Year 7 Chemistry – Topic 1: The Particle Model

(Activate 1 textbook pages 60-75)

Lesson 1: The Particle Model – Solids, Liquids and Gases

(Textbook p.60-61)
In Ancient Greece: Democritus, a Greek philosopher sits on the beach watching
the waves move against the sand. He notices that the tiny sand grains flow in and
out as the waves flow over them. He thinks ‘If the grains of sand can flow like
water then maybe the water is also made of tiny grains?’
Over time he names these tiny uncuttable and invisible particles atoms, from the
Greek atomos meaning uncuttable. He states that:
• Everything is made of atoms
• There is empty space between atoms
• Atoms are indestructible
• Atoms always move

We often use the word particles to describe the states of matter, this is because sometimes a substance
is made of single atoms, but other times they are made of many atoms joined together. Particles are a
simplified model that makes it easier for us to explain the properties of matter.
All particles are drawn as simple spheres or circles.

The three states of matter

State How are the particles arranged? How do particles move?

Solid ● Particles are touching ● Particles vibrate in
● Particles are in rows regularly fixed positions
● Particles are held together by strong forces of attraction
Liquid ● Particles are touching ● Particles can move
● Particles are randomly arranged freely and slide past
● Particles are held together by weak forces of attraction each other
Gas ● Particles are not touching ● Particles are moving
● Particles are spread apart randomly very fast bouncing off
● Particles have very weak forces of attraction so are not held each other and the
together container.

There are three states of matter; solid, liquid and gas. All
substances can exist in these states, depending on their
temperature. To the right is a particle diagram of the 3
states of matter. This shows how we can visualise the
arrangement of particles.

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You will notice that the particles are arranged differently in the different states of matter. They also
move differently in each state (this is known as kinetic theory).
Questions
1. What name did Democritus give the tiny units or particles of matter?
2. What were his four rules for these particles?
3. Why do we talk about particles instead of atoms when explaining the states of matter?
4. Draw and describe the arrangement of particles in a solid, a liquid and a
gas.
5. Describe the motion of particles in a solid, a liquid and a gas.
6. The diagram shows a particle diagram of oxygen. What state is it in? Draw
how its particles would be arranged at room temperature.

Lesson 2: Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gases (Textbook p.62-63)

Different states of matter have different properties. The

properties of a substance describe what it looks like and how
it behaves. The properties depend on the temperature and
what the particles are like.
For example, some of the properties of good students are:
organised, hardworking, bringing the correct equipment, being on time to lessons.
As your teacher discusses the properties of solids and liquids, write either ‘yes’ or ‘no’ in each gap in the
table below.

Property Solid Liquid Gas

Does it have a fixed
shape?
Does it have a fixed
volume?
Can it be compressed?
Can it flow?

The properties of matter can be explained by what you already know about how the particles are
arranged and how they move (known as kinetic theory).
There are attractive forces between all the particles which hold them together. As particles gain energy
(when the temperature increases) they are able to overcome these forces to some extent. In a solid the
particles are held together tightly so they cannot move around. In a liquid the particles have enough
energy so that although they are still held close together, they are now able to move position.
Questions
1. Select the correct words in the paragraph below:

There are hundreds/millions of different materials. Materials are made up of

particles/little balls. A substance has the same/different properties all the way
through. In a pure substance, all the particles are the same/different. In a mixture
there is one/more than one type of particle. The particles of different substances are
the same/different. The properties of a substance describe its behaviour/particles.
2. Each sentence below has one or more mistakes. Write corrected versions of the sentences:

● There are two states of matter.

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 ● You can compress a substance in the solid state because the particles touch
each other.
● In the liquid and gas states, a substance flows because the particles cannot
move from place to place.
● You cannot compress a gas because the particles are spread out.
3. Explain why a solid always has a fixed shape.
4. When you take an ice cube out of the freezer it maintains its shape. When it melts it takes the
shape of its container. Explain why.
5. Solids and liquids always have a fixed volume. Explain why.
6. Fluids are substances that flow and can be poured. Which two states of matter are fluids?
7. Copy and complete the paragraph below:
Some people think that liquids can be compressed. They are wrong. Liquids cannot be
compressed because……
8. Look at the diagram, what will happen when each piston is pushed?

9. A child is playing with a bucket of sand. She pours the sand into a pile. Her father says, “Look,
the sand is flowing it must be a liquid.” Explain why her father is wrong.
10. A chocolate bunny is taken from the fridge and left out on a sunny windowsill. As it heats up it
begins to change shape. Explain, using particles, why it had a fixed shape in the fridge, but began
to change shape once it got hot.

Lesson 3: Changes of State (Textbook p.64-67)

How can the particle model explain changes in state?
When we heat a substance, the particles move faster. This is because the energy in their kinetic store
(the energy in the substance because the particles are vibrating/moving) increases. As they move more
the particles begin to separate. This increases the substance’s volume and it expands.
Particles are held together by attractive forces. To change state from a solid to a liquid you need to
increase the kinetic energy store of the particles enough to allow the particles to overcome these
forces. This allows the particles to be able to slide past each other and behave like a liquid. To increase
the kinetic energy store of particles you need to heat them. Heating a solid so that it changes into the
liquid state is called melting. If we continue heating the liquid the kinetic energy store increases even
more. The particles in the liquid begin to move faster and faster. Eventually the particles have gained
enough kinetic energy to break free and escape from the liquid. They begin to bounce around the room
randomly hitting the walls, ceiling and floor. The liquid has now turned into a gas. This is called
evaporation (or boiling).

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If you reduce the thermal store, by cooling the substance, the particles move more slowly. As they slow
down they lose kinetic energy until the attractive forces are able to hold the particles together again.
The gas will have turned back into a liquid. This is called condensation. If we further reduce the
thermal store by cooling the particles, their kinetic energy drops even further and the attractive forces
hold the particles tightly together. They are now in the solid state. This is called freezing (or
solidification).
Particles in some solids have very weak bonds between them. This means that once the particles get a
small amount of energy in their kinetic store, they skip the liquid state and jump straight into a gas
state. This is called sublimation. The opposite is also true with gases turning straight into solids. This is
called deposition. Carbon dioxide is a common example of these changes.

Questions
1. Copy the sentences below, choosing the correct bold words.

The change of state from solid to liquid is freezing/melting. As a substance melts,

its particles vibrate slower/faster. The particles start moving around/upwards. The
substance is now in the liquid/solid state. Some substances go straight from the solid
to the gas state when heated, this process is called sublimation/melting.
2. Complete the diagram below to summarise the changes of state.

3. For a given substance, which state of matter has the strongest attractive forces between the
particles?
4. Which state of matter has the most energy in its kinetic energy store?
5. What has to be overcome for a liquid to turn into a gas?
Circle the correct answer(s): When you heat a solid, the particles …:
grow bigger move faster spread apart
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Melting and Boiling Points
Substances melt and boil at specific temperatures. A familiar example is water which has a melting point
of 0 °C and a boiling point of 100 °C. Room temperature is close to 20 °C so water is a liquid at room
temperature.

These temperatures are different for each substance because the size of their particles and the
attractive forces between them are different.
• A substance will be solid at temperatures at or below its melting point.
• A substance will be gas at temperatures at or above its boiling point.
• A substance will be liquid at temperatures between its melting and boiling points.

Questions
1. Ethanol has a melting point of -115 °C and a boiling point of 78 °C.

What state is ethanol at room temperature? ________________________

20°C

2. Argon has a melting point of -189 °C and a boiling point of -186 °C.

What state is argon at room temperature? ________________________

20°C

3. Gallium has a melting point of 30 °C and a boiling point of 2229 °C.

What state is Gallium at room temperature?

20°C

4. Paracetamol melts at 169 °C and has a boiling point higher than 500 °C.

What state is paracetamol in at 196 °C?

5. Oxygen has a melting point of -218 °C and a boiling point of -189 °C.

What state is oxygen in at -300 °C and at -190 °C?

6. A substance has a melting point of -7 °C. Tom says the substance is a liquid at 20 °C. Bea says it
could be a liquid or a gas. Explain who is correct. Use evidence to support your answer.

7. Use particle theory to explain in detail the difference between melting and freezing.

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Lesson 4: Understanding Heating and Cooling Curves (Textbook p.64-67)
A Heating Curve
Annotate the graph below as your teacher explains the shape

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 Questions
1. Complete the following table for the heating curve shown below:

Section What happens to What happens to What is the heat energy being used for?
of graph temperature of kinetic energy of
(Are the particles moving faster or breaking
the substance? the particles?
apart?)

A to B

B to C

C to D

D to E

E to F

a. What is the name of the change of state at B to C?

b. What is the name of the change of state at D to E?

2. Complete the following table for the cooling curve shown:

Section What happens to What happens to What is the name

of graph temperature of kinetic energy of of the change of
the substance? the particles? state?

A to B

B to C

C to D

D to E

E to F

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3. Look at the graph showing the cooling curve of
naphthalene gas.
a. At what temperature does the naphthalene gas turn
into a liquid?
b. What is the boiling point of naphthalene?
c. What is happening to the kinetic energy store of the
particles at 80 ᵒC?
d. What is happening to the attractive forces between
the particles at 80 ᵒC?
e. What is the state of naphthalene at 85 ᵒC?

Challenge!
4. Draw a heating curve for water which has a melting point of 0 ᵒC and a boiling point of 100 ᵒC.
5. Draw a heating curve for ethanol which has a melting point of -115 ᵒC and a boiling point of 79 ᵒC.
6. Draw a cooling curve for oxygen which has a melting point of -219 ᵒC and a boiling point of -183 ᵒC.

Lesson 5: Boiling (Textbook p.66-67)

Practical: Obtaining a heating curve for water.

Aim: In this practical you will:

 Observe the temperature of water as it is heated.
 Plot a graph of your results and use this to identify the boiling point of water.

Hypothesis: Write a hypothesis for the following question:

How does the length of time water is heated for affect its temperature?

Safety:
 Wear eye protection.
 Take care when handling hot glassware and hot liquids.
 Do not allow the thermometer to roll off the bench.

Method:
1. Set the apparatus as shown in the diagram below or as shown by your
teacher.
2. Half fill the beaker with water and put thermometer in it.
3. Start heating the beaker with water using Bunsen burner.
4. Record the temperature every 30 seconds until water starts to boil.Record
results in the table on page 8.

Variables:
Independent (change):

Dependent (measure):

Control (keep the same):

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 Time (s) Temperature (ᵒC) Time (s) Temperature (ᵒC)

Plot a graph of this data with temperature on the y-axis (vertical) and time on the x-axis
(horizontal).
Was your prediction correct?

Questions
1. State what happened to the temperature of the water as it was heated.
2. What did you observe in the water while boiling was taking place?
3. Describe the shape of the line graph you have drawn. Is it a straight line?
4. Suggest which part of the graph represents water as a liquid – label this on your graph.
5. Use your graph to suggest the boiling temperature of water acid. Explain your answer.
Challenge!
During the boiling process bubbles were produced at the bottom of the beaker and rose to the surface.
a. Suggest why bubbles formed (think about changes of state).
b. Why do you think the bubbles formed at the bottom of the beaker?
c. Why did the bubbles rise to the surface of the beaker?
d. Add particles to the diagram below to show how the water particles are arranged in the liquid and
within the bubbles.

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Lesson 6: Melting and Freezing (Textbook p.64-65)

Practical: Obtaining a cooling curve for Stearic Acid.

Aim: In this practical you will:
 Observe the temperature of stearic acid as it is cooled.
 Plot a graph of your results and use this to identify the freezing point of stearic acid.

Prediction: In your book, sketch what you predict the graph of temperature against time will look
like for liquid steric acid changing state to a solid.

Before you begin, draw a results table like the one below in your book. You will need space for at least
20 rows.

Time (s) Temperature (ᵒC)

Safety
 Wear eye protection.
 Take care when handling hot glassware and hot liquids.
 Do not allow the thermometer to roll off the bench.
Method:
1. Collect the boiling tube with melted stearic acid and place in a test
tube rack.
2. Put the thermometer in, record the starting temperature and start the
stopwatch. Leave the thermometer in the beaker throughout.
3. Record the temperature of the stearic acid every 30 seconds until it
solidifies.
Once you have collected the data, you will need to draw a graph – your teacher will explain this
further.
You should plot a graph of temperature (y-axis, vertical) against time (x-axis, horizontal).
Variables:
Independent (change):
Dependent (measure):
Control (keep the same):

Questions (to be completed once graph has been plotted.)

1. State what happened to the temperature of the stearic acid during the experiment.
2. Describe the shape of the line graph you have drawn. Is it a straight line?
3. How long did it take for the liquid to solidify?

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Extension Questions
1. Why does stearic acid remain a solid at room temperature?
a. It is a weak acid.
b. The freezing point is higher than room temperature.
c. The liquid evaporated out of the acid, leaving solid particles.
d. The acid is too dense to be a liquid.

2. Why should the thermometer remain motionless in the acid as it cools?

a. The liquid in the thermometer could get shaken and therefore the reading could change
b. Moving the thermometer in the solidifying acid could cause the thermometer to break
c. Friction could be created with movement that could increase the temperature artificially

3. Why does the temperature remain constant during the state change from liquid to solid?
a. The energy released from molecules packing together keeps the temperature constant
b. The thermometer does not show accurate readings as the substance changes states
c. Energy release pauses as the substance changes state

4. What was the melting point of the stearic acid that you measured?

5. The correct value for the melting point of stearic acid is 69 °C. Suggest two possible reasons for
any difference between this value and the one you obtained from the experiment.

6. How were the particles of stearic acid behaving (on a very small level) that can help explain why
the temperature did not drop consistently? (Hint: Use the particle model and the shape of the
graph of the melting point data)

7. A substance has a melting point of -10 °C. Ben says the substance is a liquid at 20 °C. Phoebe says
it could be a liquid or a gas. Explain who is correct. Use evidence to support your answer.

Lessons 7 and 8: Evaporation and Boiling (textbook p.66-69)

Boiling and evaporation both involve a change of state from a liquid to a gas, but they are different
processes.

Boiling

• When a liquid is heated to its boiling point bubbles of gas form

where the particles have received enough energy to break apart
from their neighbours.
• The bubbles contain the same type of particles as the liquid, they
are just separated.
• Because the bubbles of gas are less dense than the liquid, they
rise to the surface where they release the particles they contain
into the surroundings.
• The process of boiling can only occur when the temperature is
equal to the boiling point of the substance.

In some substances the forces of attraction between the particles are strong, these substances have high
boiling points and are in the liquid or solid state at room temperature (e.g. water, ethanol, copper). In
other substances the forces of attraction are much weaker, these substances have lower boiling points
and are in the gas state at room temperature (e.g. oxygen, nitrogen).
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Evaporation
• The particles in a liquid at any temperature have a
range of energies. Some particles have a lot of
energy, some have very little. The particles with a
lot of energy are able to leave the surface of the
liquid because they have enough energy to overcome
the attractive forces with the other particles.
• Once they have left the surface these particles
spread out, forming a gas.
• The process of evaporation can happen at any
temperature, the liquid does not have to be heated
to the boiling point.

What can change the rate of evaporation?

Evaporation is sometimes fast and sometimes slow. There are three factors (things) which affect how
quickly a liquid will evaporate:
1. The strength of the attractive forces between the particles in the liquid. This is different for
different substances meaning that some liquids will evaporate faster than others. Liquids with
lower boiling points (weaker forces) will evaporate faster than liquids with higher boiling points
(stronger forces).
2. The temperature of the liquid. Increasing the temperature of a liquid increases the average
energy of the particles. This means that more particles have enough energy to escape from the
surface and evaporation happens more quickly.
3. The surface area of the liquid. Evaporation only happens at the surface of a liquid, so if the
liquid has a bigger surface area there are more particles at the surface so evaporation happens
more rapidly.

Small surface area Large surface area

– slow evaporation. – fast evaporation.

The conservation of mass

During the processes of evaporation and boiling there is a change of state. Liquid turns into gas, the
particles are arranged differently, move differently and have different energies, but the particles which
make up the gas are the same ones which made up the liquid. This means that the mass of the gas will
be the same as the mass of the liquid. This is an example of the conservation of mass.
Questions
1. Fill in the gaps in the following paragraph:

The change of state from solid to liquid is ______________. As a substance melts, its
particles vibrate more ______________. The particles start moving ______________. The
substance is now in the ____________ state. The melting point of a substance is the
______________ it melts at. When a substance boils, it changes state from __________
to __________. Bubbles form at the ___________ of the liquid. The temperature at which
this takes place is called the ______________ point.

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2. Write five correct sentences from the sentence starters and endings below.
Sentence starters Sentence endings

In boiling … … particles leave from the surface of the liquid.

In condensing … … substances change from the liquid to the gas state.
In evaporating … … particles leave from all parts of the liquid.
… substances change from the gas to the liquid state.

3. Different substances have different boiling points. Explain why this is.
You should think about the strength of the attractive forces between the particles.

4. The water inside this kettle if boiling. You can see the bubbles.
What’s inside the bubbles?
a. nothing
b. air particles
c. water particles
d. water and air particles

5. Complete the table to summarise the key features of evaporation and boiling.

Process Change of state How the particles leave Temperature Does the
the liquid when process mass
can happen change?
Evaporation Particles e________ from the
________ to s________ of the liquid.
________
Boiling B________ of the substance
________ to in the g______ state form.
________ They r______ to the surface
and e_______.

6. A liquid is placed in a beaker. The beaker is left. Where does

evaporation take place?
a. At the surface of the liquid.
b. Inside the liquid.
c. Everywhere in the liquid.

7. The following statements describe either evaporation or boiling. For each statement select one
column to show what you think.

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Challenge questions

8. During evaporation, particles leave the liquid and mix with ‘air’
particles.
The diagram shows the location and energy of four particles.

Which particle or particles are most likely to leave?

a. 1 and 2 b. 3 and 4 c. 2 and 3 d. 2 only

9. The process of a gas turning into a liquid is known as condensation. When you breathe on a cold
window a mist of water droplets forms on the window this is an example of the process of
condensation. Use a particle model to explain this process. You should include a particle diagram in
your answer.

Lesson 9: Investigating factors which affect evaporation rate (Textbook p. 68-69)

Investigating Evaporation Rate

Evaporation is the conversion of liquid to vapour without the boiling point necessarily being reached. In
this experiment, you will measure the time taken for a drop of propanone to evaporate under different
conditions.
Method:
1. Your teacher will put a drop of propanone on a microscope slide. You need to time how long it takes
to evaporate.
2. Change the conditions and repeat step 1, make sure you record your results. Things you could alter
are:
a. Warm the slide by holding it in your hands or placing it in a warm place.
b. Spread the drop out with the tip of the dropper pipette.
c. Fan with a book for a cool air flow.
d. Blow across the top of the drop for a warm air flow.

Results

Complete the table below as you complete the experiment.

Description of conditions Time for drop to evaporate (s)

Drop on slide

Warm slide

Spread the drop out

Blow cool air over the ethanol

Blow warm air over the ethanol

Conclusion
The best conditions for evaporation to take place are …
The worst conditions for evaporation to take place are …

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Complete these gap fill sentences to explain the observations from the practical.

Propanone evaporated from the slides because some of the propanone particles have enough
___________ to escape from the __________. Changing the conditions changes the ________ of
evaporation (how quickly it takes place).
1. Increasing the temperature made evaporation happen ______________. This is because
more particles had a ________ enough energy to ____________ at the surface.
2. Spreading out the drop made evaporation happen ____________. This is because there
were more particles at the _____________ so they could escape more rapidly.
3. Blowing cool air over the ethanol made evaporation happen _____________. This is
because the escaped particles were moved __________ from the surface so they couldn’t
re-join the liquid.
4. Blowing warm air over the ethanol made evaporation happen even ___________. This
is because the warm air also gave ____________ to the particles meaning that more of
them had enough ____________ to escape from the surface.

Missing words:
faster, energy, energy, surface, faster, faster, high, faster,
away, escape, surface, energy, rate.

Questions

1. Use your results to suggest the best weather conditions for drying washing.
2. On a hot day, a puddle evaporates quickly but a glass of water does not become empty. Explain
why.
3. Your aunt tells you that a puddle dries on a hot day because the water boils. She is wrong, the
water is evaporating. Explain how you know the puddle is evaporating, not boiling.
4. In an experiment, a drop of ethanol evaporates more quickly than a drop of water. The drops are
in the same conditions and are the same size. Suggest why the ethanol evaporates more rapidly.

Home Learning Questions – your teacher will share a Google Form with you which has some
more questions on this topic which you need to complete for your home learning as
instructed by your teacher.

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Lesson 10: Diffusion in gases and liquids (Textbook pages: 70-71)
How can the particle model explain diffusion?
If someone sprays an aerosol in a room the scent spreads around the room. It is smelt by the people
nearest to it first and those furthest away last. The people nearest also smell a stronger scent that those
further away. This happens because the scent particles diffuse. Diffusion is the movement of a substance
from an area of high concentration to and area of low concentration. Concentration is defined as the
number of particles in a fixed volume.

High concentration Low concentration

(fewer particles in
the same volume)
Low concentration

(same number of particles in a

larger volume)

The reason diffusion can happen is because of

kinetic theory.
Kinetic theory is the idea that all particles are
moving constantly. It also states that the
particles in solids, liquids and gases move
differently.
Diffusion requires particles to be able to move
around within a substance. Diffusion happens
readily in liquids and gases where the particles are free to move. In solids where the particles are only
able to vibrate at fixed positions within the structure, diffusion does not happen.
The rate of diffusion is linked to how quickly and easily the particles can move.
Diffusion in liquids
Watch the video of the diffusion of lead nitrate and potassium iodide. Make notes about what you
observe on the diagram below:

Lead Potassium
Nitrate Iodide

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Diffusion in gases
Watch the video of the diffusion of hydrochloric acid and ammonia. Make notes of what you observe on
the diagram below:

Concentrated Concentrated
ammonia hydrochloric acid

Questions: Hint – Page 71 of the textbook will help with these.

1. How does the speed of diffusion compare in liquids and gases?
2. Explain this difference using particle and kinetic theory?
3. Why is it not possible for diffusion to happen in solids?

We saw in the two demos that diffusion does not always happen at the same speed. There are three
factors which affect the speed of diffusion:
• The state of the diffusing substances.
• The particle mass (how heavy the particle is).
• The temperature.

The effect of particle mass

Watch the video showing the diffusion of hydrochloric acid and ammonia again. Look out for the position
of the reaction in the tube and mark it on the diagram below.

Concentrated Concentrated
ammonia hydrochloric acid

Draw an arrow to show how far the concentrated hydrochloric acid diffused for the reaction to happen.
Draw a second arrow to show the distance the ammonia diffused.
Which of the substances diffused more quickly?
This is because the hydrochloric acid particles are much heavier than the ammonia particles. The
particles are at the same temperature so they have the same kinetic energy, but the heavier ones travel
more slowly.

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The effect of temperature
Watch the demo of potassium permanganate crystals diffusing in cold and hot water. The diagrams
below represent what happens in the beakers.
Draw lines to match the particle diagrams with the correct beaker.

Shade the diagrams below to show how far the purple colour had diffused in each of the two beakers:

cold water hot water

Did the potassium permanganate diffuse more quickly in the hot water or the cold water?

How do you know?

Explain why:
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Questions:
1. Label the diagrams A, B, C in order from the most kinetic energy to the least kinetic energy of
particles.

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 2. Diffusion happens in all matter. Is this sentence true or false? Explain your answer.
3. A brick is put in a freezer. Are the particles still vibrating?
4. Explain why diffusion is faster in gases than liquids.
5. What is a fluid? Which two states of matter are fluids?
6. A student says, “Diffusion is faster in cold water as it’s easier for the particles to move through
the water particles.” Is the student correct? Give a reason for your answer.
7. Describe three pieces of evidence for diffusion.
8. Someone is frying bacon in the food tech classroom down the corridor and around the corner from
the science lab. Use particle and kinetic theory to explain how you can smell the bacon cooking
whilst sat as your desk in science.

Challenge Questions!
9. The air contains particles of nitrogen, argon and other substances. Use the data below to predict
which type of particle diffuses faster. Give a reason for your choice.
Relative masses of particles: nitrogen = 28, argon = 40.
10. The diagram shows a diffusion experiment.
At X hydrogen sulphide gas is released.
At Y sulphur dioxide gas is released.
The yellow powder formed where the two gases
meet.

a. Which particles travelled fastest?

b. What does this tell you about the mass of
sulphur dioxide compared to hydrogen
sulphide?
c. What is the name for the scientific process which describes how these particles move?
d. What would happen if the experiment was repeated at a higher temperature?

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