1 Introduction

What are the objectives of ecological restoration?

• Return to a predefined indigenous ecosystem?

• What was the original ecosystem?

• Is a return to this state possible?

• Is it desirable and/or affordable?

• What competing interests take priority?

• Many controversies and opposing views

Why all the controversy?

In the past, ecological restoration sought to return areas to some narrowly defined indigenous
ecosystem.

That created numerous problems because:

1) we may not know what the makeup of ecosystem really was;

2) degradation, such as soil loss, may have been great enough that previous potential
vegetation is no longer possible;

3) current socioeconomic demands on the area may preclude some options;

4) restoration ecology is controversial to some groups.

Different Perspectives
Ecological restoration, as practiced in North America is often viewed as irrelevant to Europeans
and, especially those in developing countries. Because we still have more areas that are
minimally altered, we can relate to those communities and use them as targets for restoration
projects. We also have the economic luxury of setting areas aside for natural areas or for
aesthetic reasons. → first World elitism

This leads some to view Ecological Restoration as having little relevance to the rest of the
world. (because all areas have been touched by humans to some extent)

Others contend that we pretend we can fully restore damaged ecosystems and use that as an
excuse for additional damage. While those arguments may be made by some, no one that really
understands ecological restoration pretends we can fully restore damaged areas in a short time.
We have learned much about ecological restoration and can make significant changes in
damaged ecosystems, but it should never be used to justify additional damage.

Statement from the Society for Ecological Restoration to the Convention on Biological Diversity
Meeting by Steven G. Whisenant on Agenda Item 3.2 –Ways and Means to Support Ecosystem
Restoration November 8, 2011

- Globally ‐conservation remains essential, yet insufficient to address the unprecedented

loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services that has already occurred. Ecological
restoration addresses some of our most pressing challenges: land and water
degradation, sustainable and equitable development, climate change and desertification.

- Ecological Restoration is not a justification for degrading or damaging ecosystems! We

should be clear about that.

World Economic Forum 2020

Ideas about the importance of ecological restoration started spreading more after 2010, often
misunderstood before that

Reports that over half of the world’s Gross Domestic Product is at risk due to losses in the
natural world.

More than $44 trillion of economic value generation is “moderately or highly dependent on
nature and its services and is therefore exposed to nature loss.”

This follows a 12‐month period which saw the hottest year on record for the world’s oceans, 2nd
hottest for global average temperatures, and catastrophic wildfires from the U.S., to the
Amazon, to Australia and projections for future ecological degradation.

Sustainable Development Goals are More Relevant than Ever

The United Nations General Assembly has proclaimed 2021–2030 as the “Decade of
Ecosystem Restoration”, following a proposal for action by over 70 countries from all latitudes.

The UN Decade stance positions the restoration of ecosystems as a major nature‐based

solution towards meeting a wide range of global development goals and national priorities.
Principally, the recognized need to "Prevent, halt, and reverse the degradation of ecosystems
worldwide” has become a top priority.

Ecological restoration
Restoration has traditionally attempted to return an ecosystem to its historic trajectory after they
have been damaged
 - Historic conditions often not known or desired

Alternative endpoints when we don’t know the original state of the ecosystem

- Ecological engineering

- Rehabilitation

- Reclamation

- Reallocation

Synonyms for Restoration?

• Ecological engineering involves manipulations of natural materials, living organisms, and the
physical‐chemical environment to achieve specific human goals and solve technical problems.
(heavy influence)

• Rehabilitation: Repair damages ecosystem functions with the primary goal of raising
ecosystem productivity for the benefit of local people.

• Reclamation :Process by which degraded lands are returned to productivity ‐not necessarily
with the same organisms.

• Reallocation: Landscape is assigned new use that is not necessarily similar in structure or
function to predisturbedecosystem.

(no need to know definitions)

What are our goals?

Should the goal be to restore stable ecosystems, in terms of resistance and resilience,
even though we know ecosystems are dynamic and changing in nature?

How do we address the emergence of “no‐analogue environments” and “novel ecosystems?”

The ultimate goals of ecological restoration are:

- to achieve sustainable, resilient and inter‐connected ecosystems and

socio‐ecological systems

- to provide goods and services to humans

- to provide habitat and well‐being for non‐human beings as well

- Goals are context dependent and depend on needs

Healthy ecosystems have the capacity for self‐repair and ecological recovery via autogenic
succession whereas severely damaged ecosystems no longer have the capacity for self‐repair
Restoration : short term, small, inputs to push the ecosystem to repair does not require
restoration (restoration needed when ecosystems too damaged to repair themselves)

The practice of Ecological Restoration

“Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has
been degraded, damaged or destroyed.”‐Society for Ecological Restoration (2002)

Ecological restoration is “intentional activity that initiates or accelerates the recovery of an

ecosystem with respect to its health, integrity and sustainability.” (2004)

The science of Restoration Ecology

The field of study that provides the scientific underpinnings for practical ecological restoration

A research‐oriented discipline that provides conceptual direction to manipulative efforts based

upon knowledge of ecosystem function

Restoration Ecology
“Restoration ecologists are to ecological restorationists as medical researchers are to practicing
physicians. Physicians provide clinical evidence for medical researchers, and in fact the two
frequently switch roles. Restorationists literally heal ecosystems, and restoration ecology
provides the scientific basis for their practice.”

Everyone in the world depends on nature and ecosystem services to provide the conditions for
a decent, healthy, and secure life

Conservation needed after restoration to maintain the ecosystem that was restored

Restore economic viability, political stability through ecological restoration (basis for stable living
conditions)

Unprecedented Change
Humans have made unprecedented changes to ecosystems in recent decades to meet growing
demands for food, fresh water, fiber, and energy.

These changes have helped to improve the lives of billions, but at the same time weakened
nature’s ability to deliver other key services.

The pressures on ecosystems will increase globally in coming decades unless human attitudes
and actions change.

Among the outstanding problems are the threat to ecosystems from climate change and
pollution
Accelerating species extinction levels
Species distributions are becoming more homogenous

Extinction rates have increased 1,000 fold over historical rates (6th mass extinction)

10–30% of mammal, bird, and amphibian species are currently threatened with extinction

Background rate for extinction is 1 species per 1000yrs

Other direct drivers of ecosystem change

Direct drivers = direct effects from human on ecosystems/the environment

• Habitat transformation: Further 10–20% of grassland and forests are projected to be converted
by 2050

• Overexploitation, Harvesting: Pressures continue to grow in all scenarios (palm tree

plantations for ex.)

• Invasive alien species: Spread continues to increase

Degradation of ecosystem services represents loss of a capital assets not reflected in economic
accounts

- Ecosystem services, as well as resources such as mineral deposits, soil nutrients, and
fossil fuels are capital assets

- A country could cut its forests and deplete its fisheries, and this would show only as a
positive gain in GDP → value of ecosystem services isn’t considered in GDP, only
considered when used to produce other things

Wealthy populations cannot be insulated from ecosystem degradation

- Physical, economic, or social impacts of degradation may cross boundaries

- Wealth cannot buffer people from changes in all ecosystem services

- Changes in ecosystems that contribute to climate change affect all people and countries

And degradation in one area may have ramifications in far removed areas

- In fact, recent evidence suggests that interactions between the warm waters propelled
by the African easterly jet stream and layers of Saharan dust may contribute to hurricane
formation and intensification.
Importance of indirect drivers
Ecosystem degradation can rarely be reversed without actions that address one or more indirect
drivers of change:

- population change (including growth and migration)

- Change in economic activity (including economic growth, disparities in wealth, and trade
patterns)

- Sociopolitical factors (including factors ranging from the presence of conflict to public
participation in decision‐making)

- Cultural factors (both historical and contemporary) (Ex: people become wealthier, so eat
more red meat, which puts more pressure on ecosystems, increases climate change)

- Technological change

Indirect drivers = Collectively these factors influence the level of production and
consumption of ecosystem services and the sustainability of the production.

The bottom line

We are spending Earth’s natural capital and putting such strain on natural functions that the
ability of the planet’s ecosystems to sustain future generations can no longer be taken for
granted.

At the same time, the future really is in our hands. We can reverse the degradation of many
ecosystem services over the next 50 years, but the changes in policy and practice required are
substantial and not currently underway.

Ecological Restoration is a cause for hope and a call to action!

The ultimate goals of ecological restoration are:

• to achieve sustainable, resilient and inter‐connected ecosystems and socio‐ecological
systems

• to provide goods and services to humans

• to provide habitat and well‐being for non‐human beings as well