
Let the equation of curve be,
-(fl
' E
t
ne
(aoxn + QjX^’y + a2xn~2y2 +... + any n) + (bjx""1 + b2xn~2y + ...+ bnyn~1')
+ (c2xn-2 + c3xn~2y + ... + cnyn-2) + 0 -F
e.
iv
then it can be arranged in descending powers of x as follows:
at

aoxn + (^y + bj )x"-1 + (a2y2 + b2y + c2)xn~2 + ...= 0 ...(ii)

re

Now, if a0 = 0, i.e., the term consisting xn is absent, tb^n axy + bx = 0, i.e., coefficient of x'n-1= 0 ■o
■■
:□ -
nc

will make two roots of Eq. (i) infinite as coefficients of both xn and xn-1 are zero.
ar

Hence, ary + 1^ = 0 is an asymptote parallel to x-axis.

w
.le

Again if; both xn and xn-1 are absent, then a2y2 + b2y + c2 = 0, i.e., coefficient of xn~2 being
a>
w

zero will make three roots of Eq. (ii) infinite hence, a2y2 + b2y + c2 = 0 will give two asymptote
w

parallel to x-axis. 3
w

Method to find asymptote parallel to x-axis fi.

To find the asymptote parallel to x-axis equate the coefficient of highest power of x to zero. 0
If the coefficient is constant, then there is no asymptote parallel to x-axis (horizontal).
-c;
3^1-(ii)Asymptote parallel to y-axis
From above article, if we need an asymptote parallel to y-axis, equate the coefficient of highest
7
power ofy to zero.
If this coefficient is constant, then there is no asymptote parallel toy-axis (vertical).

1
-fl)
EXAMPLE @ Sketch the curve 0 -
y =—-
x-5 ■1
13±
• SOLUTION Here; y (x - 5) = 1 (D
.'. Asymptote parallel to x-axis.
=> y=0 (equating highest power of x = 0)
Asymptote parallel to y-axis.
=> x-5 (equating highest power of y = 0) rri'
139 .
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M Thus, x = 5 and y-axis are asymptotes shown as in figure.

y.

<
0)
o
CL

Asymptote
o
4- - x y=0

J— 'r< H x=5
Fig. 3.2

EXAMPLE Show the curve y = tan x has an infinite number of vertical asymptote.
■ .5-
— (^SOLUTION y = tan x
here y —> ± oo as x-> ±, —
it , 3n
, ± —,...
2 2

+E’
t
7t
or tan x -»■» as
ne 2 2
e.
i.e., equating highest power ofy = 0.
iv
at

(as y = tanx => ycotx = l, where cotx->0).

re

Shown as:
nc

y
ar
.le
w
w
w

x
-3n/2 -7t -n/2 O n/2 3n/2
0 0) <D 0)
O o O o
E
£
E
5?
E
S' I

Fig. 3.3

EXAMPLE Show the curve y = e1/x has a and horizontal asymptote.

(^SOLUTION Here y = e1/x
y • e"1/x = 0
e~i/x
or as (Since, lim e-1/x -» 0)
x-»0

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From adjoining figure y. 4
y = e1/x
1 ,
- = logy
x
Asymptote y =1 -j
1
i
=$ X = ---------
logy
o o
which shows x(logy) = 1 has an asymptote
parallel to x-axis as E
&
logy = 0 => y = 1.
Thus, y = e1/x has two asymptote Fig. 3.4
4-'
*4—
x = 0 and y = 1.

3.-1-(Hi) Asymptoteofalgebraic curves or oblique asymptote

An asymptote which is not parallel toy-axis is called an oblique asymptote. Let y = mx + c be an
EE - (Q -—

t
asymptote of y = /(x), then
m = lim y and c = lim (y - mx) ne --SX
e.
X X->o»
iv
or or x-»-oo
at

Method to find oblique asymptote TJ

re

Suppose y = mx + c is an asymptote of the curve. Puty = mx + c in the equation of the curve and 0■■I
nc

arrange it in descending powers of x. Equate to zero the coefficients of two highest degree terms.
ar

Solve these two equations, find m and c. Put them in y = mx + c to get asymptotes.
w-
.le

Note 1. Here, we will find non-parallel or non repeated asymptote only.

go
w
w

2. Neglect all imaginary values of m.

w

EXAMPLE 0 Find the asymptotes to the curve y = x + — and then sketch.

SOLUTION Here, the given curve y = X + -

1 -c—
X

xy=x +1 T® +
or x2 - xy + 1 = 0
(i) Asymptote parallel to x-axis □I
Equating highest power coefficient of x to zero inx2-xy + l = 0 ^0
=> 1=0 (which is not true)
□
no asymptote parallel to x-axis.
(11) Asymptote parallel to y-axis
Equating highest power coefficient ofy to zero in
.141
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E=
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x2 - xy + 1 = 0
- x=0
(i.e.,y-axis) is asymptote for y = x + 4
or x=0

(iii) Oblique asymptote

14 ' Let y = mx + c in x2 - xy + 1 = 0
i.e. x2 - mx 2 - xc + 1 = 0
•_ I
—' ^4 x2(l - Dl) - (c)x + 1 = 0
Equating highest and second highest power of x to zero
i.e., 1 - m = 0 and c = 0

4+&- m = 1 and c = 0

-4—i—I—- or y=x

et
is oblique asymptote to y = x + —.
x .n
e
Now to trace the curve;
iv
at

(iv) Symmetric about origin (as odd function)

re

(v) Domain g R - {0}.

nc

| (vi) Range g (-<», - 2] u [2, °°)

ar

| (vii) =1-A x2-l

.le

{using number line rule, }

dx x2 x2 1
w

dy
w

— > 0, when x < - 1 or x> 1

w

dx
— < 0, when - 1 < x < 1 - {0}
dx
which shows Ymax St X = -l
Ymln at X = 1
d2y _ 2
(viii) Also,
dx2 x3
d2y
=> —4- > 0, when (concave up)
dx2
d2y
—4 < 0, when x < 0 (concave down)
dx2

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Using above information we can trace y = x + — as:
x

y 4®

o
o
2
E' / Local minimum at x=1
£
"Asymptote

X
0 1

Local maximum
-2

t
ne
e.
iv
at

Fig. 3.5
re

I
nc
ar

EXAMPLE 1^1 Find the asymptotes of the curve y = x2 +2x-l and hence, sketch. CO
.le

X
w

■0)
0 SOLUTION Here, the curve y = x2 + 2x - 1
w

could be written as; -3

w

X
*
x2+2x-yx-l = 0 —Ci)
Ci) No asymptote parallel to x-axis.
(ii) Asymptote parallel toy-axis. => x=0.
p
(iii) Oblique asymptote
Let y = mx + c be oblique asymptote
x2 + 2x - x(mx + c) - 1 = 0 •M -
x2 - mx2 + 2x-cx-l = 0 2
=> x2(l - m) + x(2 - c) - 1 = 0 2r
For oblique asymptote equate highest power and second highest power of x to zero. 13
□

i
i.e., Coefficient of x2 = 0 => m = 1
Coefficient of x = 0 => c = 2
y = x + 2 is oblique asymptote to y = x - — + 2

.143

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(iv) Neither symmetric about axis nor about origin.
(v) Domain g R - {0}.
(vi) Range g R.
(vii) 4y =
dx 1+?
<fy > 0,
— for all xe R - {0}.
t (5; . dx
A J d2y _ 2
±±fifc (viii)
dx2 x3
ff#- d2y
—4- >
dr2
0, when x < 0 (concave down)

EBF
-t—-
d2y
—y <
dx2
- ■
0, when x > 0
'
(concave up)

A 1
Using above information, we can plot the curve y = x — + 2 as;
x

t
ne
e.
iv
at
re

x2+2x-1
nc
ar
.le
w
w

x
w

Fig. 3.6

3.1 (iv) Asymptote by inspection

If the equation of the curve be of the form Fn + Fn_2 = 0, where Fn and Fn_2 are expressions in x
andy such that degree of Fn = n and degree of Fn_2 < rt - 2, then every linear factor equated to zero
will give an asymptote if no two straight lines represented by any other factor of Fn is parallel or
coincident with it.

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EXAMPLE Find the asymptote of the curve x2y + xy2 = a3.
i) SOLUTION Here, the given curve is. 4-
x2y + xy2 = a3 or x2y + xy2 - a3 = 0
j This equation is of the form
Here,
Fn + Fn_2 = 0
F3=x2y + xy2
:. By inspection the asymptotes are given by
and Fo = - a3 p
x2y + xy2 = 0 or xyfx + y) = 0
:. The asymptotes are x = 0, y = 0, x + y = 0.

EXAMPLE © Find the asymptote of the curve y = x + — (by Inspection),

x

I
SOLUTION Here, the given curve is x2 - xy + 1 = 0
This equation is of the form Fn + Fn_2 = 0
Here • F2 = x2 - xy

t
fo=l
By inspection the asymptotes are given by ne
e.
x2 - xy = 0 or x(x - y) = 0
iv

:. The asymptotes are x = 0 and x - y = 0.

at
re
nc

3:l(v) Intersection of curve and its asymptote

ar

An asymptote of curve of nth degree cut the curve in (n - 2) points provided the asymptote is not
.le

te
parallel to any asymptote.
w

Hence, if there be N asymptotes of the curve, then they cut the curve in N(n - 2) points.
w
w

Note The number of asymptotes of an algebraic curve of nth degree can not be more than n.

EXAMPLE Show the asymptote of the curve xy(x2 - y2) + x2 + y2 - 1 = 0 cut at 8

C ■
. points.
Q) SOLUTION The equation of the curve is, to
L«+
xy(x2-y2) + x2 + y2 -1 = 0
Here n = 4
This equation is of the type Fn+Fn_2=0 - ft) 4_
' Hence,
i and
Fn = 0
Fn = xyfx2 - y 2) = jy(x - y) (x + y)
Fn.2 = x2+y2-l l-
J3-+
=> x = 0, y = 0, x - y = 0 and x + y = 0 are the equations of asymptotes.
The combined equation of the asymptotes is,
xy(x-y)(x + y) = 0 ...(ii)
• 145
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■
i Subtracting Eq. (ii) from (i), we get
x2 + y2 -1 = 0
-K-M
M
V)
' Thus, intersection of curve and asymptotes lie on this curve since, there are 4 asymptotes, Le.,
! N = 4.
i :. Point of intersection of curve and asymptotes = 4(4 - 2) = 8.
2. 3.1 (vi) Asymptote by expansion
1 (U
If the equation of the curve is of the form
: 0: ABC
y = mx + c + — + —- + — + ...
x x2 x3

id Then y = mx + c will be an asymptote of the given curve.

Find the asymptote of the curve y3 = x2(x - a).

_r_. 45•K— , EXAMPLE
SOLUTION The curve is, y3 = x2(x- a) = x3|l - — |
\ x)
1/3
i a 1 a
y = x 1---- or y=x 1

t
\ x. 3x 9x2
a 1 ne
e.
or y-x— which is of the form
9 x ■"
iv
3
at

A B
y = mx + c + —+ — + ...
re

x x2
nc

=> y - mx + c is asymptote
ar

Hence, y = x - is asymptote of the given curve.

.le
w
w

EXAMPLE Find the asymptote for y = x + —.

w

1
O SOLUTION Here; y = x + - is of the form,
x
A B
y = mx + c + — + — + ...
x x2
=> y = x is asymptote of the curve

Note Above method is useful to find oblique asymptote. Thus, students are adviced to find
vertical and horizontal asymptote (i.e., asymptote parallel to x-axis and y-axis).

3.1 (vii) The position of the curve with respect to an asymptote

Let the equation of the curve is of the form;
A B c
y = mx + c + — + — + x3 +" then
x x2

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(a) The curve lies above the asymptote if
(i) A 0 and, A and x have same signs
or (ii) A = 0, B > 0
or (iii) A = 0, B = 0, C * 0 and C and x have same signs and
(b) The curve lies below the asymptote if
(i) A * 0 and, A and x have opposite signs.
or (ii) A = 0, B < 0
or (iii) A = 0, B = 0, C * 0 and C and x have opposite signs.

EXAMPLE For the curve y5 = x5 + 2x4; show;

2
(i) The curve lies above the asymptote y if x< Q
5’
2
(ii) The curve lies below the asymptote y if x> Q
5’
® SOLUTION The given curve is, y5 = xs + 2x4

t
ne
- ad
or y5 = xs[l + 0)
e.
\ x)
iv

hr
at

( 2V/5
y =x 1 + —I
o
re

\ x) Ml
nc

rn 2 i si v 2 8 '3
ar

y = x 1 +---------------- - .. )"X+ 5 25x + "

I 5 x 25 x2 V)
.le

2
w

The asymptote is y =x+-; 0)

w

5 3.
w

8
(i) Now if A = - and x have same sign => x < 0. Then the curve lie above the

asymptote.
25
"o
-r 8 . .
A =----- and x have opposite sign
(ii) Now _if ..
(:.) x > 0. Then the curve lie below the c
25
asymptote.

1
EXAMPLE For the curve y show,
x
-0)
(i) The curve lies above the asymptote y = x, if x > 0 o
(ii) The curve lies below the asymptote y = x, if x < 0
15'
is of the form

g
A SOLUTION The given curve is, y = x + —,
x
ABC
y = mx + c + —+ — + — ...
X X2 xJ

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Thus, y = x is the asymptote to y = x + —.
J x
(i) Now if A = 1 and x have same sign => x > 0, then the curve lies above the
asymptote.
! (ii) Now if A = 1 and x have opposite sign => x < 0, then the curve lies below the
asymptote.

SINGULAR POINTS

Here, we shall discuss the following

f ¥ (i) Multiple points
(ii) Double, points
Types of double points :
S: (a) Node (b) Cusp
(iii) Tangent at the origin.
(c) Isolated point

(iv) Necessary conditions for existence of double points.

tt—-•—
--- (v) Types of cusps.

et
3.2^(i) Multiple points .ne
A point on a curve is said to be a multiple point of order r, if r branches of the curve pass through
iv

this point.
at

If P is the multiple point of order r, then there will be r tangents at P, one of each of the r
re

branches. These r tangents may be real, imaginary, distinct, coincident.

nc
ar

3.2 (ii) Double points

.le

A point on a curve is said to be a double point of the curve, if two branches of the curve pass
w

through this point.

w

Double points have two tangents, they may be real, imaginary, distinct or coincident.
w

Types of Double points

(a) Node
If the two branches of a curve pass through the double point and the tangents to them at the point
are real and distinct, then the double point is called a node as shown in Fig. 3.7.
y+ Tangent

£
p Tangent
' Curve
Node
(-Cusp
x x
O O

Fig. 3.7 Fig. 3.8

(b) Cusp
If the two branches of the curve pass through the double point and the tangent to them are the
point is real and coincident, then the double point is called cusp as shown in Fig. 3.8.
148

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Cusps :
The graph of a continuous function y = /(x) has a cusp at a point x = c if the concavity is I
same on the both side of c and either.
1. lim /'(x) = oo and lim /(x) = -°°
x->c' x->c+ w r|
2. lim f'(x) — — OO and lim f '(x) = oo
OR

shown as:
-1 ’
-- 5
T3 v I
1. lim /'(x) = oo and lim f'(x) — — ool 2. lim f'W = — oo and lim f'(x) = oo
x-tc~
■ ?
0
ti
y-axis y-axis -Jr I
; Cusp y=f(x)
lim f(x) = o3r

A
x->c 7i\ Hm+f(x) lim f(x) = ~ 0 ■
x-»c+
lim f(x)
x-»c
""P'Cusp \ -Q r
5
I

-- E. r
t
x-axis x-axis
0 0
ne c
ST
n H
e.
Fig. 3.9 Fig. 3.10
roH
iv
at

o _
re

Note A cusp can either be a local maximum (1) or a local minima as in (2). Ml
nc
ar

(c) Isolated point

w
.le

If there are no real point on the curve in the neighbourhood of a point P is called an isolated or a
conjugate point. fi)
w
w

3
w

o
p* \
isolated point
x
■I
O Q-
Fig. 3.11

3.2 (Hi) Tangent at the origin rS

If an algebraic curve passes through the origin, the equation of tangent or tangents at the origin is
obtained by equating to zero the lowest degree terms in the equation of the curve.
2.
EXAMPLE
Qi Show that the curve y2 = 4x2 + 9x4 has a node at origin and hence, sketch. M
I SOLUTION The equation of the curve is,
y2 = 4x2 + 9x4
-.149

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it
It passes through the origin.
Now, equating to zero the lowest degree terms of the given curve, i.e.,
I1X i I ! y”2‘ - /lv2
4x — = n0
=> y = 2x and y = - 2x
x- There are two real and distinct tangents y = 2x and y = - 2x. Thus, two branches of curve
Q. - I passes through origin (0, 0).
(Q origin is node. ...(ii)
Now to sketch;
__ (iii) Symmetric about x-axis, y-axis and origin.
(iv) As x —> 0 => y -> 0
(v) Domain e R.
H1 - (vi) Range e R.
Here, we shall discuss the behaviour of y = x- 4+ 9x2, x> 0 and use symmetry to
constructy2 =x2(4+9x2).
(vii) 2y — = 8x + 36x3 = 4x(2 + 9x2) y
dx
i dy
=> — > 0 for all x, y > 0

t
I dx
ne
e.
(viii) Also, node
x
a
iv

d2y
f—+ y — y= 4 + 54x2
!
at

W J dx
dx22
re

y=-2x
nc

> 0 for all x

dx2
ar

Fig. 3.12
Thus, the graph fory2 = x2(4+ 9x2)
.le
w

EXAMPLE Show origin is a conjugate point for

w
w

x4 + y3 + 2x2 + 3y2 = 0
£ SOLUTION The given curve is, x4 +y3 + 2x2 + 3y2 = 0
It passes through origin.
/. To find equation of tangent at origin equating the lowest degree term to zero.
i.e., 2x2 + 3y2 = 0

which are imaginary tangents.

y=±iJIx
Hence, origin is a conjugate point of the curve.

3.2 (iv) Necessary conditions for the existence of double points

Let (x,y) be a point on the given curve /(x, y) = 0.
The necessary and sufficient conditions for (x,y) to be a double points are:
f = 0, ” = 0, = 0 at (x, y)
dx dy

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&
Now, if and are not all zero, then,
dxdy dx2 dy2
(i) Double point will be a node if
2

Gt
[ d2f
I dx dy dx2
fxy — fXXfyy > 0
(ii) The double point will be an isolated point, if
dy2
>0

f
- fxxfyy < 0
(iii) The double point will be a cusp if
fxy ~ fxx fyy = 0-
Here, if fxx = f = fyy= 0at(x, y), then it will be a multiple point of order greater than 2.

EXAMPLE © For the curve x3 + x2 + 2 - x - 4y + 3 = 0, find the double point and hence,
1 whether the point is node or isolated point.

t
• SOLUTION Let /(x, y) = x3 + x2 + 2-x-4y + 3 = 0 ne
e.
fx = 3x2 + 2x - 1
iv

for a double point fx = 0, fy = 0

at

A = 2y - 4
re

fx = 0 => 3x2 + 2x - 1 = 0
nc

I Or
x = i, -1
ar

3
.le

fy=0 ==> 2y - 4 = 0 => y - 2.

w

Possible double points are 14 (-1,2) j

w

-
w

/f|,2^*0 and f(- 1, 2) = 0 4

/(- 1, 2) is a double point.
fxx = 6x + 2 4 at (-1,2) = -4
4=o at (- 1, 2) = 0

4=2 f„ at (-1,2) = 2
f„~fxxf„ =0-(-4)(2) = 8>0 . fi)
(- 1, 2) may be node. 0 Ml

For shifting origin to (- 1, 2), substitute x = X - 1, y = Y" + 2 in the given equation, ‘ 3

we get, X3 - 2X2 + Y2 = 0 Q
or Y = ± Xd2-X
For numerically small values of X, Y is real. <n
(-1, 2) is a node on the given curve.

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i

] ■ -I EXAMPLE 0 For the curve x3 + 2x2 + 2xy - y 2 + 5x - 2y = Q find the double point and
—I— } hence, check whether node, cusp or isolated point.
(^SOLUTION Let " y~)' = x3 +' n2x2 + "
f(x, ’ - y2 + 5x - 2y - 0
2xy ...Ci) I
fl-£+-
a- I fx =
dx
= 3x2 + 4x + 2y + 5

= ^ = 2x-2y-2

fxx = = 6x + 4
.« J dx
f =^- = 2
i-^-1 Jxy dxdy
f -^---2
dy dx
r -k-U— For double points fx=fy=f = O
fx = 0 => 3x2 + 4x + 2y + 5 = 0 ...(ii)

t
ne
fy = 0 => 2x - 2y - 2 = 0
e.
or 2y - 2x - 2 ...(iii)
iv

Solving Eqs. (ii) and (iii), we get 3x2 +4x + 2x- 2+ 5 = 0

at

=> x = -l
re

also x = - 1, y = - 2 satisfies the given equation.

nc

(- 1, - 2) is a double point.
ar

At (-1,-2), /„= 6(-1) + 4 = - 2

.le

fxy = > fyy = ~ 2

w
w

f^-f^fyy (-l,-2)=0
w

(-1, - 2) may be a cusp.

For shifting the origin to (- 1, - 2) substitute x = X - 1, y = Y - 2 in the given equation.
(X - l)3 + 2(X - l)2 + 2(X - 1)(Y - 2) - (Y - 2)2 + 5(X - 1) - 2(Y - 2) = 0
or X3-X2+ 2XY-Y2 = 0 ...(iv)
Y = X ± XVX
Y is real for all positive value of X.
Two branches of (iv) pass through origin.
Two branches of (i) pass through (- 1, - 2).
=> (— 1, — 2) is a cusp.

EXAMPLE Find for the curve y2 = x sin x origin is node, cusp or isolated point.
(^SOLUTION Let /(x,y) = y2 - xsinx
fx = - sinx - xcosx
A=2y
fxx = - cosx + xsinx - cosx

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4=°
fyy=2
at x = 0: /« = -2, fxy= 0, f„ = 2
fv-fvfn at at (°>°) -W- I
=> 0+2(2) = 4>0
-fxxfyy >° .*. origin is node.
r <3 t I<
3.2 (v) -Types of cusps
H—1
When two branches of a curve pass through a cusp and the tangents at cusp are coincident. - -
Therefore, normal to the branches at a cusp would also be coincident.
Cusp can be of five kinds
(a) Single cusp -j—
If the branches of the curve lie on the same side of the common normal, then the cusp is called a
single cusp.
y y
t
-I

t
ne
e.
Normal
iv
at
re

---------------------------- ------------------------------
nc

O Single cusp of first species O Single cusp of second species

ar

Fig. 3.13
.le

(b) Double cusp

w
w

If the branches of the curve lie on the both sides of the common normal, then the cusp is called
w

double cusp.
Here, both the branches of the curve he on the both sides of common tangent, then the cusp is of
first kind.
Also if, the branches of the curve he on the same side of the common tangent, then the cusp is ■t
called cusp of second species or Ramphoid cusp.

y y
•‘ Normal
//
.0 —
□ r-
■11

X
O Double cusp of first species O
__ 1—1__
Fig. 3.14 Fig. 3.15

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(c) Point of oscu-inflexion
A double cusp of both the species is called a point of oscu-inflexion.
y
4 Normal
-I (/)
£
a.-
g-
a
O

§ Fig. 3.16
EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y2(a + x) = x2(a- x).
A ■

@ SOLUTION Here, the curve is

y2(a + x) = x2(a - x) ...(i)

a
1. The curve is symmetrical about x-axis.

t
2. Curve passes through origin and cuts the x-axis at a point (a, 0).
ne
3. Equating to zero the lowest degree terms of Eq. (i), we get the tangents at origin.
e.
y 2 = x2 or y = ± x
iv

.'. origin is node.

at
re

4. Equating to zero the highest degree term, we get the asymptote

nc

x + a = 0, i.e., x = -a.
ar

5. From Eq. (i) y = ± x. 'a - x

.le

a+x
w

y exists when -a < x < a => Domain 6 (-a, a].

w

6. As x increases from 0 to a => y increases upto a point then decreases to zero.

w

y increases when x e [0, a]

y decreases when x e (-a, 0]
Thus, y 2 [a + x) = x2(a - x) could be plotted as;

iw

I
node
a.
I o I

(-a. 0)! E x
1 c/> I
I (0 I
I I
%
I
y=-x

Fig. 3.17
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rf
3r3 REMEMBER FOR TRACING CARTESIAN EQUATION
4—i—H
hCheck symmetry
(a) A curve is symmetrical about x-axis, i.e.,y is replaced by - y and curve remains same. -« -
(b) A curve is symmetrical abouty-axis, i.e., f(.-x') = /(x).
(c) A curve is symmetrical about y = x, i. e., on interchanging x and y curve remains same.
(d) A curve is symmetrical about y = - x. i.e., on interchanging x by -y and y by -x curve
fl
’
remains same.
(e) The curve is symmetrical in opposite quadrants, i.e., f(-x) = - /(x).
E
t
2i ‘Check for origin
Find whether origin lies on the curve or not.
If yes, check for multiple points (See Art. 3.2).
3f Point of Intersection with x-axis and y-axis
I Put x = 0 and find y, put y = 0 and find x. Also obtain the tangents at such points.

4i Asymptotes

t
ne
Find the point at which asymptote meets the curve and equation of asymptote (see Art. 3.1)
e.
iv
5: Domain and range
at

To check in which part the curve lies.

re

6. Monotonicity and maxima minima -I

nc
ar

Find — and check the interval in which y increases or decreases and the point at which it
dx
.le

attains maximum or minimum.

w
w

7-. Concavity and convexity

w

The interval in which,

y
^>0
dx2
d2y
and -T<0
dx2
Using all the above results we can sketch the curve
y = fW.
iS0—
-L-
t5’z
W-
.___L
.155

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__________________________________

---------------------------------------------------------
■£- EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y\a21 + x2) = x2(a2 - x2)
&- x2(a2 - x2)
' ■ g~ • SOLUTION Here, the curve is y2 =

□ I (a2 + x2)
1. The curve is symmetric about x-axis andy-axis {as on replacing y by -y curve remains same

I and on replacing x by -x curve remains same thus, symmetric about x and y-axis
respectively).
W 2. It passes through origin and y = + x are two tangents at origin. Thus, the origin is node.
3. It meets x-axis at (a, 0), (0, 0) and (- a, 0) and meets y-axis at (0, 0) only.
The tangents at (a, 0) and (- a, 0) are x = a and x = - a respectively.
4. The curve has no asymptote.
i I i 5. Here,
a2 - x2
a2 + x2

t
Domain e [- a, a]
ne
e.
dy a4 - 2a2x2- x4
6.
iv

dx (a2 + x2)3/2(a2 - x2)1/2

at

dy
re

----------- > oo as x -> ± a

nc

dx
-V't
I i ^=0
ar

Also when a4-2a2x2-x4 =0

dx
.le

4y a4 - 2a2x2- x4
w

i.e.,
w

dx (a2+x2)3/2(a2-x2)1/2
w

- {x4 + 2a2x2+ a4 - 2a4}

(a2+ x2)3/2(a2- x2)1/2
- {(x2+a2)2-(V2a2)2}
(a2+x2)3/2(a2-x2)1/2
— {* Jt— 1 + V2)a} {x + -J(-l + V2)a} {,x2 + (1 + V2)a2}
(a2 + x2)3/2(a2-x2)1/2 ~

0; x = ± •>]{— 1 + -j2) a.

+ ve; x g (— J{— 1 + V2) a, 1 + V2) a)

dx
- ve; x g (— a, — 1 + V2) a) or (-^(—1 + V2) a, a)

i.e., y increasing when x g (- 7(- 1 + >/2) a, 7(- 1 + V2) a)

and y decreases when x g (- a, - 1 + V2) a) or (.■Jc,— 1 ■+■ V2) a, fl)

-J 156-
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OR
tty A urli on vc ( (O A'I n (Q A A n)
— > 0, when x e (- (0.6) a, (0.6) a)
dx ->
! - (/)
I — < 0, when x e (- a, - (0.6) a) or ((0.6) a, a)
dx
V“1 + ^2 = (0.6)approx
where
y2(a2+ x2) = x2(a2- x2)
3
Thus, the curve for
•!
y
#- 0
0
(/)

X ----
co
MB —
(-a, 0)\ (-0.6a, 0) (0.6a, 0)y, (a.0)
11 L -
1i / - (fl —
C-

t
ne ST
e.
Fig. 3.18
iv

tu
at

to
re

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y 2 (x - a) = x2 (a + x). ■I

nc

x2(a + x) ;;3
ar

SOLUTION Here, the curve is given by y2 =

(x- a) (0
.le

1. Symmetrical about x-axis only.

Ifi)
w

2. It passes through origin and y2 + x2 = 0, i.e., y = ±ix are two imaginary tangents at
-3
w

- a-
w

origin. Thus, origin is isolated point.

3. It meets x-axis at (- a, 0), (0, 0) andy-axis at (0, 0).
The tangent at (- a, 0) is x = - a. 0
4. y = ± (x - a) and x = a are three asymptote. ____ 4C -
5. y2 =
x2(x + a)
(x — a)
x+a
y = ± x ------
Vx-a
2
x+a n ,
a
Thus, for domain; ------ > 0 and x * a
x- a
i.e., x < - a and x > a
-a a
" o)::
or Domain e (- °°, - a] u (a, °°) u {0}
o -
i x-l(l + V5)a[ |x-i(l-V5)a 5'
x2- ax - a2 2________ I 2
3 6. ^=± =±
i dx (x- a)^(x + a)1'2 (x - a)3/2 (x + a)1/2
I dy n
v->o, when xe (- °», - a] u - (1 + 75)a, °°
.2
■

ax
i 157!

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te
 I
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L x e fa, (1 + 75) a
0, when
dx
Thus, the curve;
w- , y2=52(g±^
T-iX-. y. II <*-a> x + a = 0
-h a-
~h g~ z,<(a.2a)
i
□ I : » (0, a) <ni

io

- r s*-H i fra.O) to (a.0);e -►x

sx
ss
IW
I co L
'
2(x+a)
(0,-a)'
I
(x-a) 7. (a,-2a) I
’l^S^

t
ne 11 2_x2(x+ajxy=-(x+a)
e.
y“ (x-a)
iv

Fig. 3.19
at
re

i■ i —«i iti ■ »<.

nc

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y2 = (x - l)(x - 2)(x - 3).

ar
.le

(> SOLUTION Here, y 2 = (x - l)(x - 2)(x - 3)

w

1. Symmetrical about x-axis.

w

2. It does not pass through origin.

w

3. It meets x-axis at (1, 0) (2, 0) and (3, 0) but it does not meety-axis.
4. No asymptote.
5. For domain: (x-1) (x-2)(x-3)>0 + +
I 2 3
Domain e [1, 2] u [3, °°) 1

6. y = ±7(*- l)(x- 2)(x- 3)

6-73 6 + 75
Six- x------------
Ox2 - 12x + ll) _____ 3 3
^ =±— - ■ ■ —= ±
dx 27(x-l)(x-2)(x-3) 2V(x-l)(x-2)(x-3)
+ 3(x-1.42) (x - 2.5) 6-73 6 + 73
as---- and --------- = 2.5/approx
1.42and
—==1.42
" “ 2 7(x-1)(x-2)(x-3) 3 3

=> — > 0, when x e (1,1.42) u (3, «>)

dx
— < 0, when x e (1.42, 2)
dx

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Thus, the curve y2 = (x-l)(x-2)(x-3) -ft:
y i
A
I I i
I I i
I I i
I I i
I I i

1
I I i
I I i
L. ■>.1
x
O ^!2
I i 75
I i
I i
I
I
I
i
i
I
X=2 A
±12
Fig. 3.20 w
■ I

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y2x2 = x2- a2.

2 2
• SOLUTION Here, y22=±LZ_
y = fl

t
i 1. Symmetrical about both the axis.
*
ne +
e.
2. It does not pass through origin.
iv
at

3. x-intercepts are (a, 0) and (- a, 0)

re

The tangent at (a, 0) is x = a and the tangent at (-a, 0) is x = - a.

nc

4. y = ± 1 are the two asymptotes.

ar

J^^2 => Domain e - a] u [a, «)

.le

5. y = ±---------
X
w

a2 dy
4 =±
w

=> — > 0, when x e - a) u (a, «)

dx
w

dx x2^^ -
x2-a2
Thus, the curve for y2 = is,

y 1
I T
I
I
i asymptote
I ipiVIC !|
j ■* y=1
(0,1) I

J
I - ft)-
o (a.0)\ 2.
i
i 3
I i
IQ
(0.-1) asymptote]
I i
i I
x=-a x=a
Fig. 3.21
.1594-

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EXAMPLE 0 Sketch the curve y2(x2- l) = 2x-l.
2x - 1
I @ SOLUTION Here, y2 =
x2-l
1. Symmetrical about x-axis.
2. It does not pass through origin.
fl1
3. It meets x-axis in -, 0 andy-axis in (0, 1) and (0, - 1) respectively.
fl <2'
i The tangent at(i, 0 1

E
is X = -.
2
4. x = 1, x = - 1 and y = 0 are three asymptotes.
2x-l => Domains |-1, - u (1, ”)
5. y2 =
x2-l 2J
2x-l dy -x2 + x + 1
6. y = ± => — =±
x2-l dx (2x-l)1/2(x2-1)3/2
dy , 1'

t
=> — < 0 when X 6 -1, - U (1, ”)
dx 2
ne
e.
.*. y is decreasing in its domain.
iv
at

Thus, the graph for y 2 = —- is,

x -1
re

y
nc
ar

I
I I I

n 4—
.le

I I I
I 1
I I I
w

X -1
w

[o,i);
w

I
\ I
X
(-1.0); O y=0
I (asymptote)
I'
2 i

g!I
I
I
I
I
t;
I
I I
I I

i
i I

I i
x=1/2 x=1

Tf~h Fig. 3.22

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve :

(x2+y2)x-a(x2-y2) = 0; (a>0)
Q SOLUTION Here, y2 = x2f^1
Va + x)
I
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 Downloaded from www.learncreative.net t
1. Symmetric about x-axis.
n
2. Origin lies on the curve and y = ± x are two tangents at origin. So, origin is node.
3. x-intercept are (0, 0) and (a, 0). The tangent at (a, 0) is x = a.
4. x = - a is the only asymptote.
a- x
5.
3
i

6. ^=±
Domain e (- a, a]
a2- ax - x2
a+x

y
f
-HO:
■u

dx (a + x)-Ja2- x2 - O (
0 ? w
o '
dy . , -1 + 45 ' I CT
=> — > 0, when xg
dx ii
cn i
I C
0
i
x t14-34
=•
-1 + 7s
(-a, 0) i >';(a.0)
-(□
dy ,
— < 0, when x g _?-a,a
Ki
t
dx
ne i x ‘ ST
e.
Thus, the graph for
til
iv

! V
x=a
at

y2 = x2| -—— as shown in Fig. 3.23.

re

Fig. 3.23
la + x)
nc

11
ar

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve 3 = 3ax2 (a > 0). -W r

.le

J i-.-l
. 0)
w

® SOLUTION Here, x3 3
= 3ax2
w

1. No line of symmetry.
i0
w

2. Origin is cusp and x = 0 is tangent.

3. x-intercept, (0, 0) (3a, 0)
The tangent at (3a, 0) is x = 3a.
, , (a 2a A ■ c
4. y = a - x is asymptote and the curve meets asymptote at -, — .
V3 3J
3
5. Here; = 3ax2
=> 3ax2 > 0 (as, a > 0)
■3
i.e. x and y both cannot be negative (thus, curve would not lie in third quadrant). ._0

6. y2
dx
= x (2a - x) r5'
— > 0, when x e (0, 2a)
dx
— < 0, when xe (- «, 0) u (2a, «)
dx
161
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H
Thus, the curve y3 + x3 = 3ax2 is,

0)
! 1 2' CD
c
4tC] - |2 I —

h-q.- it
q- g - j
X
(2a, 0) !\(3a.O)

I \

-4-Sd i I
^XX = 3a'
\

t
Fig. 3.24
ne
e.
iv

EXAMPLE Sketch the curve with parametric equation 9.

at
re

x = a(9 + sin9), y = a(l + cos9); xe(-n, 7t).

nc

• SOLUTION Here, x = a(Q + sin9) and y = a(l + cos0) gives the following table for x and y
ar

wi± 9.
.le

6 -n 0 7C
w
w

x - an 0 an
w

y 0 2a 0

So, that we have,

I - 7C<0< 0
=> (x,y) starting from (- an, 0) moves to the right and upwards to (0, 2a).
0<9< n
the point (x, y) starting from (0, 2a) moves to the right and downward to (an, 0).
dx
Also — = a(l + cos0)

and = - asin0
de
dx
Now, — = 0 if 0 = n, - n
de
tan 0
dx 2 ’

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. _ ... ... dx
except for the values + jt of 9 for which — = 0.
dQ
4-U-.
Also, tangent at Q = n and 9 = - n are x = n and x = - Jt.
Thus, the curve for x = a (9 + sin 9) and y = a (1 + cos 9).
y
’I
rt5
4-0 -
-n O n

Fig. 3.25 4—-f

EXAMPLE Q Sketch the curve: 5 = 5a2xy2.

E
• SOLUTION Here;

t
1. The curve is symmetrical in opposite quadrants. ne
e.
2. The curve passes through origin and x = 0, y = 0 are tangents. Thus, origin is node.
iv

3. It meets coordinate axis at origin.

at

4. x + y = 0 is an asymptote.
re

, 5. On transfering to polar coordinates, we get.

nc

I
!>
r2_ 5a2cos9sin9
ar

cos5 9 + sin5 9
.le

when, 9 = 0, r = 0 when, ® = r=0

w
w

As 9 increases from t to r2 is negative and hence, r is imaginary.

w

.-. no portion of the curve lies in this region.

At 9 = —, rr = oo as 9 increases from — to n
= oo r decreases from °° to 0.
4 T
Curve xs + y5 = 5a2xy
r
I
x5+ys=5a2xy2
+t
~3

Fig. 3.26
.163 —

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I
EXAMPLE Sketch the curve y4- x4 + xy = 0.
> SOLUTION Here, y4
1. No line of symmetry.
w!- 2. It passes through origin two tangents at (0, 0) as x - 0 and y = 0,
/. origin is node.
3. It cuts the coordinate axes at the origin only.
(Q 4. y = x, y = - x are its asymptotes.

o I 5. Converting into polar coordinates,

■> 1
r2 = - tan 20
2

1+*
4-W-
6. When, O<0< — or O<20< —
4 2

When, - < 0 < — or — < 29< it

4 2
n
2
n
=> r2 increases from 0 to

r2 is negative,

no curve when — < 0 < —.

i
i ! Hence, the curve

t
ne
e.
ffi
iv
at

•J
re
nc
ar
.le
w
w
w

Fig. 3.27

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 Downloaded from www.learncreative.net f
r
I1
Plot the Curves :
24. y=(x+ 1)2/3+(x-1)k2/3
-4
d+
1. y = 1 + x2 - -x4. :
2 25. y2 = 8x2-x4
2. y=(x + 1)(x-2)2
26. yz=(x-1)(x-2)(x-3) - 75
1
3. y = -x--x3 + — x5. 2 X-1
5 2 10 27. y2 =------
x+1
0
4. y = (1-x2)-1
x4 28. y2 =
x2(1-x)
(1 + X)2
- ©fl
5. y =
(1 + x)3
29. y2=x4(x + 1)
(1 + x)4 - (/)
6. y = 30. x2(y-2)2 + 2xy-y2=0 - • ■*
(1-x)4
1
31. x = ±(t+1)2, y = ^(f-i)2
x2(x - 1) 4 ■ • -
A
4-
7. y =
(x + 1)2 32. x=
32. x =-^-y,
----- =-,

t
X 1-t2 ’ y=i7?
8. y =
(1-x2)2 ne
e.
1 33. x = —
—— , i
y = lh
iv
9. y = 2x - 1 + t-1
(x + 1)
at

34. x = -5t2 + 2ts, y = -3f2 + 2f3

re

in X2 + 1
10- t2+1 t
nc

35. x =
4(1-0* y=TTi
ar

a2x
11. y = q + 2)2 y = ^-
.le

a2+x2 36. x =
(t+1)' 7 t-1
w

12. y,2=x
! 2['a + x1|
t-t2 t2-t3
w

kb-xj 37. x = -—=■

w

8a3 1+t2’
13. y = 38. x3+ y3 = 3axy, where a > 0.
x2 + 4a2
39. (x-a)2(x2 + y2) = b2x2, where a,b>0.
14. y = -22®£
cos2x 40. x2/3+ya3= a273, where a >0
16 f1-
1-x *2 2! 1-x2
-/1-X 41. x6 + 2x3y=y3
15. y = arc cos ------ = cos ----------x-
1 + x2 42. 4y2 = 4x2y + x5
16. y = arcsin(sinx) = sin"’(sinx) 43. x4 + 2y3 = 4xzy
17. y = sin (arc sin x) 44. x3-2x2y-y2=0
18. y = arc tan (tan x) 45. x2y2+y = 1
4-
19. y = arctan(-) 46. x3 + y3 = 3x2
47. y5+x4=xy2 13
20. y = (x + 2)e1/x
48. x4-y4+xy = 0 Q
21. y = (yjx2 + x + 1 - t/x2 - x + 1)

22. y = -jx2 + 1 - y]x2 - 1

49. x5+y5=xy2
50. x=asin29(1+ cos20),
y = acos20(1-cos20)
F
23. y = (x + 2)2/3- (x - 2)2/3
.'165

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4
IT' | Hints and Solutions
ZET1
INTRODUCTION OF GRAPHS
£
a 1. (i) y
'y = x2; x> 0
(ii) 3 - •>
2 <
Q y= 1/4 It
0 '1

--2
____ -2...
-r-x-
2. (i) y+ (ii) Yk

t
2 ne
e.
;y=2
iv

4r~
at

x
0 if 2:
re
nc

-2
ar

-2x; x<-l
.le

Here; /(x) = 2; -1 < X < 1

w

2x;
w
w

(iii) Civ) Yl

4
I
...3 I
I
i 0
T
T
2 I
J

J
x
0 2t st x4; -1<x<1
Here, fM=
x; x<-1 or xSl

-x; -l<x<0
-x + 1; OSx<l
Here, fM= x; l<x<2
2<x<3
5; x=3

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3. We know, y= is shown as;
F"
y4
y. P-L
ffW
'(0,1)
—“Ml
I
: r'(*)
3/4 r 3
0 3/4;/ ” L- H ••
—1/2 o
neglecting

Graph for /(x) Graph for r'(x) r: 3

1
. o.
From above figures it is clear that the graph would exists only when; x > -
2
1
i.e., inverse for /(x) = x2 + x + 1 would exists only when xi —.
2

y*

2 2x2; xSO
Here, /(x) =
0; x tS 0

t
ne
y=0;x<0
■X
-2 *-1 0 1
e.
iv
at
re

5. yt
nc

Here, /(x) = [[x] - x] = [x] + [-x]

ar

: : ; : 1-- Jx - x; x e integer
.le

1 I I I ” [[ x] + (-1 - [x]); x e integer

rt
w

J4 L 42 4i 0
■x
_ J 0; x e integer
eL
w

!!!! 1-1; x i integer

w

T
I

6. y From figure;
(a, tan-1)
rt/2 r„.
------- Slope of OP < Slope of OQ.
lF"i";(1 jtf4j y= tan~’x
n/4 'J pi
^-0
tan q-0
1-0 q-0
—Hr
O ia >1 X
I I tan' a It
> 4‘
a

H-

L.i._
.'167

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y
.. 4
i
y=cos~’ (cosx)
w-
H jc -
a- , -x
(3 - 2 3n4 5 2n
I
- r 0:
w
-2
-3

Clearly, the above curves intersect at 5 points;

number of solutions = &
8. y

t
ne
e.
iv
at
re
nc

From above figure, number of solutions is infinite.

ar

y
.le

x2
9. Clearly; <1
x —1
w
w

x2 <|x-l|
w

or
J
'-1-V5 -1+V5~
xe
2 ’ 2
-<5-1 O <5-1 1
2 2

10. Here, x3 = 3 + [x]

y
to sketch fM = x3

and g(x)=3+[x] 3

Clearly; from figure the two curves fM and g(x) intersects 1

when g(x) = 4. x
o 1 2
fM = 4
x3 =4

or x = 22/3.

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pj r
CURVATURE AND TRANSFORMATIONS • | ; ;

1. (0 (ii) y Jz
■■I

3-4

I:
2
2 y=|2-|x-1||

1 3

-2
■ E
(iii) y (iv) y L-- - Mil

- 0
2 -r 3 r-
</) H
t
ne
e.
x
o 3' x
iv

O 1 2 3
at

-2
, y=l2"iAl
re

M-2-|A
nc
ar

(v) y (vi) y
.le
w
w

2 1
w

X
- log 2 O log 2
1 3 y=|el*l-2|

-2

(vii) y (viii) y

1
1
-log O log 2
x T I -
x
O 1 2j 3| 7T
y=*-M
|y|=|e|x|-2| .169

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■■ < I—
. __i-----
 1

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H
(ix) y (x) y
til
. ; i i i
-i—W-
Z-r-£-
4-r Q, - O
,zz/z 1 2 3 4
X
O 1 2 3 4
X

y=^x-[x] y=(x-W)2
irjo- (xi) y (xii) y

1 1

tWh O
X
p
X

W M = (x-[x])2

t
21
I (xiii) y
e.
ne(xiv) y.
iv
y=-2x 2 2
at

y=2
re
nc

X
ar

o 1 o 1
.le

y=|x-1| + |x+i|
|y| = |x-i| + |x+i|
w
w

-2
w

(XV) y (xvi) y
4 4
—> 3 >■ 3
> \2
►
2

>• 1
~b 1 3 4 X
X
-3 -2 O 1 2 3 4
y=lk-i|] >■

►
-2
►
-3

|y| = [|x-i|]

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y. (xviii) X
(xvii)
5

4
5

4 >- 2
R
3

2 1
3
.5
1
2
[z»ii
x /*X

-2 O 2 3 4 -3 -2 O 7 2 3
Ha"

(xix) 4
-2

|y| = x+(x]

(xx)
y=|x| + [|x|l

y.
I
5

t
5

ne 4
e.
4
iv

3 3
at

'x+■v
re

*x+J/
nc
ar

1 Z
/X
x
.le

2 3 4
O T 2 3 -3 -2
'O X
w
w
w

-3
-3
-4
-4

-5
-5 i>
|y| = |x| + [|xl]
|y| = x+M

2. (i) y

T\~ 'f-X
-2ft o n 2n
f \g
3ft
>-
y=<sin x

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Cii) y.

w
4-hCr 3k
X

Q.-
±r |y| = ^sinx
0
(iii)
y.

k/2

_3k __n O K_ K 3n
ffi? 2 2 2 2

t
y= |sin x| + |cos xj
ne
±S-
e.
iv
Civ) y< (v) y.
at

2
re

2
nc

1+
ar

-IQ 3k _2L
.le

O 3it\
"T 2 2 \ .
I Ol
—4— -4--------
w

n/2 'k 3n/2 2n

w

-2
|y| = cosx+|cosxj
w

y=sin2x-2sinx

(Vi)
y+

•3/2-

473

X
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Skills in Mathematics for
JEE MAIN & ADVANCED
Play with Graphs J 1
Sometimes the visual understanding of a mathematical problem is quite helpful in solving it fast
and correctly. Play with Graphs is an attempt to ease the minds of all mathematics lovers and
Engineering aspirants who wish to solve the tricky and knotty mathematics problems involving
functional approach. This book helps you make intuitive connections between the graphs of the
functions in the problem with the exact solution of the problem. The book starts with a
discussion of the properties of various standard functions with the help of their graphs and later
takes up the topics such as curvature and transformations, asymptotes, the singular points and
finally the idea of curve tracing.

t
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Recommended to all those who sincerely desire to master problem-solving
e.
in Mathematics.
iv
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nc

ABOUTTHEAUTHOR
ar

Amit M. Agarwal is a renowned name and an authority in the field of

.le

Mathematics with a number of accolades to his credit. Immediately after doing

w

his Post Graduation from Meerut University in 1997, Mr. Agarwal started
w

teaching Mathematics in his own institute at Meerut and simultaneously

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writing the books for JEE. Amit sir's students has always been among the good
JEE Ranks. For the last 20 years he is continuously teaching JEE aspirants and
writing & revising the books. Presently he is teaching in Mumbai.

BOOKS IN THE SERIES

Algebra - Dr.SKGoyal
Trigonometry - AmitMAgarwal ^arihant 1
Coordinate Geometry - Dr.SKGoyal Arihant Prakashan (Series), Meerut |
Calculus■-AmitM
Differential Calculus Amit M Agarwal
Integral Calculus - AmitMAgarwal
Vector & 3D Geometry - Amit MAgarwal
|IIIIIIIIIIII|IIIIIIIUIII|
9117893 1 2M 4694111
Play with Graphs - Amit MAgarwal Code : B019 ?200.00

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