Essentials of Differentiation

Understanding and Applying Derivatives

P.M. Perera (B.Sc., M.Sc.)

31 July 2024

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Introduction
Differentiation is a powerful tool that provides insight into the behavior
of functions and the relationships between variables. Its applications are
vast and varied, impacting many areas of science, engineering, economics,
biology, and everyday life. By mastering differentiation, one gains a deeper
understanding of both theoretical concepts and practical problems, enabling
more informed and effective decision-making. Additionally, the connections
between differentiation and other mathematical fields enrich comprehension
of mathematical theory and its applications.

While a thorough understanding of mathematical concepts such as limits,

continuity and differentiability provides a solid foundation for grasping how
differentiation works, these concepts are not strictly necessary for mastering
its applications. A scholar can achieve proficiency in applying differentiation
by focusing on learning the rules and methods of differentiation.

This text presents the rules and methods of differentiation in a manner

accessible to anyone with basic mathematical skills. The essay begins with
fundamental definitions and progresses methodically into the methods and
rules of differentiation. It includes easy-to-follow examples, relevant graphs,
and practical applications to enhance understanding and mastery of the
subject.

Suggestions and comments on this text will be greatly appreciated.

P. Mohanlal Perera
email: [email protected], WhatsApp: +94 077 536 4069

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1 What is differentiation ?
The process of finding the coefficient of differentiation aka the derivative is
differentiation. The derivative could be viewed as the instantaneous rate
change which is explained in the next section.

2 Definition
The derivative is the limit given below. If y = f (x) then the derivative of y
dy
with respect to x is denoted as or f ′ (x) and
dx

dy δy f (x + δx) − f (x)
= lim = lim
dx δx→0 δx δx→0 δx

Where δx is a small increment.

The limit δx → 0 makes f (x + δx) and f (x) coinciding, as such we get the
instantaneous rate change of y with respect to x.

3 Basic Derivatives
 
dy
Function ( y or f (x) ) Derivative orf ′ (x) Remarks
dx
k 0 k is a constant
axn anxn−1 a is a constant
sin x cos x
cos x −sin x

Table 1: Basic Derivatives

Note that derivatives of other trigonometric ratios will be covered

in the latter sections of the text.

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4 Rules of Derivatives

4.1 Differentiating Polynomials

d
(f (x) ± g(x)) = f ′ (x) ± g ′ (x)
dx
Example

If y = 4x3 − 5x2 + 12x + 10 then

dy
= 12x2 − 10x + 12
dx

4.2 Differentiating a product

d
f (x) × g(x)) = f (x) × g ′ (x) + g(x) × f ′ (x)
dx
Example

If y = (4x3 + 5x2 )(3x2 + 10x) then

dy
= (4x3 + 5x2 )(6x + 10) + (3x2 + 10x)(12x2 + 10x)
dx
Which could be simplified as required.

4.3 Differentiating a quotient

g(x) × f ′ (x) − f (x) × g ′ (x)
 
d f (x)
=
dx g(x) (g(x))2
Example
4x3 + 5x2
If y = then
3x2 + 10x

dy (3x2 + 10x)(12x2 + 10x) − (4x3 + 5x2 )(6x + 10)

=
dx (3x2 + 10x)2

Which could be simplified as required.

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4.3.1 Derivative of tan x

If y = tan x, then
sin x
y=
cos x

dy cos x × cos x − sin x(−sin x) sin2 x + cos2 x

= =
dx cos2 x cos2 x

dy 1
∴ = = sec2 x
dx cos2 x

4.3.2 Derivative of cot x

If y = cot x, then
1
y= (there are different ways to get the deirvative of cot x)
tan x

dy tan x × 0 − 1 × sec2 x 1 cos2 x

= = ×
dx tan2 x −cos2 x sin2 x

dy 1
∴ = − 2 = −cosec2 x
dx sin x

4.4 Differentiating a function of a function (Chain Rule)

d
f ((g(x)) = f ′ (g(x)) × g ′ (x)
dx

Example 1

If y = sin4 x then
dy
= 4sin3 x × cos x
dx

Example 2

If y = cot x, then
y = (tan x)−1

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 dy
= −(tan x)−2 × sec2 x
dx

cos2 x 1
=− ×
sin x cos2 x
2

dy 1
∴ = − 2 = −cosec2 x
dx sin x

4.4.1 Derivative of sec x

If y = sec x, then
y = (cos x)−1
dy
= −(cos x)−2 × (−sin x)
dx

sin x
=
cos2 x

dy
∴ = sec x tan x
dx

4.4.2 Derivative of cosec x

If y = cosec x, then
y = (sin x)−1
dy
= −(sin x)−2 × cos x
dx

cos x
=−
sin2 x

dy
∴ = −cosec x cot x
dx

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4.5 The exponential Function (ex )

The exponential function is defined as,

 x n
ex = lim 1+
n→∞ n

ex also could be written as the infinite series

x 2 x3
ex = 1 + x + + + ... , where n! = 1 × 2 × 3 × ... × n
2! 3!
The graph of y = ex is shown below.
y

1
x

4.5.1 Derivative of the exponential Function

x2 x3
As ex = 1 + x + + + ...
2! 3!

d x 2x 3x2
(e ) = 0 + 1 + + + ...
dx 2! 3!

2x 3x2
=1+ + + ...
2×1 3×2×1

x2
=1+x+ + ... = ex
2!
d x
∴ (e ) = ex
dx

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Note that the derivative of ex equals ex , which means:

1. The rate change of the exponential function is same as the value of the
function at all points.

2. The gradient is equal to the value of the function at all points.

4.6 Higher Order Derivatives

dy
In general is a function of x and as such it is possible to differentiate the
dx
derivative multiple times successively.

Which is denoted by:

d2 y
f ′′ (x) =
dx2

d3 y
f ′′′ (x) = etc..
dx3

Example 1

If y = 4x3 − 5x2 + 12x + 10 then

dy
= 12x2 − 10x + 12
dx

d2 y
= 24x − 10
dx2

d3 y
= 24
dx3

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Example 2

If y = sinx then

dy
= cosx
dx

d2 y
= −sinx
dx2

d3 y
= −cosx
dx3

d4 y
= sinx
dx4

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5 Applications of Differentiation
Differentiation is applied in a wide verity of fields and a few popular applications
are discussed in this text.

5.1 Gradient
δx
Since δx is the change of x and δy and the change of y therefore, is the
δy
gradient of the line connecting points (x, y) and (x + δx, y + δy)

Recall that
dy δy f (x + δx) − f (x)
= lim = lim
dx δx→0 δx δx→0 δx

At the limit δx → 0, the points (x, y) and (x + δx, y + δy) coincide and the
line becomes the tangent thus we get the gradient of the tangent at the point
(x, y) to the curve y = f (x)

Illustration

In the graph given below, the purple line cuts the curve at P(x, y)
and Q(x+δx, y+δy) and when δx → 0, P and Q coincides making
line the tangent at P, which is drawn in blue.

Also note that as δx and δy are small amounts, points P and

Q are points closer to each other.

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 y
20
Q

10 P

x
−4 −2 2 4 6 8 10

−10

−20

5.2 Turning points

The easiest way to understand turning points is to study how the shape of a
graph changes at a turning point. The graph bellow has two turning points.
Note that the tangents drawn to the curve at the turning points are parallel
to the x axis.

y = x3 − 9x2 − 48x + 6
y
200

P
x
−8 −4 4 8 12

−200

−400

−600

dy
As the tangents are parallel to the x axis the gradient i.e. = 0. Therefore
dx
dy
= 0 gives x coordinates of all turning points. Thus turning points are
dx
also known as stationary points

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Maximum
We can see the point P is a maximum and at P the gradient decreases as x
d2 y
increases therefore 2 < 0
dx

Minimum
We can see the point Q is a minimum and at Q the gradient increases as x
d2 y
increases therefore 2 > 0
dx

Note

We
 can
 also find the type of turning by observing how the gradient
dy
changes in the vicinity of the turning point.
dx

Example

The equation of the graph shown above is y = x3 − 9x2 − 48x + 6

dy
∴ = 3x2 − 18x − 48
dx

dy
At turning points =0
dx
∴ 3x2 − 18x − 48 = 0
3(x + 2)(x − 8) = 0
x = 8 or x = −2
When x = −2,
y = (−2)3 − 9 × (−2)2 − 48 × (−2) + 6 = 58
When x = 8,
y = 83 − 9 × 82 − 48 × 8 + 6 = −442

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 d2 y
Now = 6x − 18
dx2

When x = −2,
d2 y
= 6 × (−2) − 18 = −30 < 0 ,
dx2
therefore P (-2,58) is a maximum

When x = 8,
d2 y
= 6 × 8 − 18 = 30 > 0,
dx2
therefore Q (8,-442) is a minimum

Point of Inflection
Although at a point of inflection the shape of the graph changes the point is
neither a maximum no a minimum as shown in the graph below.

y = (x − 2)3 + 100
1,000 y

500

P
x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10 12

−500

It is clear the shape of the graph changes at P and the tangent to the graph
dy
at P is parallel to the x axis therefore =0
dx

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 dy
Now = 3(x − 2)2
dx

dy
When = 0, x = 2
dx

d2 y d2 y
Further = 6(x − 2) and when x = 2, =0
dx2 dx2

dy d2 y
Now it is clear that at points of inflection = 0 as well as 2 = 0
dx dx

The plot of y = −(x − 2)3 + 100 which is given below, also shows similar
features of the point of inflexion.

y = −(x − 2)3 + 100

1,000 y

500

P
x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10 12

−500

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5.3 Rate Change

Recall that
dy f (x + δx) − f (x)
= lim
dx δx→0 δx
The limit δx → 0 makes f (x + δx) and f (x) coinciding thus we get the
dx
instantaneous rate change of y with respect to x, as such can be considered
dy
as the instantaneous rate change of x with respect to y

ds
Therefore, is the instantaneous speed where s is the distance and t is
dt
dv d2 s
the time and = 2 is the instantaneous acceleration where v is the speed.
dt dt

Example 1

The concentration C of a medication in the bloodstream t hours

0.2t
after an injection is given by, C = 2 .
t +1
a) Find the number of hours before C becomes maximum.

b) Find the maximum concentration.

0.2t
C=
t2+1
dC (t2 + 1) × 0.2 − 0.2t × 2t
a) =
dt (t2 + 1)2

dC 0.2(t2 − 2t + 1) 0.2(1 − t2 )
= =
dt (t2 + 1)2 (t2 + 1)2

dC
For optimal C, =0
dt

0.2(1 − t2 ) 0.2(1 − t)(1 + t)

∴ 2 2
= =0
(t + 1) (t2 + 1)2

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 ∴ t = 1 or t = −1
Since time cannot be negative t = −1 is not acceptable
∴t=1
d2 C
Since will be complex we could get the nature of the
dt2
dC
turning point by checking the sign of in the proximity
dt
of t = 1 as shown in the table below.

dC
Range of t Sign of (1 − t)(1 + t) Sign of
dt

<1 (+)(+) >0

>1 (-)(+) <0

dC
Table 2: Nature of closer to t = 1
dt

From the above table we can see that the gradient of the
tangent before 1 is positive and the gradient of the tangent
after 1 is negative therefore, the point is a maximum.
0.2 × 1 0.2
b) When t = 1, C = 2 = = 0.4
1 +1 2

Example 2

A tank contain 50,000 litres of water. The tap is left fully on and
all the water drains from the tank in 80 minutes. The volume of
water remaining in 
the tank after t minutes is given by,
 2
t
V = 50000 1 − where 0 ≤ t ≤ 80.
80
dV
a) Find
dt
b) At what time the outflow fastest ?

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 d2 V
c) Show that is all ways constant and positive. Interpret
dt2
this result.

 2
t
V = 50000 1 −
80

 
dV t 1
a) = 50000 × 2 1 − × (−1)
dt  80 80
dV t
= −1250 1 −
dt 80

dV
b) Since is a linear function of t, we can get the maximum
dt  
dV t
rate when | | is maximum, which occurs at 1 − =1
dt 80
t
Therefore, =0
80
∴ t = 0.
Therefore outflow of water is fastest at beginning.

d2 V
c) = −1250 × (−1) = 1250 Which is a positive constant.
dt2
d2 V
Since is positive the rate of reduction of remaining
dt2
water is decreasing.

Example 3
When a body is moved from one medium to another, its temperature (T )
will change according to the Newton’s law of cooling and the formula is given
by T = T0 + Cekt Where,

T0 is the temperature of the new medium,

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 C is the temperature difference of mediums given by,
“ Temperature of old medium - Temperature of new medium”,
t is the time in the new medium and
k is a constant.

Find the rate change of the temperature with respect to time and the rate
change at the instant the body is moved to the new medium.

T = T0 + Cekt

dT
∴ = Ckek t
dt

At the instant the body is moved to the new medium t = 0

dT
∴ = Ckek × 0 = Ck
dt t=0

6 Supplementary Materials
Following links provide additional support materials for those who needs to
extend their knowledge and skills in differentiation.

Get a lot of examples on applications :- Click here

A Worksheet containing many exercises :- Click here

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