Ideal Rankine Engine

The ideal Rankine engine is either a steam turbine or a steam engine.

The difference between an ideal Rankine cycle and an ideal Rankine engine is that the la er does
not include pump work since it is concerned only with all the processes occurring inside the engine.

The ideal Rankine cycle must include pump work because the pump is needed for the comple on
of the cycle.

For the engine to be ideal, the expansion should be isentropic.

• Turbine Work

𝑊 =ℎ −ℎ
• Thermal efficiency
𝑊
𝑒=
𝐸
where: Ec = energy chargeable against the engine

= enthalpy of steam entering the engine - enthalpy of saturated liquid at the condensing temperature

=ℎ −ℎ

• Steam rate (or specific steam consump on) – the mass of steam used to perform a unit
work or the mass flow rate of steam consumed to produce a unit of power
𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ( )
𝑚= ℎ
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑘𝑊)
3600 𝑘𝑔
𝑚= ,
𝑊 𝑘𝑊ℎ
• Heat Rate, HR - is the energy chargeable per unit of work or the rate of energy
chargeable per unit of power
3600
𝐻𝑅 = (𝐸 ) = 𝑚(𝐸 )
𝑊
• Rela on between e and HR
3600
𝑒=
𝐻𝑅
The thermal efficiency is inversely propor onal to the heat rate. This means that
the lower the heat rate, the higher the thermal efficiency and the higher the heat rate,
the lower the thermal efficiency.
Actual Rankine Cycle

The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle as a result of irreversibili es in
various components.

Fluid fric on and heat loss to the surroundings are the two common sources of irreversibili es.

Fluid fric on causes pressure drops in the boiler, the condenser, and the piping between various
components. The other major source of irreversibility is the heat loss from the steam to the surroundings
as the steam flows through various components.

Fluid fric on

• Steam leaves the boiler at a somewhat lower pressure.

• The pressure at the turbine inlet is somewhat lower than that of the boiler exit due to
pressure drop in the connec ng pipes.

• The pressure drop in the condenser is usually very small. To compensate for these
pressure drops, the water must be pumped to a sufficiently higher pressure than the ideal
cycle calls for. This requires a larger pump and larger work input to the pump.

Heat Loss to the surroundings

• To maintain the same level of net work output, more heat needs to be transferred to the
steam in the boiler to compensate for the undesired heat losses.

• As a result, the cycle efficiency decreases.

Irreversibili es

• Of par cular importance are the irreversibili es occurring within the pump and the
turbine.

• A pump requires a greater work input, and a turbine produces a smaller work output as a
result of irreversibili es.

• Under ideal condi ons, the flow through these devices is isentropic.

• The devia on of actual pumps and turbines from the isentropic ones can be accounted
for by u lizing isentropic efficiencies.

Turbine

An actual adiaba c expansion through the turbine is accompanied by an increase in entropy. The
work developed per unit of mass in this process is less than for the corresponding isentropic expansion

Pump

In the absence of heat transfer to the surroundings, there would be an increase in entropy across
the pump. The work input for this process is greater than for the corresponding isentropic process
Isentropic efficiencies

 Pump
𝑊 ℎ −ℎ
𝜂 = =
𝑊 ′ ℎ −ℎ

 Turbine
𝑊 ′ ℎ −ℎ ′
𝜂 = =
𝑊 ℎ −ℎ

Example 1

A steam power plant operates on the cycle shown. If the isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 87
percent and the isentropic efficiency of the pump is 85 percent, determine

(a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle

(b) the net power output of the plant for a mass flow rate of 15 kg/s.
Schema c Diagram and T-s Diagram:

Pump Work Input

𝑊 ℎ −ℎ
𝜂 = =
𝑊 ′ ℎ −ℎ

𝐴𝑡 9 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (0.009 𝑀𝑃𝑎), 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 2:

𝑚
𝑣 = v = 1.0094 𝑥10
𝑘𝑔
𝑊 = v (𝑃 − 𝑃 )
𝑊
𝜂 =
𝑊 ′
𝑊
𝑊 =
𝜂
𝑚 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
0.0010094 16000 −9
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑚
𝑊 ′=
0.85
𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 18.98978282
𝑘𝑔
Turbine Work Output

𝐴𝑡 15 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 600°𝐶, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3:

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 3582.3
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 6.6776 =𝑠
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = ℎ 𝑎𝑡 10 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 6.6776
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝐴𝑡 10 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (0.01 𝑀𝑃𝑎), 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 2:
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 191.83 𝑠 = 0.6493
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 2392.8 𝑠 = 7.5009
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝐾

Solving for the quality of saturated liquid-vapor mixture at point 6:

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 −𝑠 6.6776 − 0.6493
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = =
𝑠 𝑘𝐽
7.5009
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = 0.8036768921
Solving for the enthalpy at the exit of the turbine:

ℎ =ℎ +𝑥 ℎ

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 191.83 + (0.8036768921) 2392.8
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 2114.868067
𝑘𝑔
Solving for the actual turbine work:
𝑊 ′ ℎ −ℎ ′
𝜂 = =
𝑊 ℎ −ℎ
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 𝜂 𝑊 = (0.87) 3582.3 − 2114.868067
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 1276.665782
𝑘𝑔
Boiler heat input

𝑄 =ℎ −ℎ
ℎ = ℎ 𝑎𝑡 15.2 𝑀𝑃𝑎 & 625°𝐶 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3)
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 3646.02
𝑘𝑔
ℎ = ℎ 𝑎𝑡 15.9 𝑀𝑃𝑎 & 35°𝐶 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 4)
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 160.8799
𝑘𝑔
Solving the values of ℎ and ℎ by interpola on:

Table 3 - Vapor Table 4 - Liquid

15 MPa 15.2 MPa 15.5 MPa 15 MPa 15.9 MPa 17.5 MPa
620°C 3634.6 3633 3630.6 20°C 97.99 98.8252 100.31
625°C 3646.02 35°C 160.8799
630°C 3660.6 3659.04 3656.7 40°C 180.78 181.5648 182.96

(a)
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = ℎ − ℎ = 3646.02 − 160.8799
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 3485.1401
𝑘𝑔
𝑊 𝑊 ′−𝑊 ′
𝑒= =
𝑄 𝑄
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
1276.665782 − 18.98978282
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑒= ∗ 100 %
𝑘𝐽
3485.1401
𝑘𝑔
𝒆 = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟎𝟖𝟔𝟖𝟏𝟑𝟑%
(b)
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔
𝑊 = 𝑊 − 𝑊 = 1276.665782 − 18.98978282 = 1257.676 15
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑠
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟔𝟓. 𝟏𝟒 𝒌𝑾 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟖. 𝟖𝟔𝟓𝟏𝟒 𝑴𝑾
Increasing Rankine Cycle Efficiency

Lowering the Condenser Pressure

 Automa cally lowers the temperature at which heat is rejected

Superhea ng the Steam to High Temperatures

 The net work and heat input increases

Increasing the Boiler Pressure

 Automa cally raises the temperature at which boiling takes place

Lowering the Condenser Pressure

• Steam exists as a saturated mixture in the condenser at the satura on temperature corresponding
to the pressure inside the condenser.

• Therefore, lowering the opera ng pressure of the condenser automa cally lowers the
temperature of the steam, and thus the temperature at which heat is rejected.

• There is a lower limit on the condenser pressure that can be used.

• It cannot be lower than the satura on pressure corresponding to the temperature of the cooling
medium.
Superhea ng the Steam to High Temperatures

• It creates the possibility of air leakage into the condenser.

• More importantly, it increases the moisture content of the steam at the final stages of the turbine.

• The presence of large quan es of moisture is highly undesirable in turbines because it decreases
the turbine efficiency and erodes the turbine blades.

• The average temperature at which heat is transferred to steam can be increased without
increasing the boiler pressure by superhea ng the steam to high temperatures.

• Both the net work and heat input increase as a result of superhea ng the steam to a higher
temperature.

• The overall effect is an increase in thermal efficiency, however, since the average temperature at
which heat is added increases.

• Superhea ng the steam to higher temperatures has another very desirable effect: It decreases the
moisture content of the steam at the turbine exit.
Increasing the Boiler Pressure

• It automa cally raises the temperature at which boiling takes place. This, in turn, raises the
average temperature at which heat is transferred to the steam and thus raises the thermal
efficiency of the cycle.

• For a fixed turbine inlet temperature, the cycle shi s to the le and the moisture content of
steam at the turbine exit increases. This undesirable side effect can be corrected by rehea ng
the steam.

Example 1

Consider a steam power plant opera ng on the ideal Rankine cycle. Steam enters the turbine at 3 MPa
and 350°C and is condensed in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa.

Determine

(a) the thermal efficiency of this power plant,

(b) the thermal efficiency if steam is superheated to 600°C instead of 350°C, and

(c) the thermal efficiency if the boiler pressure is raised to 15 MPa while the turbine inlet
temperature is maintained at 600°C.
 (a)

Point 1 – saturated liquid:

At 10 kPa = 0.01 MPa (Table 2):

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = ℎ = 191.82
𝑘𝑔
𝑚
v = v = 0.0010102
𝑘𝑔
Point 2 – subcooled liquid:

𝑃 = 𝑃 = 3 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑊 = v (𝑃 − 𝑃 )

𝑚 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑊 = 0.0010102 3000 − 10
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑚
𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 3.020498
𝑘𝑔

ℎ =ℎ +𝑊
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 191.82 + 3.020498
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 194.840498
𝑘𝑔
Point 3 – superheated vapor:

At 3 MPa & 350°C (Table 3):

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 3115.3
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 6.7428
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
Point 4 – saturated liquid-vapor mixture:
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 𝑠 = 6.7428
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
At 10 kPa = 0.01 MPa (Table 2):
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 0.6493 ℎ = 191.83
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 7.5009 ℎ = 2392.8
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 −𝑠 6.7428 − 0.6493
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = =
𝑠 𝑘𝐽
7.5009
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = 0.812369182
ℎ =ℎ +𝑥 ℎ

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 191.83 + (0.812369182) 2392.8
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 2135.66698
𝑘𝑔
Heat added
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = ℎ − ℎ = 3115.3 − 194.840498
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 2920.4595
𝑘𝑔
Heat rejected
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = ℎ − ℎ = 2135.66698 − 191.82
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 1943.84698
𝑘𝑔
Cycle thermal efficiency
𝑄
𝑒 =1−
𝑄
𝑘𝐽
1943.84698
𝑘𝑔
𝑒=1− ∗ 100 %
𝑘𝐽
2920.4595
𝑘𝑔
𝒆 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟒𝟒𝟎𝟑𝟕𝟐%
(b) the thermal efficiency if steam is superheated to 600°C instead of 350°C

Points 1 & 2 remain the same

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 191.82
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 194.840498
𝑘𝑔
Point 3 – superheated vapor:

At 3 MPa & 600°C (Table 3):

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 3682.3
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 7.5085
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
Point 4 – saturated liquid-vapor mixture:
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 𝑠 = 7.5085
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 −𝑠 7.5085 − 0.6493
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = =
𝑠 𝑘𝐽
7.5009
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = 0.914450266
ℎ =ℎ +𝑥 ℎ

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 191.83 + (0.914450266) 2392.8
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 2379.9266
𝑘𝑔
Heat added
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = ℎ − ℎ = 3682.3 − 194.840498
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 3487.4595
𝑘𝑔
Heat rejected
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = ℎ − ℎ = 2379.9266 − 191.82
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 2188.1066
𝑘𝑔
Cycle thermal efficiency
𝑄
𝑒 =1−
𝑄
𝑘𝐽
2188.1066
𝑘𝑔
𝑒 =1− ∗ 100 %
𝑘𝐽
3487.4595
𝑘𝑔
𝒆 = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟐𝟓𝟕𝟖𝟔𝟑𝟓%
(c) the thermal efficiency if the boiler pressure is raised to 15 MPa while the turbine inlet
temperature is maintained at 600°C

Point 1 remains the same

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 191.82
𝑘𝑔
Point 2 – subcooled liquid:

𝑃 = 𝑃 = 15 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑊 = v (𝑃 − 𝑃 )
𝑚 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑊 = 0.0010102 15000 − 10
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑚
𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 15.142898
𝑘𝑔
ℎ =ℎ +𝑊
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 191.82 + 15.142898
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 206.962898
𝑘𝑔
Point 3 – superheated vapor:

At 15 MPa & 600°C (Table 3):

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 3582.3
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 6.6776
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
Point 4 – saturated liquid-vapor mixture:
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 𝑠 = 6.6776
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 −𝑠 6.6776 − 0.6493
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = =
𝑠 𝑘𝐽
7.5009
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = 0.803676892
ℎ =ℎ +𝑥 ℎ

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 191.83 + (0.803676892) 2392.8
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 2114.86807
𝑘𝑔
Heat added
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = ℎ − ℎ = 3582.3 − 206.962898
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 3375.3371
𝑘𝑔
Heat rejected
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = ℎ − ℎ = 2114.86807 − 191.82
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 1923.04807
𝑘𝑔
Cycle thermal efficiency
𝑄
𝑒 =1−
𝑄
𝑘𝐽
1923.04807
𝑘𝑔
𝑒=1− ∗ 100 %
𝑘𝐽
3375.3371
𝑘𝑔
𝒆 = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟒𝟖𝟖𝟓%
 Reheat Cycle

increasing the boiler pressure increases the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle, but it also
increases the moisture content of the steam to unacceptable levels. Reheat Rankine cycle is a
modifica on of the Rankine cycle in which the steam is expanded in the turbine in two stages and
reheated in between. Rehea ng is a prac cal solu on to the excessive moisture problem in the lower-
pressure stages of turbines, and it is used frequently in modern steam power plants.

The ideal reheat Rankine cycle differs from the simple ideal Rankine cycle in that the expansion
process takes place in two stages. In the first stage (the high pressure turbine), steam is expanded
isentropically to an intermediate pressure and sent back to the boiler where it is reheated at constant
pressure, usually to the inlet temperature of the first turbine stage. Steam then expands isentropically
in the second stage (low-pressure turbine) to the condenser pressure.

The average temperature during the reheat process can be increased by increasing the number of
expansion and reheat stages. As the number of stages is increased, the expansion and reheat processes
approach an isothermal process at the maximum temperature.

The use of more than two reheat stages, however, is not prac cal. The theore cal improvement in
efficiency from the second reheat is about half of that which results from a single reheat. If the turbine
inlet pressure is not high enough, double reheat would result in superheated exhaust. This is undesirable
as it would cause the average temperature for heat rejec on to increase and thus the cycle efficiency to
decrease.

Therefore, double reheat is used only on supercri cal-pressure (P > 22.06 MPa) power plants. A third
reheat stage would increase the cycle efficiency by about half of the improvement a ained by the second
reheat. This gain is too small to jus fy the added cost and complexity.
Example 1

Consider a steam power plant opera ng on the ideal reheat Rankine cycle. Steam enters the high-
pressure turbine at 15 MPa and 600°C and is condensed in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. If the
moisture content of the steam at the exit of the low-pressure turbine is not to exceed 10.4 percent,
determine

(a) the pressure at which the steam should be reheated and

(b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle. Assume the steam is reheated to the inlet temperature of
the high-pressure turbine.

Pump 1-2

Point 1 – saturated liquid:

At 10 kPa = 0.01 MPa (Table 2):

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = ℎ = 191.82
𝑘𝑔
𝑚
v = v = 0.0010102
𝑘𝑔
Point 2 – subcooled liquid:

𝑃 = 𝑃 = 15 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑊 = v (𝑃 − 𝑃 )

𝑚 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑊 = 0.0010102 15000 − 10
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑚
𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 15.142898
𝑘𝑔
 ℎ =ℎ +𝑊
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 191.82 + 15.142898
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 206.962898
𝑘𝑔
High-Pressure Turbine 3-4

Point 3 – superheated vapor:

At 15 MPa and 600°C (Table 3):

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 3582.3
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 6.6776
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
Reheater 4-5

Point 4 – superheated vapor:

𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 𝑠 = 6.6776
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
Condenser 6-1

Point 6 – saturated liquid and vapor mixture:

𝑦 = 10.4%
𝑥 = 1−𝑦
𝑥 = 1 − 0.104
𝑥 = 0.896
At 10 kPa = 0.01 MPa (Table 2):
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 0.6493 ℎ = 191.83
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 7.5009 ℎ = 2392.8
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
ℎ =ℎ +𝑥 ℎ

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 191.83 + (0.896) 2392.8
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 2335.7788
𝑘𝑔
 𝑠 =𝑠 +𝑥 𝑠

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 0.6493 + (0.896) 7.5009
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 7.3701064
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
Low-Pressure Turbine 5-6

Point 5 – superheated vapor:

𝑇 = 600°𝐶
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 7.3701064
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
(a) the pressure at which the steam should be reheated
𝑘𝐽
𝑃 = 𝑃 = 𝑃 𝑎𝑡 600°𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 7.3701064
𝑘𝑔 𝐾

3.95 MPa 𝑃 4.0 MPa

600°𝐶 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
7.3750 7.3701064 7.3688
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝐾

By interpola on:

𝑷𝟒 = 𝑷𝟓 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟖𝟗𝟒𝟔𝟒𝟓𝟏𝟔 𝑴𝑷𝒂
(b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle

Heat added

𝑄 =𝑄 +𝑄
𝑄 = (ℎ − ℎ ) + (ℎ − ℎ )

Solving for the enthalpy at the exit of the reheater (4-5):

3.95 MPa 3.989464516 𝑀𝑃𝑎 4.0 MPa

600°𝐶 𝑘𝐽 ℎ 𝑘𝐽
3674.8 3674.4
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

By interpola on:
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 3674.484284
𝑘𝑔
Solving for the enthalpy at the inlet of the reheater:
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = ℎ 𝑎𝑡 3.989464516 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 = 6.6776
𝑘𝑔 𝐾

3.95 MPa 3.989464516 𝑀𝑃𝑎 4.0 MPa

370°𝐶 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
6.6669 6.661296039 6.6598
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝐾

374.3735057°𝐶 𝑘𝐽
6.6776
𝑘𝑔 𝐾

380°𝐶 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
6.7041 6.698574968 6.6971
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝐾

3.95 MPa 3.989464516 𝑀𝑃𝑎 4.0 MPa

370°𝐶 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
3142.7 3141.7
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

374.3735057°𝐶 𝑘𝐽 ℎ 𝑘𝐽
3153.240149 3152.283884
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

380°𝐶 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
3166.8 3165.9
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

By interpola on:
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 3152.485378
𝑘𝑔
Heat added
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 3582.3 − 206.962898 + 3674.484284 − 3152.485378
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 3897.336008
𝑘𝑔
Heat rejected
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = ℎ − ℎ = 2335.7788 − 191.82
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 2143.9588
𝑘𝑔
Cycle thermal efficiency
𝑄
𝑒 =1−
𝑄
𝑘𝐽
2143.9588
𝑘𝑔
𝑒 =1− ∗ 100 %
𝑘𝐽
3897.336008
𝑘𝑔
𝒆 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟗𝟖𝟗𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟖𝟗%
Regenera ve Cycle

A prac cal regenera on process in steam power plants is accomplished by extrac ng, or
“bleeding,” steam from the turbine at various points. This steam, which could have produced more work
by expanding further in the turbine, is used to heat the feedwater instead. The device where the feedwater
is heated by regenera on is called a regenerator, or a feedwater heater (FWH).

Regenera on not only improves cycle efficiency, but also provides a convenient means of
deaera ng the feedwater (removing the air that leaks in at the condenser) to prevent corrosion in the
boiler. It also helps control the large volume flow rate of the steam at the final stages of the turbine (due
to the large specific volumes at low pressures).

A feedwater heater is basically a heat exchanger where heat is transferred from the steam to the
feedwater either by mixing the two fluid streams (open feedwater heaters) or without mixing them (closed
feedwater heaters).

Open Feedwater Heaters

An open (or direct-contact) feedwater heater is basically a mixing chamber, where the steam
extracted from the turbine mixes with the feedwater exi ng the pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves the
heater as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure.

In an ideal regenera ve Rankine cycle, steam enters the turbine at the boiler pressure (state 5)
and expands isentropically to an intermediate pressure (state 6). Some steam is extracted at this state and
routed to the feedwater heater, while the remaining steam con nues to expand isentropically to the
condenser pressure (state 7). This steam leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid at the condenser
pressure (state 1). The condensed water, which is also called the feedwater, then enters an isentropic
pump, where it is compressed to the feedwater heater pressure (state 2) and is routed to the feedwater
heater, where it mixes with the steam extracted from the turbine. The frac on of the steam extracted is
such that the mixture leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure (state 3). A second
pump raises the pressure of the water to the boiler pressure (state 4). The cycle is completed by hea ng
the water in the boiler to the turbine inlet state (state 5).
Boiler 4-5

𝑄 =ℎ −ℎ
𝑃 =𝑃
Turbine 5-6, 5-7

𝑊 = (ℎ − ℎ ) + (1 − 𝑦)(ℎ − ℎ )
𝑠 =𝑠 =𝑠
Condenser 7-1

𝑃 =𝑃
𝑄 = (1 − 𝑦)(ℎ − ℎ )
Open Feedwater Heater 6-3, 2-3

𝑃 =𝑃 =𝑃
Pump 1 1-2
𝑠 =𝑠 =𝑠

Pump 2 3-4

𝑠 =𝑠 =𝑠

𝑊 = (1 − 𝑦)(𝑊 ) + 𝑊
𝑊 = v (𝑃 − 𝑃 )
𝑊 = v (𝑃 − 𝑃 )
Let y be the frac on of steam extracted from the turbine
𝑚
𝑦=
𝑚
The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle increases as a result of regenera on. This is because
regenera on raises the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the steam in the boiler by
raising the temperature of the water before it enters the boiler.

The cycle efficiency increases further as the number of feedwater heaters is increased. Many large
plants in opera on today use as many as eight feedwater heaters. The op mum number of feedwater
heaters is determined from economical considera ons. The use of an addi onal feedwater heater cannot
be jus fied unless it saves more from the fuel costs than its own cost.
Example 1

Consider a steam power plant opera ng on the ideal regenera ve Rankine cycle with one open
feedwater heater. Steam enters the turbine at 15 MPa and 600°C and is condensed in the condenser at a
pressure of 10 kPa. Some steam leaves the turbine at a pressure of 1.2 MPa and enters the open feedwater
heater. Determine the frac on of steam extracted from the turbine and the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

Pump 1 Process 1-2

Point 1 – saturated liquid:

At 10 kPa = 0.01 MPa (Table 2):

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = ℎ = 191.82
𝑘𝑔

𝑚
v = v = 0.0010102
𝑘𝑔
Point 2 – subcooled liquid:

𝑃 = 𝑃 = 𝑃 = 1.2 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑊 = v (𝑃 − 𝑃 )
𝑚 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑊 = 0.0010102 1200 − 10
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑚
𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 1.202138
𝑘𝑔
 ℎ =ℎ +𝑊
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 191.82 + 1.202138
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 193.022138
𝑘𝑔
Pump 2 Process 3-4

Point 3 – saturated liquid:

At 1.2 MPa (Table 2):

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = ℎ = 798.65
𝑘𝑔
𝑚
v = v = 0.0011385
𝑘𝑔
Point 4 – subcooled liquid:

𝑃 = 𝑃 = 15 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑊 = v (𝑃 − 𝑃 )

𝑚 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑊 = 0.0011385 15000 − 1200
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑚
𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 15.7113
𝑘𝑔

ℎ =ℎ +𝑊
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 798.65 + 15.7113
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 814.3613
𝑘𝑔
Boiler Process 4-5

Point 5 – superheated vapor:

At 15 MPa and 600°C (Table 3):

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 3582.3
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 6.6776 =𝑠 =𝑠
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
Turbine Process 5-6, 5-7

Point 6 – superheated vapor:

At 1.2 MPa and 𝑠 = 6.6776 (Table 3)

Solving for the enthalpy at the inlet of the open feedwater heater (Point 6):

At 1.2 MPa S h
215°𝐶 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
6.6672 2853.1
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 ℎ
6.6776
𝑘𝑔 𝐾

220°𝐶 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
6.6918 2865.1
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔

By interpola on:
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 2858.173171
𝑘𝑔
Condenser 7-1

Point 7 – saturated liquid and vapor mixture:

At 10 kPa = 0.01 MPa (Table 2) and 𝑠 = 𝑠 = 6.6776

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 0.6493 ℎ = 191.83
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 7.5009 ℎ = 2392.8
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 −𝑠 6.6776 − 0.6493
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = =
𝑠 𝑘𝐽
7.5009
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = 0.8036768921
ℎ =ℎ +𝑥 ℎ

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 191.83 + (0.8036768921) 2392.8
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 2114.868067
𝑘𝑔
 (a) Open Feedwater Heater

Energy balance equa on

The energy analysis of open feedwater heaters is iden cal to the energy analysis of mixing
chambers. The feedwater heaters are generally well insulated (Q = 0), and do not involve any work
interac ons (W = 0). By neglec ng the kine c and poten al energies of the streams, the energy balance
reduces for a feedwater to:

𝐸 =𝐸 → 𝑚ℎ = 𝑚ℎ

𝑦ℎ + (1 − 𝑦)ℎ = 1(ℎ )
ℎ −ℎ
𝑦=
ℎ −ℎ
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
798.65 − 193.022138
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑦=
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
2858.173171 − 193.022138
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟕𝟐𝟑𝟗𝟔𝟎𝟐𝟕
 (b) Thermal efficiency
𝑊 𝑄
𝑒= =1−
𝑄 𝑄
Heat added

𝑄 =ℎ −ℎ
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 3582.3 − 814.3613
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 2767.9387
𝑘𝑔

Heat rejected

𝑄 = (1 − 𝑦)(ℎ − ℎ )
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = (1 − 0.2272396027) 2114.868067 − 191.82
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 1486.055388
𝑘𝑔

𝑄
𝑒 =1−
𝑄
𝑘𝐽
1486.055388
𝑘𝑔
𝑒 =1− ∗ 100 %
𝑘𝐽
2767.9387
𝑘𝑔
𝒆 = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟑𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟑𝟖𝟗 %
Closed Feedwater Heaters

Another type of feedwater heater frequently used in steam power plants is the closed feedwater
heater, in which heat is transferred from the extracted steam to the feedwater without any mixing taking
place. The two streams now can be at different pressures, since they do not mix.

In an ideal closed feedwater heater, the feedwater is heated to the exit temperature of the
extracted steam, which ideally leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the extrac on pressure. In actual
power plants, the feedwater leaves the heater below the exit temperature of the extracted steam because
a temperature difference of at least a few degrees is required for any effec ve heat transfer to take place.

The condensed steam is then either pumped to the feedwater line or routed to another heater or
to the condenser through a device called a trap. A trap allows the liquid to be thro led to a lower pressure
region but traps the vapor. The enthalpy of steam remains constant during this thro ling process.

The open and closed feedwater heaters can be compared as follows:

Open feedwater heaters are simple and inexpensive and have good heat transfer characteris cs.
They also bring the feedwater to the satura on state. For each heater, however, a pump is required to
handle the feedwater.

The closed feedwater heaters are more complex because of the internal tubing network, and thus
they are more expensive. Heat transfer in closed feedwater heaters is also less effec ve since the two
streams are not allowed to be in direct contact. However, closed feedwater heaters do not require a
separate pump for each heater since the extracted steam and the feedwater can be at different pressures.
Most steam power plants use a combina on of open and closed feedwater heaters.

Example

In a regenera ve steam cycle employing two closed-feed heaters the steam is supplied to the
turbine at 40 bar and 500°C and is exhausted to the condenser at 0.035 bar. The intermediate bleed
pressures are obtained such that the satura on temperature intervals are approximately equal, giving
pressures of 10 and 1.1 bar. Calculate the amount of steam bled at each stage, the work output of the
plant per kilogram of boiler steam and the cycle efficiency of the plant. Assume ideal processes where
required.
Pump 1 Process 3-4

Point 3 – saturated liquid:

At 0.035 bar = 0.0035 MPa (Table 2):

P v ℎ
0.0034 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑚 𝑘𝐽
0.0010032 109.84
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

0.0035 𝑀𝑃𝑎 v ℎ

0.0036 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑚 𝑘𝐽
0.0010035 113.90
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

By interpola on:

𝑚
v = v = 0.00100335
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = ℎ = 111.87
𝑘𝑔
Point 4 – subcooled liquid:

𝑃 = 𝑃 = 𝑃 = 𝑃 = 40 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 4.0 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑊 = v (𝑃 − 𝑃 )

𝑚 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑊 = 0.00100335 4000 − 3.5
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑚
𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 4.009888275
𝑘𝑔

ℎ =ℎ +𝑊
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 111.87 + 4.009888275
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 115.8798883
𝑘𝑔
Boiler Process 6-1

Point 1 – superheated vapor:

At 40 bar = 4.0 MPa and 500°C (Table 3):

 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 3445.3
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 7.0901 =𝑠 =𝑠 =𝑠
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
Condenser Process 2-3

Point 2 – saturated liquid-vapor mixture:

P ℎ 𝑠 𝑠
0.0034 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
2439.5 0.3840 8.1488
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝐾

0.0035 𝑀𝑃𝑎 ℎ 𝑠 𝑠

0.0036 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
2437.2 0.3975 8.1148
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝐾

By interpola on:
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 111.87
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 2438.35
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 0.39075
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 8.1318
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 −𝑠 7.0901 − 0.39075
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = =
𝑠 𝑘𝐽
8.1318
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = 0.823845889

ℎ =ℎ +𝑥 ℎ

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 111.87 + (0.823845889) 2438.35
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 2120.694623
𝑘𝑔
 (a) Amount of steam bled at each stage (𝑦 , 𝑦 )

Feedwater heater 1 Process 7-11

Point 7 – Superheated vapor:

At 10 bar = 1.0 MPa and 𝑠 = 𝑠 = 7.0901 (Table 3):

At 1.0 MPa ℎ 𝑠
290°𝐶 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
3029.7 7.0851
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝐾

291.3227513°𝐶 ℎ 𝑘𝐽
7.0901
𝑘𝑔 𝐾

300°𝐶 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
3051.2 7.1229
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝐾

By interpola on:
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 3032.543915
𝑘𝑔
Thro ling Process 11-12:

ℎ =ℎ =ℎ = ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑃 = 10 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 1.0 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 762.81
𝑘𝑔
Thro ling Process 9-10:

ℎ =ℎ =ℎ = ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑃 = 1.1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 0.11 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 428.79
𝑘𝑔
Energy balance:

𝐸 =𝐸
𝑦 ℎ +ℎ =𝑦 ℎ +ℎ
ℎ −ℎ
𝑦 =
ℎ −ℎ
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
762.81 − 428.79
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑦 =
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
3032.543915 − 762.81
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝒚𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟏𝟔𝟐𝟔𝟐𝟒𝟔
Feedwater heater 2 Process 8-9

At 𝑃 = 1.1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 0.11 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (Table 2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 = 7.0901 =𝑠 =𝑠 :

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 1.3329 ℎ = 428.79
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 5.9944 ℎ = 2250.9
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 −𝑠 7.0901 − 1.3329
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = =
𝑠 𝑘𝐽
5.9944
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = 0.9604297344
ℎ =ℎ +𝑥 ℎ

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 428.79 + (0.9604297344) 2250.9
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 2590.621289
𝑘𝑔
Energy balance:

𝐸 =𝐸
𝑦 ℎ + ℎ + 𝑦 ℎ = (𝑦 + 𝑦 )ℎ + ℎ
𝑦 (ℎ − ℎ ) + 𝑦 (ℎ −ℎ )=ℎ −ℎ
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑦 2590.621289 − 428.79 + (0.1471626246) 762.81 − 428.79
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
= 428.79 − 115.8798883
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
263.7548518
𝑦 =
2161.831289
𝒚𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟐𝟖𝟗𝟑
(b) Work output of plant per kilogram of boiler steam

ℎ = 𝑊 + 𝑦 ℎ + 𝑦 ℎ + (1 − 𝑦 − 𝑦 )ℎ
𝑊 = ℎ − 𝑦 ℎ − 𝑦 ℎ − (1 − 𝑦 − 𝑦 )ℎ
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 3445.3 − (0.1471626246) 3032.543915 − (0.1220052893) 2590.621289
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
− (1 − 0.1471626246 − 0.1220052893) 2120.694623
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 1133.081703
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 𝑊 −𝑊 = 1133.081703 − 4.009888275 = 1129.071815
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

(c) Cycle efficiency of the plant

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = ℎ − ℎ = 3445.3 − 762.81 = 2682.49
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑊 1129.071815
𝑘𝑔
𝑒= = ∗ 100 % = 𝟒𝟐. 𝟎𝟗𝟎𝟒𝟑𝟖𝟗𝟐%
𝑄 𝑘𝐽
2682.49
𝑘𝑔
Reheat - Regenera ve Cycle

In this cycle, the reheat cycle and the regenera ve cycle are combined for further improve the
overall thermal efficiency and reduce the moisture content of steam during the la er part of the
expansion process.

Example:

Consider a steam power plant that operates on an ideal reheat–regenera ve Rankine cycle with
one open feedwater heater, one closed feedwater heater, and one reheater. Steam enters the turbine at
15 MPa and 600°C and is condensed in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. Some steam is extracted
from the turbine at 4 MPa for the closed feedwater heater, and the remaining steam is reheated at the
same pressure to 600°C. The extracted steam is completely condensed in the heater and is pumped to 15
MPa before it mixes with the feedwater at the same pressure. Steam for the open feedwater heater is
extracted from the low-pressure turbine at a pressure of 0.5 MPa. Determine the frac ons of steam
extracted from the turbine as well as the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

Pump 1 Process 1-2

Point 1 – saturated liquid:

At 10 kPa = 0.01 MPa (Table 2):

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = ℎ = 191.82
𝑘𝑔
𝑚
v = v = 0.0010102
𝑘𝑔
Point 2 – subcooled liquid:

𝑃 =𝑃 =𝑃 = 0.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑊 = v (𝑃 − 𝑃 )

𝑚 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑊 = 0.0010102 500 − 10
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑚
𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 0.494998
𝑘𝑔

ℎ =ℎ +𝑊
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 191.82 + 0.494998
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 192.314998
𝑘𝑔
Pump 2 Process 3-4

Point 3 – saturated liquid:

At 0.5 MPa (Table 2):

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = ℎ = 640.23
𝑘𝑔
𝑚
v = v = 0.0010926
𝑘𝑔
Point 4 – subcooled liquid:

𝑃 = 𝑃 = 15 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑊 = v (𝑃 − 𝑃 )

𝑚 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑊 = 0.0010926 15000 − 500
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑚
𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 15.8427
𝑘𝑔

ℎ =ℎ +𝑊
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 640.23 + 3.8241
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 656.0727
𝑘𝑔

Pump 3 Process 6-7

Point 6 – saturated liquid:

At 4 MPa (Table 2):

𝑘𝐽
ℎ =ℎ = 1087.31
𝑘𝑔

𝑚
v = v = 0.0012522
𝑘𝑔
Point 7 – subcooled liquid:

𝑃 = 𝑃 = 15 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑊 = v (𝑃 − 𝑃 )
𝑚 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑊 = 0.0012522 15000 − 4000
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑚
𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 13.7742
𝑘𝑔

ℎ =ℎ +𝑊
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 1087.31 + 13.7742
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 1101.0842
𝑘𝑔
Boiler Process 8-9

Point 9 – superheated vapor:

At 15 MPa and 600°C (Table 3):

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 3582.3
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 6.6776 =𝑠
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
High-Pressure Turbine Process 9-10

Point 10 – superheated vapor:

At 4 MPa and 𝑠 = 6.6776 (Table 3)

Solving for the enthalpy at the inlet of the open feedwater heater (Point 10):

At 4 MPa S h
370°𝐶 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
6.6598 3141.7
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 ℎ
6.6776
𝑘𝑔 𝐾

380°𝐶 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
6.6971 3165.9
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔

By interpola on:
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 3153.248525
𝑘𝑔
Low-Pressure Turbine Process 11-12, 11-13

Point 11 – superheated vapor:

At 4 MPa and 600°C (Table 3):

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 3674.4
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 7.3688 =𝑠 =𝑠
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
Point 12 – superheated vapor:

At 0.5 MPa and 7.3688 (Table 3):

At 0.5 MPa S h
270°𝐶 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
7.3487 3002.2
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 ℎ
7.3688
𝑘𝑔 𝐾

280°𝐶 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
7.3865 3022.9
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
By interpola on:
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 3013.207143
𝑘𝑔

Condenser 13-1

Point 13 – saturated liquid and vapor mixture:

At 10 kPa = 0.01 MPa (Table 2) and 𝑠 =𝑠 = 7.3688

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 0.6493 ℎ = 191.83
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 7.5009 ℎ = 2392.8
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 −𝑠 7.3688 − 0.6493
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = =
𝑠 𝑘𝐽
7.5009
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = 0.8958258342

ℎ =ℎ +𝑥 ℎ

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 191.83 + (0.8958258342) 2392.8
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 2335.362056
𝑘𝑔
For an ideal closed feedwater heater, the feedwater is heated to the exit temperature of the extracted
steam. Therefore,

ℎ = ℎ 𝑎𝑡 15 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = 𝑇 = 250.40°𝐶

At 15 MPa h
240°𝐶 𝑘𝐽
1039
𝑘𝑔

250.40°𝐶 ℎ

260°𝐶 𝑘𝐽
1133.4
𝑘𝑔
By interpola on:
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 1088.088
𝑘𝑔

(a) Frac on of steam extracted from the high-pressure turbine:

For closed feedwater heater:

𝐸 =𝐸
𝑦ℎ + (1 − 𝑦)ℎ = 𝑦(ℎ ) + (1 − 𝑦)ℎ
ℎ −ℎ
𝑦=
ℎ −ℎ +ℎ −ℎ
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
1088.088 − 656.0727
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑦=
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
3153.248525 − 1087.31 + 1088.088 − 656.0727
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟐𝟗𝟒𝟕𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟓
For open feedwater heater:

𝐸 =𝐸
𝑧ℎ + (1 − 𝑦 − 𝑧)ℎ = (1 − 𝑦)ℎ
(1 − 𝑦)(ℎ − ℎ )
𝑧=
ℎ −ℎ
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
(1 − 0.1729476725) 640.23 − 192.314998
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑧=
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
3013.207143 − 192.314998
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝒛 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟑𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟏
For the mixing chamber:

𝐸 =𝐸
𝑦ℎ + (1 − 𝑦)ℎ = ℎ (1)
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = (0.1729476725) 1101.0842 + (1 − 0.1729476725) 1087.31
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 1089.692216
𝑘𝑔
 (b) Thermal efficiency of the cycle

Heat added

𝐸 =𝐸
ℎ + 𝑄 + (1 − 𝑦)ℎ = ℎ (1) + (1 − 𝑦)(ℎ )
𝑄 = ℎ − ℎ + (1 − 𝑦)(ℎ −ℎ )
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 3582.3 − 1089.692216 + (1 − 0.1729476725) 3674.4 − 3153.248525
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 2923.627324
𝑘𝑔
Heat rejected

𝑄 = (1 − 𝑦 − 𝑧)(ℎ −ℎ )
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = (1 − 0.1729476725 − 0.1313233991) 2335.362056 − 191.82
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 1491.324218
𝑘𝑔
Thermal efficiency of the cycle
𝑄
𝑒 =1−
𝑄
𝑘𝐽
1491.324218
𝑘𝑔
𝑒 =1− ∗ 100 %
𝑘𝐽
2923.627324
𝑘𝑔
𝒆 = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟗𝟗𝟎𝟔𝟏𝟖𝟒𝟏%
Incomplete Expansion Cycle

The incomplete expansion cycle is a modified Rankine cycle where the adiaba c or isentropic
expansion process is terminated at point 2 and the pressure drop decreases suddenly while the volume
remains constant, which is represented by 2-3. By doing this, the stroke length is reduced. The cylinder
dimensions reduce but at the expense of a small loss of work.

1-2 Isentropic expansion process

2-3 isometric heat rejec on process
3-4 isobaric heat rejec on process
4-B reversible adiaba c process
B-1 isobaric heat addi on process

Heat added

𝑄 =ℎ −ℎ
Pump work

𝑊 =ℎ −ℎ
For incomplete expansion engine, pump work can be neglected.

Thermal efficiency
𝑊 𝑊 −𝑊
𝑒= =
𝑄 𝑄
For incomplete expansion engine,
𝑊 𝑊
𝑒= =
𝐸 ℎ −ℎ

Mean effec ve pressure

𝑀𝐸𝑃 =
Review Problems

1. A steam engine receives saturated steam at 260°C. Steam is released when its specific enthalpy
is 2200 kJ/kg. Condensate leaves at 0°C. For ideal engine, find (a) the work and the thermal
efficiency and (b) mep
(680.6 kJ/kg, 27.64%, 631.5 kPa)
2. An ideal incomplete-expansion cycle uses saturated steam generated at 0.7 MPa. The exhaust
pressure is 0.11 MPa, and the release is at 118°C. On the basis of 1 kg, find (a) QA, (b) QR, (c) W,
(d) the quality of exhaust steam, (e) the thermal efficiency.
(2333.1 kJ/kg, 2034.71 kJ/kg, 298.4 kJ/kg, 90.4%, 12.76%)
1. Steam is supplied to a two-stage turbine at 40 bar and 350°C. It expands in the first turbine un l
it is just dry saturated, then it is re-heated to 350°C and expanded through the second-stage
turbine. The condenser pressure is 0.035 bar. Calculate the work output and the heat supplied,
assuming ideal processes, and the cycle efficiency. (1290 kJ/kg, 3362 kJ/kg, 38.4%)
2. If the expansion process in the turbines of Problem #1 have isentropic efficiencies of 84% and 78%
respec vely, in the first and second stages, calculate the work output, heat supplied, and the cycle
efficiency. (1028 kJ/kg, 3311 kJ/kg, 31.1%)
3. A reheat cycle with two stages of rehea ng is executed, with steam expanding ini ally from 90 bar
and 530°C. The two reheater pressures are 10 bar and 0.6 bar, and the steam leaves each reheater
at 480°C. Condensa on occurs at 0.03 bar. For an ideal cycle, find the heat added, net work output
and the cycle efficiency.
4. An ideal reheat turbine with one stage of reheat receives steam at 8.0 MPa, 480°C. Reheat
pressure is 0.83 MPa and exhaust pressure is 0.007 MPa. The work is 1559 kJ/kg and the thermal
efficiency is 41.05%. Find the temperature of steam leaving the reheater. (455°C)
5. Steam at 200 bar, 760°C enters the thro le of a reheater engine and expands to 10 bar. At this
point, it leaves the engine, enters the reheater, and returns at 9 bar, 600°C. Expansion then occurs
to the condenser pressure of 0.05 bar on the basis of flow of 1 kg steam. Find (a) W and e of the
cycle (b) W, e, and m for the ideal engine (c) In the actual engine, the steam enters the reheater
at 10 bar, 300°C and later expands to a saturated state at the exhaust to the condenser, find W, e,
and m.
(2226.7 kJ/kg, 48.95%, 2246.7 kJ/kg, 49.17%, 1.6 kg, 2052,1 kJ.kg, 45.85%, 1.75 kg/kWh)
6. A 25,000-kW turbo-generator is supplied with 128,000 kg/h of steam at 2.50 MPa and 400°C when
developing its rated load. There are actually extracted 10,400 kg/h at 0.3 MPa and 8300 kg/h at
0.06 MPa. The condenser pressure is 0.007 MPa and actual feedwater temperature is 127°C. For
the ideal engine find (a) various percentages of extracted steam, (b) e
(8.5%, 7.8%, 37.1%)
7. A reheat-regenera ve engine receives steam at 207 bar and 593°C, expanding it to 38.6 bar, 343°C.
At this point, the steam passes through a reheater and reenters the turbine at 34.5 bar, 593°C,
hence expands to 9 bar, 492°C, at which point the steam is bled for feedwater hea ng. Exhaust
occurs at 0.07 bar. Beginning at the thro le (point 1), these enthalpies (in kJ/kg) are known:
ℎ = 3511.3 ℎ = 3010.0 ℎ = 3082.1 ℎ = 3662.5 ℎ = 3205.4
ℎ = 322.9 ℎ = 2308.1 ℎ = 163.4 ℎ = 742.83 ℎ = 723.59
For an ideal engine, for 1 kg of thro le steam, find (a) the mass of bled steam, (b) the work, (c)
the efficiency, (d) the steam rate
(0.19, 1685 kJ/kg, 49.26%, 2.14 kg/kWh)
8. In a regenera ve steam cycle employing three closed feed heaters the steam is supplied to the
turbine at 42 bar and 500°C and is exhausted to the condenser at 0.035 bar. The bled steam for
feed hea ng is taken at pressures of 15, 4, and 0.5 bar. Assuming ideal processes and neglec ng
pump work, calculate:
(a) The frac on of the boiler steam bled at each stage
(b) The power output of the plant per unit mass flow rate of boiler steam
(c) The cycle efficiency
(0.0952, 0.0969, 0.0902, 1133.6 kW per kg/s, 43.6%)

9. A steam power plant operates on an ideal reheat–regenera ve Rankine cycle and has a net power
output of 80 MW. Steam enters the high-pressure turbine at 10 MPa and 550°C and leaves at 0.8
MPa. Some steam is extracted at this pressure to heat the feedwater in an open feedwater heater.
The rest of the steam is reheated to 500°C and is expanded in the low-pressure turbine to the
condenser pressure of 10 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to satura on lines,
and determine (a) the mass flow rate of steam through the boiler and (b) the thermal efficiency
of the cycle.
(54.5 kg/s, 44.4%)
10. A steam power plant operates on the reheat-regenera ve Rankine cycle with a closed feedwater
heater. Steam enters the turbine at 12.5 MPa and 550°C at a rate of 24 kg/s and is condensed in
the condenser at a pressure of 20 kPa. Steam is reheated at 5 MPa to 550°C. Some steam is
extracted from the low-pressure turbine at 1.0 MPa, is completely condensed in the closed
feedwater heater, and pumped to 12.5 MPa before it mixes with the feedwater at the same
pressure. Assuming an isentropic efficiency of 88 percent for both the turbine and the pump,
determine (a) the temperature of the steam at the inlet of the closed feedwater heater, (b) the
mass flow rate of the steam extracted from the turbine for the closed feedwater heater, (c) the
net power output, and (d) the thermal efficiency.
(328°C, 4.29 kg/s, 28.6 MW, 39.3%)
Cogenera on

Cogenera on is the produc on of more than one useful form of energy (such as process heat and
electric power) from the same energy source. The sole purpose was to convert a por on of the heat
transferred to the working fluid to work, which is the most valuable form of energy. The remaining por on
of the heat is rejected to rivers, lakes, oceans, or the atmosphere as waste heat, because its quality (or
grade) is too low to be of any prac cal use. Was ng a large amount of heat is a price we have to pay to
produce work, because electrical or mechanical work is the only form of energy on which many
engineering devices (such as a fan) can operate.

Many systems or devices, however, require energy input in the form of heat, called process heat.
Some industries that rely heavily on process heat are chemical, pulp and paper, oil produc on and refining,
steel making, food processing, and tex le industries. Process heat in these industries is usually supplied
by steam at 5 to 7 atm and 150°C to 200°C. Energy is usually transferred to the steam by burning coal, oil,
natural gas, or another fuel in a furnace.

Probably the most striking feature of the ideal steam-turbine cogenera on plant is the absence of
a condenser. Thus no heat is rejected from this plant as waste heat. In other words, all the energy
transferred to the steam in the boiler is u lized as either process heat or electric power. Thus it is
appropriate to define a u liza on factor for a cogenera on plant as:
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
∈ =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑄̇
∈ =1−
𝑄̇

Where 𝑄̇ represents the heat rejected in the condenser, including all the undesirable heat losses from
the piping and other components, but they are usually small and thus neglected. It also includes
combus on inefficiencies such as incomplete combus on and stack losses when the u liza on factor is
defined on the basis of the hea ng value of the fuel.
 The u liza on factor of the ideal steam-turbine cogenera on plant is obviously 100 percent.
Actual cogenera on plants have u liza on factors as high as 80 percent. Some recent cogenera on plants
have even higher u liza on factors. However, the ideal steam-turbine cogenera on plant (without the
condenser) is not prac cal because it cannot adjust to the varia ons in power and process-heat loads.

For a more prac cal but more complex cogenera on plant, under normal opera on, some steam
is extracted from the turbine at some predetermined intermediate pressure (P6). The rest of the steam
expands to the condenser pressure (P7) and is then cooled at constant pressure. The heat rejected from
the condenser represents the waste heat for the cycle.

At mes of high demand for process heat, all the steam is routed to the process-hea ng units and
none to the condenser (𝑚̇ = 0). The waste heat is zero in this mode. If this is not sufficient, some steam
leaving the boiler is thro led by an expansion or pressure-reducing valve (PRV) to the extrac on pressure
(P6) and is directed to the process-hea ng unit. Maximum process hea ng is realized when all the steam
leaving the boiler passes through the PRV (𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ ). No power is produced in this mode. When there is
no demand for process heat, all the steam passes through the turbine and the condenser (𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ = 0),
and the cogenera on plant operates as an ordinary steam power plant.

Rate of input heat:

𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇ (ℎ − ℎ )
Rate of heat rejected:

𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇ (ℎ − ℎ )
Process heat supplied:

𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇ ℎ + 𝑚̇ ℎ − 𝑚̇ ℎ
Power produced:

𝑊 = (𝑚̇ − 𝑚̇ )(ℎ − ℎ ) + 𝑚̇ (ℎ − ℎ )

Example 1

Consider the cogenera on plant shown in Fig. 10–23. Steam enters the turbine at 7 MPa and
500°C. Some steam is extracted from the turbine at 500 kPa for process hea ng. The remaining steam
con nues to expand to 5 kPa. Steam is then condensed at constant pressure and pumped to the boiler
pressure of 7 MPa. At mes of high demand for process heat, some steam leaving the boiler is thro led
to 500 kPa and is routed to the process heater. The extrac on frac ons are adjusted so that steam leaves
the process heater as a saturated liquid at 500 kPa. It is subsequently pumped to 7 MPa. The mass flow
rate of steam through the boiler is 15 kg/s. Disregarding any pressure drops and heat losses in the piping
and assuming the turbine and the pump to be isentropic, determine

(a) the maximum rate at which process heat can be supplied,

(b) the power produced and the u liza on factor when no process heat is supplied, and

(c) the rate of process heat supply when 10 percent of the steam is extracted before it enters the
turbine and 70 percent of the steam is extracted from the turbine at 500 kPa for process hea ng.

𝑃 =𝑃 =𝑃 = 𝑃 = 𝑃 = 𝑃 = 7 𝑀𝑃𝑎
At 7 MPa & 500°C (from Table 3):
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = ℎ = ℎ = 3410.3
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 𝑠 = 𝑠 = 𝑠 = 𝑠 = 6.7975
𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾
Pump 1 Process 8-9:

Point 8 – saturated liquid:

At 𝑃 = 𝑃 = 5 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 0.005 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (from Table 2):

𝑘𝐽 𝑚
ℎ =ℎ = 137.82 v =v = 0.0010053
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑊 = v (𝑃 − 𝑃 )

𝑚 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑊 = 0.0010053 7000 −5
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑚
𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 7.0320735
𝑘𝑔
ℎ =ℎ +𝑊
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 137.82 + 7.0320735
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 144.8520735
𝑘𝑔
Pump 2 Process 7-10:

Point 7 – saturated liquid:

At 𝑃 = 𝑃 = 𝑃 = 500 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 0.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (from Table 2):

𝑘𝐽 𝑚
ℎ =ℎ = 640.23 v =v = 0.0010926
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑊 = v (𝑃 − 𝑃 )

𝑚 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑊 = 0.0010926 7000 − 500
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑚
𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 6.56019
𝑘𝑔
ℎ =ℎ +𝑊
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 640.23 + 6.56019
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 646.79019
𝑘𝑔
Expansion valve 2-4

Isenthalpic process
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = ℎ = 3410.3
𝑘𝑔

Condenser 6-8

Point 6 – saturated liquid and vapor mixture

𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 𝑠 = 6.7975
𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾
At 5 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 0.005 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (from Table 2):
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 137.82
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 2423.7
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 0.4764
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 7.9187
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 −𝑠 6.7975 − 0.4764
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = =
𝑠 𝑘𝐽
7.9187
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = 0.7982497127
Calcula ng the enthalpy at the condenser entry:

ℎ =ℎ +𝑥 ℎ

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 137.82 + (0.7982497127) 2423.7
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 2072.537829
𝑘𝑔
Process Heater 4&5 – 7

Point 5 – saturated liquid and vapor mixture

𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 𝑠 = 6.7975
𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾
At 500 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 0.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (from Table 2):
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 640.23
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 2108.5
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 1.8607
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 4.9606
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 −𝑠 6.7975 − 1.8607
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = =
𝑠 𝑘𝐽
4.9606
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑥 = 0.9952021933
Calcula ng the enthalpy at the condenser entry:

ℎ =ℎ +𝑥 ℎ

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 640.23 + (0.9952021933) 2108.5
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 2738.613825
𝑘𝑔
(a) the maximum rate at which process heat can be supplied

-all the steam leaving the boiler is thro led and sent to the process heater only
𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ = 15
𝑠
𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ = 0

-For 100% u liza on factor, 𝑄 = 0

-Irreversibili es (piping heat losses and combus on losses) negligible
 Process Heat:

𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇ ℎ + 𝑚̇ ℎ − 𝑚̇ ℎ

𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇ (ℎ − ℎ ) + 0
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄̇ = 15 3410.3 − 640.23
𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

𝑸̇𝑷 = 𝟒𝟏𝟓𝟓𝟏. 𝟎𝟓 𝒌𝑾 = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑴𝑾

(b) the power produced and the u liza on factor when no process heat is supplied

When 𝑄̇ = 0, then all the steam leaving the boiler passes through the turbine and expands
to the condenser.
𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ = 15
𝑠
𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ = 0
Turbine work
𝑊 = 𝑚 (ℎ − ℎ )
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 15 3410.3 − 2072.537829
𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑊 = 20066.43257 𝑘𝑊
Pump work
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔
𝑊 = 7.0320735 15
𝑘𝑔 𝑠
𝑊 = 105.4811025 𝑘𝑊
Net power output

𝑊 =𝑊 −𝑊
𝑊 = 20066.43257 𝑘𝑊 − 105.4811025 𝑘𝑊
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟔𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟏𝟒𝟕 𝒌𝑾 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟗. 𝟗𝟔𝟎𝟗𝟓𝟏𝟒𝟕 𝑴𝑾

Mixing chamber 9&10-11

Energy and mass balance:

𝑚̇ ℎ + 𝑚̇ ℎ = 𝑚̇ ℎ
𝑚̇ ℎ + 𝑚̇ ℎ = 𝑚̇ ℎ
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
15 144.8520735 + 0 646.79019
𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
ℎ =
𝑘𝑔
15
𝑠
𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 144.8520735
𝑘𝑔

Heat added

𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇ (ℎ − ℎ )
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄̇ = 15 3410.3 − 144.8520735
𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

𝑄̇ = 48981.7189 𝑘𝑊
U liza on factor

𝑊 + 𝑄̇
∈ =
𝑄̇
19960.95147 𝑘𝑊 + 0 𝑘𝑊
∈ =
48981.7189 𝑘𝑊
∈𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟏𝟖𝟑𝟗𝟓 𝒐𝒓 𝟒𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝟏𝟖𝟑𝟗𝟓%
(c) the rate of process heat supply when 10 percent of the steam is extracted before it enters the
turbine and 70 percent of the steam is extracted from the turbine at 500 kPa for process hea ng
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ = (10%) 15 = 1.5
𝑠 𝑠
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ = (70%) 15 = 10.5
𝑠 𝑠
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ + 𝑚̇ = 1.5 + 10.5 = 12
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇ ℎ + 𝑚̇ ℎ − 𝑚̇ ℎ
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝑄̇ = 1.5 3410.3 + 10.5 2738.613825 − 12 640.23
𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑠 𝑘𝑔

𝑸̇𝑷 = 𝟐𝟔𝟏𝟖𝟖. 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟏𝟔 𝒌𝑾 𝒐𝒓 𝟐𝟔. 𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟏𝟔 𝑴𝑾

Air-Standard Power Cycles

Many work-producing devices or engines u lize a working fluid that is always a gas. Examples are
the spark-igni on automo ve engine, diesel engine, and the conven onal gas turbine. In all these engines,
there is a change in the composi on of the working fluid, because during combus on it changes from air
and fuel to combus on products. These engines are called internal-combus on engines.

On the other hand, the steam power plant may be called an external-combus on engine because
the heat is transferred from the products of combus on to the working fluid.

Because the working fluid does not go through a complete thermodynamic cycle in the engine,
the internal combus on engine operates on the so-called open cycle. For analyzing internal combus on
engines, it is advantageous to devise closed cycles that closely approximate the open cycles. One such
approach is the air-standard cycle, which is based on the following assump ons:

1. A fixed mass of air is the working fluid throughout the en re cycle, and the air is always an
ideal gas. Thus, there is no inlet process or exhaust process.
2. The combus on process is replaced by a process transferring heat from an external source.
3. The cycle is completed by heat transfer to the surroundings.
4. All processes are internally reversible.
5. Air has a constant specific heat, recognizing that this is not the most accurate model.

The principal value of the air-standard cycle is to enable us to examine qualita vely the influence
of a number of variables on performance. The quan ta ve results obtained from the air-standard cycle,
such as efficiency and mean effec ve pressure, will differ from those of the actual engine. Our emphasis
in our considera on of the air-standard cycle will be on the qualita ve aspects.

The term mean effec ve pressure (mep) which is used in conjunc on with reciproca ng engines
is defined as the pressure that if it acted on the piston during the en re power stroke, would do an amount
of work equal to that actually done on the piston. The work for one cycle is found by mul plying this mean
effec ve pressure by the area of the piston (minus the area of the rod on the crank end of a double-ac ng
engine) and by the stroke.
𝑊 𝑊
𝑀𝐸𝑃 = =
𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉
Brayton Cycle

Brayton cycle was first proposed by George Brayton around 1870. It is used for gas turbines, which
operate on an open cycle, where both the compression and expansion processes take place in rota ng
machinery. The open gas-turbine cycle can be modeled as a closed cycle by u lizing the air-standard
assump ons. The combus on process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addi on process from an
external source, and the exhaust process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-rejec on process to the
ambient air.

The ideal Brayton cycle is made up of four internally reversible processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor),

2-3 Constant pressure heat addi on,

3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine),

4-1 Constant pressure heat rejec on.

Open-cycle gas turbine engine:

Closed-cycle gas turbine engine:

Brayton Cycle P-v and T-s diagrams:

All four processes of the Brayton cycle are executed in steady-flow devices. Thus, these should be
analyzed as steady-flow processes.

Isentropic Process 1-2

𝑇 𝑃
=
𝑇 𝑃
Isobaric Process 2-3

𝑃 =𝑃
Isentropic Process 3-4

𝑇 𝑃
=
𝑇 𝑃
Isobaric Process 4-1

𝑃 =𝑃
Heat added:

𝑄 = 𝑚(ℎ − ℎ )
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )

Heat rejected:

𝑄 = 𝑚(ℎ − ℎ )
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
Specific heat ra o, k for air at room temperature:

𝑘 = 1.4
𝑘𝐽
𝑐 = 1.0062
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
Pressure ra o:
𝑃
𝑟 =
𝑃
Isentropic compression ra o:
𝑉
𝑟 =
𝑉
Isentropic expansion ra o:
𝑉
𝑟 =
𝑉
Back work ra o – the propor on of the turbine work that is consumed by the compressor:
𝑊
𝑟 =
𝑊

Thermal efficiency:
𝑊 𝑄
𝑒= =1−
𝑄 𝑄
1
𝑒 =1−
(𝑟 )
Comparison of Rankine cycle and Brayton cycle opera ng between the same pressures P1 and P2:
Example 1.

In an air-standard Brayton cycle the air enters the compressor at 0.1 MPa and 15°C. The pressure leaving
the compressor is 1.0 MPa, and the maximum temperature in the cycle is 1100°C. Determine:

(a) the pressure and temperature at each point in the cycle

(b) the compressor work, turbine work, and cycle efficiency

Given:

𝑃 = 0.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃
𝑇 = 15°𝐶 + 273 = 288 𝐾
𝑃 = 1.0 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃
𝑇 = 1100°𝐶 + 273 = 1373 𝐾
Air-standard, k = 1.4

Required:

𝑇 , 𝑇 ,𝑊 ,𝑊 ,𝑒

Diagram:

Solu on:

𝑃
𝑇 =𝑇
𝑃
.
1.0 𝑀𝑃𝑎 .
𝑇 = (288 𝐾)
0.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑇 = 556.0409459 𝐾

𝑃
𝑇 =𝑇
𝑃
.
0.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎 .
𝑇 = (1373 𝐾)
1 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑇 = 711.1418735 𝐾
 𝑊 = ℎ − ℎ = 𝑐 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 1.0062 (556.0409459 𝐾 − 288 𝐾)
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝒌𝑱
𝑾𝑪 = 𝟐𝟔𝟗. 𝟕𝟎𝟐𝟖
𝒌𝒈

𝑊 = ℎ − ℎ = 𝑐 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 1.0062 (1373 𝐾 − 711.1418735 𝐾)
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝒌𝑱
𝑾𝑻 = 𝟔𝟔𝟓. 𝟗𝟔𝟏𝟔𝟒𝟕
𝒌𝒈

𝑊 = 𝑊 −𝑊
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 665.961647 − 269.7028
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 396.258847
𝑘𝑔

𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝑄 𝑘𝐽
= 1.0062 (1373 𝐾 − 556.0409459 𝐾)
𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑘𝐽
𝑞 = 822.0242
𝑘𝑔

𝑘𝐽
𝑊 396.258847
𝑘𝑔
𝑒= = ∗ 100
𝑄 𝑘𝐽
822.0242
𝑘𝑔
𝒆 = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟐𝟓𝟑𝟐%
Review Problems

1. A large food-processing plant requires 2 lbm/s of saturated or slightly superheated steam at 80

psia, which is extracted from the turbine of a cogenera on plant. The boiler generates steam at
1000 psia and 1000°F at a rate of 5 lbm/s, and the condenser pressure is 2 psia. Steam leaves the
process heater as a saturated liquid. It is then mixed with the feedwater at the same pressure and
this mixture is pumped to the boiler pressure. Assuming both the pumps and the turbine have
isentropic efficiencies of 86 percent, determine (a) the rate of heat transfer to the boiler and (b)
the power output of the cogenera on plant.
(6667 Btu/s, 2026 kW)
2. A gas-turbine power plant opera ng on an ideal Brayton cycle has a pressure ra o of 8. The gas
temperature is 300 K at the compressor inlet and 1300 K at the turbine inlet. U lizing the air-
standard assump ons, determine:
(a) the gas temperature at the exits of the compressor and the turbine
(b) the back work ra o
(c) the thermal efficiency
(540 K, 770 K, 0.403, 42.6%)

3. A gas-turbine power plant opera ng on Brayton cycle has a pressure ra o of 8. The gas
temperature is 300 K at the compressor inlet and 1300 K at the turbine inlet. Assuming a
compressor efficiency of 80 percent and a turbine efficiency of 85 percent, determine:
(a) the back work ra o
(b) the thermal efficiency
(c) the turbine exit temperature of the gas-turbine cycle
(0.592, 26.6%, 853 K)

4. A gas-turbine power plant operates on a simple Brayton cycle with air as the working fluid. The air
enters the turbine at 120 psia and 2000 R and leaves at 15 psia and 1200 R. Heat is rejected to the
surroundings at a rate of 6400 Btu/s, and air flows through the cycle at a rate of 40 lbm/s. Assuming
the turbine to be isentropic and the compressor to have an isentropic efficiency of 80 percent,
determine the net power output of the plant. Account for the varia on of specific heats with
temperature. (3373 kW)
5. A gas-turbine power plant operates on the simple Brayton cycle between the pressure limits of
100 and 1200 kPa. The working fluid is air, which enters the compressor at 30°C at a rate of 150
m3/min and leaves the turbine at 500°C. Using variable specific heats for air and assuming a
compressor isentropic efficiency of 82 percent and a turbine isentropic efficiency of 88 percent,
determine (a) the net power output, (b) the back work ra o, and (c) the thermal efficiency. (659
kW, 0.625, 31.9%)
6. Air is used as the working fluid in a simple ideal Brayton cycle that has a pressure ra o of 12, a
compressor inlet temperature of 300 K, and a turbine inlet temperature of 1000 K. Determine the
required mass flow rate of air for a net power output of 70 MW, assuming both the compressor
and the turbine have an isentropic efficiency of (a) 100 percent and (b) 85 percent. Assume
constant specific heats at room temperature. (352 kg/s, 1037 kg/s)
References

 Thermodynamics 2 by Hipolito Sta. Maria

 Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 5th edi on by Yunus A. Çengel and Michael A. Boles
 Basic and Applied Thermodynamics by P.K. Nag
 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics 6th Edi on by Sonntag, Borgnakke, & Van Wylen
 Applied Thermodynamics 5th Edi on by Eastop & McConkey