Chapter 3 DBMS
Chapter 3 DBMS
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Parts of SQL
Data Definition Language(DDL): Provides commands for
defining relation schemas, deleting relations and modifying relations
schemas
Interactive data-manipulation language(DML): Based on
both the relational algebra and the tuple relational calculas
Includes insert, delete and modify tuple
View definition: DDL includes commands for defining view
Transaction control: Specify the beginning and ending of
transactions
Embedded SQL and Dynamic SQL: How SQL statements can
be embedded with general purpose programming languages
Integrity: DDL include specifying integrity constraints that the data
stored in the database must satisfy. Updates the violate integrity
constraints are disallowed
Authorization: Specify access rights to relations and views
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Data Definition Language
Set of relations in a database must be specified to the system
by means of DDL.
Allows the specification of:
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Basic Domain Types in SQL
char(n). Fixed length character string, with user-specified length n.
varchar(n). Variable length character strings, with user-specified maximum
length n.
int. Integer (a finite subset of the integers that is machine-dependent).
smallint. Small integer (a machine-dependent subset of the integer
domain type).
numeric(p,d). Fixed point number, with user-specified precision of p digits,
with n digits to the right of decimal point.
real, double precision. Floating point and double-precision floating point
numbers, with machine-dependent precision.
float(n). Floating point number, with user-specified precision of at least n
digits.
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Create Table Construct
An SQL relation is defined using the create table command:
create table r (A1 D1, A2 D2, ..., An Dn,
(integrity-constraint1),
...,
(integrity-constraintk))
r is the name of the relation
each Ai is an attribute name in the schema of relation r
Di is the data type of attribute Ai
Example:
create table branch
(branch_name char(15),
branch_city char(30),
assets integer)
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Integrity Constraints on Tables
not null
primary key (A1, ..., An )
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Basic Query Structure
A typical SQL query has the form:
Ai represents an attribute
Ri represents a relation
P is a predicate.
This query is equivalent to the relational algebra expression.
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
The select Clause
The select clause list the attributes desired in the result of a query
corresponds to the projection operation of the relational algebra
Example: find the names of all branches in the loan relation:
select branch_name
from loan
In the relational algebra, the query would be:
branch_name (loan)
NOTE: SQL names are case insensitive (i.e., you may use upper- or
lower-case letters.)
E.g. Branch_Name ≡ BRANCH_NAME ≡ branch_name
Some people use upper case wherever we use bold font.
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
The select Clause (Cont.)
SQL allows duplicates in relations as well as in query results.
To force the elimination of duplicates, insert the keyword distinct after
select.
Find the names of all branches in the loan relations, and remove
duplicates
select distinct branch_name
from loan
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
The select Clause (Cont.)
An asterisk in the select clause denotes “all attributes”
select *
from loan
The select clause can contain arithmetic expressions involving the
operation, +, –, , and /, and operating on constants or attributes of
tuples.
E.g.:
select loan_number, branch_name, amount 100
from loan
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
The where Clause
The where clause specifies conditions that the result must satisfy
Corresponds to the selection predicate of the relational algebra.
To find all loan number for loans made at the Perryridge branch with
loan amounts greater than $1200.
select loan_number
from loan
where branch_name = 'Perryridge' and amount > 1200
Comparison results can be combined using the logical connectives and,
or, and not.
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
The from Clause
The from clause lists the relations involved in the query
Corresponds to the Cartesian product operation of the relational algebra.
Find the Cartesian product borrower X loan
select
from borrower, loan
Find the name, loan number and loan amount of all customers
having a loan at the Perryridge branch.
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Basic Insertion and Deletion of Tuples
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Drop and Alter Table Constructs
The drop table command deletes all information about the dropped
relation from the database.
The alter table command is used to add attributes to an existing
relation:
alter table r add A D
where A is the name of the attribute to be added to relation r and D
is the domain of A.
All tuples in the relation are assigned null as the value for the
new attribute.
The alter table command can also be used to drop attributes of a
relation:
alter table r drop A
where A is the name of an attribute of relation r
Dropping of attributes not supported by many databases
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
The Rename Operation
SQL allows renaming relations and attributes using the as clause:
old-name as new-name
E.g. Find the name, loan number and loan amount of all customers;
rename the column name loan_number as loan_id.
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Tuple Variables
Tuple variables are defined in the from clause via the use of the as
clause.
Find the customer names and their loan numbers and amount for all
customers having a loan at some branch.
Find the names of all branches that have greater assets than
some branch located in Brooklyn.
select distinct T.branch_name
from branch as T, branch as S
where T.assets > S.assets and S.branch_city = 'Brooklyn'
Keyword as is optional and may be omitted
borrower as T ≡ borrower T
Some database such as Oracle require as to be omitted
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
EXERCISES
CAT ENO TOPIC MAXPT
H 1 Rel.Alg. 10
H 2 SQL 10
M 1 SQL 14
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
The FROM clause can be understood
as declaring variables that range over
tuples of a relation:
SELECT E.ENO, E.TOPIC FROM
EXERCISES E WHERE E.CAT = ’H’ .
This may be executed as
foreach E ∈ EXERCISES do
if E.CAT = ’H’ then
print E.ENO, E.TOPIC
fi
od
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
String Operations
SQL includes a string-matching operator for comparisons on character
strings. The operator “like” uses patterns that are described using two
special characters:
percent (%). The % character matches any substring.
underscore (_). The _ character matches any character.
Find the names of all customers whose street includes the substring
“Main”.
select customer_name
from customer
where customer_street like '% Main%'
‘---’ matches any string of exactly three characters
Match the name “Main%”
like ‘-Main\%' escape '\'
SQL supports a variety of string operations such as
concatenation (using “||”)
converting from upper to lower case (and vice versa): upper() & lower()
finding string length, extracting substrings, etc.
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
SELECT * FROM Student
WHERE name LIKE 'Aj[ie]et%';
It will return all students whose name is 5 characters long, where the
first two characters is 'Aj' and the last two characters is 'et', and
the third character is either 'i' or 'e'. So in this case, it would
match on either 'Ajiet' or 'Ajeet'.
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Example
Like ‘200%’ – values that start with 200
Like ‘%200%’ – values that have 200 in any
position
Like ‘_00’ – values that have 0 in 2nd and 3rd
position
Like ‘2_%_%’ – values that start with 2 and at
least 3 characters in length
Like ‘_2%3’ – values that have a 2 in 2nd
position and end with 3
Like ‘2_ _ _3’ – values in 5 digit number start
with 2 and end with 3
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Ordering the Display of Tuples
List in alphabetic order the names of all customers having a loan in
Perryridge branch
select distinct customer_name
from borrower, loan
where borrower loan_number = loan.loan_number and
branch_name = 'Perryridge'
order by customer_name
We may specify desc for descending order or asc for ascending
order, for each attribute; ascending order is the default.
Example: order by customer_name desc
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Duplicates
In relations with duplicates, SQL can define how many copies of
tuples appear in the result.
Multiset versions of some of the relational algebra operators – given
multiset relations r1 and r2:
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Duplicates (Cont.)
Example: Suppose multiset relations r1 (A, B) and r2 (C) are as
follows:
r1 = {(1, a) (2,a)} r2 = {(2), (3), (3)}
Then B(r1) would be {(a), (a)}, while B(r1) x r2 would be
{(a,2), (a,2), (a,3), (a,3), (a,3), (a,3)}
SQL duplicate semantics:
select A1,, A2, ..., An
from r1, r2, ..., rm
where P
is equivalent to the multiset version of the expression:
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Set Operations
The set operations union, intersect, and except operate on relations
and correspond to the relational algebra operations −
Each of the above operations automatically eliminates duplicates; to
retain all duplicates use the corresponding multiset versions union all,
intersect all and except all.
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Set Operations
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Aggregate Functions
These functions operate on the multiset of values of a column of
a relation, and return a value
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Aggregate Functions (Cont.)
Find the average account balance at the Perryridge branch.
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Aggregate Functions – Group By
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
CREATE TABLE SALESDEPARTMENT ("ITEM“
VARCHAR2(4000), "SALE" NUMBER,
"BILLING_ADDRESS" VARCHAR2(4000) )
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
SELECT item, SUM(sale) AS "Total sal
es" FROM salesdepartment GROUP
BY item;
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Aggregate Functions – Having Clause
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
SELECT item, SUM(sale) AS "Total sales"
FROM salesdepartment GROUP BY item
HAVING SUM(sale) < 1000;
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Null Values
It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for some
of their attributes
null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist.
The predicate is null can be used to check for null values.
Example: Find all loan number which appear in the loan relation
with null values for amount.
select loan_number
from loan
where amount is null
The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null
Example: 5 + null returns null
However, aggregate functions simply ignore nulls
More on next slide
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.35 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Null Values and Three Valued Logic
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.36 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Null Values and Aggregates
Total all loan amounts
select sum (amount )
from loan
Above statement ignores null amounts
Result is null if there is no non-null amount
All aggregate operations except count(*) ignore tuples with null
values on the aggregated attributes.
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.37 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Nested Subqueries
SQL provides a mechanism for the nesting of subqueries.
A subquery is a select-from-where expression that is nested within
another query.
A common use of subqueries is to perform tests for set membership, set
comparisons, and set cardinality.
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.38 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
“In” Construct
Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the bank.
Find all customers who have a loan at the bank but do not have
an account at the bank
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.39 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Example Query
Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the
Perryridge branch
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.40 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
“Some” Construct
Find all branches that have greater assets than some branch located
in Brooklyn.
select branch_name
from branch
where assets > some
(select assets
from branch
where branch_city = 'Brooklyn')
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.41 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
“All” Construct
Find the names of all branches that have greater assets than all
branches located in Brooklyn.
select branch_name
from branch
where assets > all
(select assets
from branch
where branch_city = 'Brooklyn')
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.42 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
“Exists” Construct
Find all customers who have an account at all branches located in
Brooklyn.
select distinct S.customer_name
from depositor as S
where not exists (
(select branch_name
from branch
where branch_city = 'Brooklyn')
except
(select R.branch_name
from depositor as T, account as R
where T.account_number = R.account_number and
S.customer_name = T.customer_name ))
Here, the outer select takes each customer and tests the test the set of all
branches at which that customer has an account contains the set of all
branches located at Brooklyn
Note that X – Y = Ø X Y
Note: Cannot write this query using = all and its variants
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.43 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Absence of Duplicate Tuples
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Example Query
Find all customers who have at least two accounts at the Perryridge
branch.
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Complex Queries - Derived Relations
SQL allows a subquery expression to be used in the from clause
Find the average account balance of those branches where the average
account balance is greater than $1200.
select branch_name, avg_balance
from (select branch_name, avg (balance)
from account
group by branch_name )
as branch_avg ( branch_name, avg_balance )
where avg_balance > 1200
Note that we do not need to use the having clause, since we compute
the temporary (view) relation branch_avg in the from clause, and the
attributes of branch_avg can be used directly in the where clause.
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.46 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
With Clause
The with clause provides a way of defining a temporary view whose
definition is available only to the query in which the with clause
occurs.
Introduced in SQL:1999 (currently supported only in few databases)
Find all accounts with the maximum balance
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.47 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Complex Queries using With Clause
Find all branches where the total account deposit is greater than the
average of the total account deposits at all branches.
Note: the exact syntax supported by your database may vary slightly.
E.g. Oracle syntax is of the form
with branch_total as ( select .. ),
branch_total_avg as ( select .. )
select …
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.48 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
View Definition
A relation that is not of the conceptual model but is made visible to
a user as a “virtual relation” is called a view.
View is a stored SQL query used as a “Virtual Table” that logically
represents subsets of data from one or more tables.
A view is defined using the create view statement which has the
form
create view v as < query expression >
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.49 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Example Queries
A view consisting of branches and their customers
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Uses of Views
Restricts data access: Hiding some information from some users
Consider a user who needs to know a customer’s name, loan number
and branch name, but has no need to see the loan amount.
Define a view
(create view cust_loan_data as
select customer_name, borrower.loan_number, branch_name
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number )
Grant the user permission to read cust_loan_data, but not borrower or
loan
Makes complex query easy: Predefined queries to make writing of other
queries easier
Common example: Aggregate queries used for statistical analysis of
data
Present different views of the same data: view provides data
independence for ad-hoc users and application programs. One view can
be used to retrieve data from several tables.
Provide data independence: Views provide groups of users’ access to
data according to their particular criteria
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.51 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Processing of Views
When a view is created
the query expression is stored in the database along with the view
name
the expression is substituted into any query using the view
Views definitions containing views
One view may be used in the expression defining another view
A view relation v1 is said to depend directly on a view relation v2 if
v2 is used in the expression defining v1
A view relation v1 is said to depend on view relation v2 if either v1
depends directly to v2 or there is a path of dependencies from
v1 to v2
A view relation v is said to be recursive if it depends on itself.
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.52 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
View Expansion
A way to define the meaning of views defined in terms of other views.
Let view v1 be defined by an expression e1 that may itself contain uses
of view relations.
View expansion of an expression repeats the following replacement
step:
repeat
Find any view relation vi in e1
Replace the view relation vi by the expression defining vi
until no more view relations are present in e1
As long as the view definitions are not recursive, this loop will
terminate
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.53 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Update of a View
Create a view of all loan data in the loan relation, hiding the amount
attribute
create view loan_branch as
select loan_number, branch_name
from loan
Add a new tuple to loan_branch
insert into loan_branch
values ('L-37‘, 'Perryridge‘)
This insertion must be represented by the insertion of the tuple
('L-37', 'Perryridge', null )
into the loan relation
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.54 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Updates Through Views (Cont.)
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Modification of the Database – Deletion
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Example Query
Delete the record of all accounts with balances below the average at
the bank.
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Modification of the Database – Insertion
or equivalently
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.58 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Modification of the Database – Insertion
Provide as a gift for all loan customers of the Perryridge branch, a $200
savings account. Let the loan number serve as the account number for the
new savings account
insert into account
select loan_number, branch_name, 200
from loan
where branch_name = 'Perryridge'
insert into depositor
select customer_name, loan_number
from loan, borrower
where branch_name = 'Perryridge'
and loan.account_number = borrower.account_number
The select from where statement is evaluated fully before any of its
results are inserted into the relation
Motivation: insert into table1 select * from table1
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.59 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Modification of the Database – Updates
Increase all accounts with balances over $10,000 by 6%, all other
accounts receive 5%.
Write two update statements:
update account
set balance = balance 1.06
where balance > 10000
update account
set balance = balance 1.05
where balance 10000
The order is important
Can be done better using the case statement (next slide)
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.60 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Case Statement for Conditional Updates
update account
set balance = case
when balance <= 10000 then balance *1.05
else balance * 1.06
end
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.61 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Transactions
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.62 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Joined Relations**
Join operations take two relations and return as a result another
relation.
These additional operations are typically used as subquery
expressions in the from clause
Join condition – defines which tuples in the two relations match, and
what attributes are present in the result of the join.
Join type – defines how tuples in each relation that do not match any
tuple in the other relation (based on the join condition) are treated.
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.63 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Joined Relations – Datasets for Examples
Relation loan
Relation borrower
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.64 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Joined Relations – Examples
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.65 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Joined Relations – Examples
loan natural inner join borrower
Find all customers who have either an account or a loan (but not both) at the bank.
select customer_name
from (depositor natural full outer join borrower )
where account_number is null or loan_number is null
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.66 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Joined Relations – Examples
Natural join can get into trouble if two relations have an attribute with
same name that should not affect the join condition
e.g. an attribute such as remarks may be present in many tables
Solution:
loan full outer join borrower using (loan_number)
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.67 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
End of Chapter 3